annotate lispref/macros.texi @ 45887:8aa6e4d588ce

some passive forms to active
author Francesco Potortì <pot@gnu.org>
date Mon, 17 Jun 2002 22:22:03 +0000
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children 23a1cea22d13
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/macros
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6 @node Macros, Customization, Functions, Top
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7 @chapter Macros
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8 @cindex macros
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9
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10 @dfn{Macros} enable you to define new control constructs and other
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11 language features. A macro is defined much like a function, but instead
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12 of telling how to compute a value, it tells how to compute another Lisp
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13 expression which will in turn compute the value. We call this
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14 expression the @dfn{expansion} of the macro.
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15
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16 Macros can do this because they operate on the unevaluated expressions
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17 for the arguments, not on the argument values as functions do. They can
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18 therefore construct an expansion containing these argument expressions
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19 or parts of them.
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20
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21 If you are using a macro to do something an ordinary function could
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22 do, just for the sake of speed, consider using an inline function
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23 instead. @xref{Inline Functions}.
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24
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25 @menu
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26 * Simple Macro:: A basic example.
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27 * Expansion:: How, when and why macros are expanded.
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28 * Compiling Macros:: How macros are expanded by the compiler.
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29 * Defining Macros:: How to write a macro definition.
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30 * Backquote:: Easier construction of list structure.
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31 * Problems with Macros:: Don't evaluate the macro arguments too many times.
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32 Don't hide the user's variables.
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33 @end menu
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34
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35 @node Simple Macro
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36 @section A Simple Example of a Macro
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37
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38 Suppose we would like to define a Lisp construct to increment a
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39 variable value, much like the @code{++} operator in C. We would like to
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40 write @code{(inc x)} and have the effect of @code{(setq x (1+ x))}.
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41 Here's a macro definition that does the job:
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42
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43 @findex inc
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44 @example
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45 @group
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46 (defmacro inc (var)
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47 (list 'setq var (list '1+ var)))
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48 @end group
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49 @end example
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50
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51 When this is called with @code{(inc x)}, the argument @var{var} is the
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52 symbol @code{x}---@emph{not} the @emph{value} of @code{x}, as it would
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53 be in a function. The body of the macro uses this to construct the
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54 expansion, which is @code{(setq x (1+ x))}. Once the macro definition
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55 returns this expansion, Lisp proceeds to evaluate it, thus incrementing
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56 @code{x}.
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57
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58 @node Expansion
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59 @section Expansion of a Macro Call
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60 @cindex expansion of macros
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61 @cindex macro call
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62
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63 A macro call looks just like a function call in that it is a list which
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64 starts with the name of the macro. The rest of the elements of the list
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65 are the arguments of the macro.
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66
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67 Evaluation of the macro call begins like evaluation of a function call
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68 except for one crucial difference: the macro arguments are the actual
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69 expressions appearing in the macro call. They are not evaluated before
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70 they are given to the macro definition. By contrast, the arguments of a
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71 function are results of evaluating the elements of the function call
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72 list.
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73
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74 Having obtained the arguments, Lisp invokes the macro definition just
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75 as a function is invoked. The argument variables of the macro are bound
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76 to the argument values from the macro call, or to a list of them in the
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77 case of a @code{&rest} argument. And the macro body executes and
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78 returns its value just as a function body does.
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79
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80 The second crucial difference between macros and functions is that the
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81 value returned by the macro body is not the value of the macro call.
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82 Instead, it is an alternate expression for computing that value, also
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83 known as the @dfn{expansion} of the macro. The Lisp interpreter
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84 proceeds to evaluate the expansion as soon as it comes back from the
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85 macro.
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86
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87 Since the expansion is evaluated in the normal manner, it may contain
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88 calls to other macros. It may even be a call to the same macro, though
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89 this is unusual.
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90
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91 You can see the expansion of a given macro call by calling
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92 @code{macroexpand}.
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93
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94 @defun macroexpand form &optional environment
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95 @cindex macro expansion
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96 This function expands @var{form}, if it is a macro call. If the result
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97 is another macro call, it is expanded in turn, until something which is
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98 not a macro call results. That is the value returned by
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99 @code{macroexpand}. If @var{form} is not a macro call to begin with, it
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100 is returned as given.
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101
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102 Note that @code{macroexpand} does not look at the subexpressions of
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103 @var{form} (although some macro definitions may do so). Even if they
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104 are macro calls themselves, @code{macroexpand} does not expand them.
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105
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106 The function @code{macroexpand} does not expand calls to inline functions.
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107 Normally there is no need for that, since a call to an inline function is
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108 no harder to understand than a call to an ordinary function.
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109
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110 If @var{environment} is provided, it specifies an alist of macro
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111 definitions that shadow the currently defined macros. Byte compilation
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112 uses this feature.
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113
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114 @smallexample
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115 @group
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116 (defmacro inc (var)
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117 (list 'setq var (list '1+ var)))
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118 @result{} inc
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119 @end group
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120
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121 @group
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122 (macroexpand '(inc r))
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123 @result{} (setq r (1+ r))
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124 @end group
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125
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126 @group
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127 (defmacro inc2 (var1 var2)
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128 (list 'progn (list 'inc var1) (list 'inc var2)))
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129 @result{} inc2
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130 @end group
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131
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132 @group
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133 (macroexpand '(inc2 r s))
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134 @result{} (progn (inc r) (inc s)) ; @r{@code{inc} not expanded here.}
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135 @end group
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136 @end smallexample
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137 @end defun
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138
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139 @node Compiling Macros
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140 @section Macros and Byte Compilation
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141 @cindex byte-compiling macros
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142
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143 You might ask why we take the trouble to compute an expansion for a
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144 macro and then evaluate the expansion. Why not have the macro body
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145 produce the desired results directly? The reason has to do with
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146 compilation.
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147
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148 When a macro call appears in a Lisp program being compiled, the Lisp
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149 compiler calls the macro definition just as the interpreter would, and
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150 receives an expansion. But instead of evaluating this expansion, it
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151 compiles the expansion as if it had appeared directly in the program.
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152 As a result, the compiled code produces the value and side effects
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153 intended for the macro, but executes at full compiled speed. This would
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154 not work if the macro body computed the value and side effects
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155 itself---they would be computed at compile time, which is not useful.
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156
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157 In order for compilation of macro calls to work, the macros must
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158 already be defined in Lisp when the calls to them are compiled. The
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159 compiler has a special feature to help you do this: if a file being
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160 compiled contains a @code{defmacro} form, the macro is defined
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161 temporarily for the rest of the compilation of that file. To make this
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162 feature work, you must put the @code{defmacro} in the same file where it
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163 is used, and before its first use.
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164
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165 Byte-compiling a file executes any @code{require} calls at top-level
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166 in the file. This is in case the file needs the required packages for
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167 proper compilation. One way to ensure that necessary macro definitions
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168 are available during compilation is to require the files that define
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169 them (@pxref{Named Features}). To avoid loading the macro definition files
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170 when someone @emph{runs} the compiled program, write
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171 @code{eval-when-compile} around the @code{require} calls (@pxref{Eval
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172 During Compile}).
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173
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174 @node Defining Macros
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175 @section Defining Macros
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176
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177 A Lisp macro is a list whose @sc{car} is @code{macro}. Its @sc{cdr} should
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178 be a function; expansion of the macro works by applying the function
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179 (with @code{apply}) to the list of unevaluated argument-expressions
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180 from the macro call.
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181
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182 It is possible to use an anonymous Lisp macro just like an anonymous
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183 function, but this is never done, because it does not make sense to pass
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184 an anonymous macro to functionals such as @code{mapcar}. In practice,
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185 all Lisp macros have names, and they are usually defined with the
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186 special form @code{defmacro}.
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187
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188 @defspec defmacro name argument-list body-forms@dots{}
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189 @code{defmacro} defines the symbol @var{name} as a macro that looks
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190 like this:
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191
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192 @example
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193 (macro lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms})
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194 @end example
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195
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196 (Note that the @sc{cdr} of this list is a function---a lambda expression.)
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197 This macro object is stored in the function cell of @var{name}. The
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198 value returned by evaluating the @code{defmacro} form is @var{name}, but
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199 usually we ignore this value.
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200
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201 The shape and meaning of @var{argument-list} is the same as in a
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202 function, and the keywords @code{&rest} and @code{&optional} may be used
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203 (@pxref{Argument List}). Macros may have a documentation string, but
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204 any @code{interactive} declaration is ignored since macros cannot be
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205 called interactively.
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206 @end defspec
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207
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208 @node Backquote
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209 @section Backquote
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210 @cindex backquote (list substitution)
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211 @cindex ` (list substitution)
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212 @findex `
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213
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214 Macros often need to construct large list structures from a mixture of
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215 constants and nonconstant parts. To make this easier, use the @samp{`}
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216 syntax (usually called @dfn{backquote}).
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217
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218 Backquote allows you to quote a list, but selectively evaluate
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219 elements of that list. In the simplest case, it is identical to the
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220 special form @code{quote} (@pxref{Quoting}). For example, these
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221 two forms yield identical results:
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222
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223 @example
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224 @group
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225 `(a list of (+ 2 3) elements)
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226 @result{} (a list of (+ 2 3) elements)
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227 @end group
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228 @group
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229 '(a list of (+ 2 3) elements)
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230 @result{} (a list of (+ 2 3) elements)
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231 @end group
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232 @end example
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233
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234 @findex , @r{(with Backquote)}
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235 The special marker @samp{,} inside of the argument to backquote
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236 indicates a value that isn't constant. Backquote evaluates the
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237 argument of @samp{,} and puts the value in the list structure:
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238
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239 @example
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240 @group
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241 (list 'a 'list 'of (+ 2 3) 'elements)
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242 @result{} (a list of 5 elements)
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243 @end group
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244 @group
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245 `(a list of ,(+ 2 3) elements)
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246 @result{} (a list of 5 elements)
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247 @end group
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248 @end example
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249
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250 Substitution with @samp{,} is allowed at deeper levels of the list
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251 structure also. For example:
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252
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253 @example
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254 @group
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255 (defmacro t-becomes-nil (variable)
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256 `(if (eq ,variable t)
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257 (setq ,variable nil)))
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258 @end group
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259
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260 @group
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261 (t-becomes-nil foo)
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262 @equiv{} (if (eq foo t) (setq foo nil))
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263 @end group
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264 @end example
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265
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266 @findex ,@@ @r{(with Backquote)}
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267 @cindex splicing (with backquote)
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268 You can also @dfn{splice} an evaluated value into the resulting list,
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269 using the special marker @samp{,@@}. The elements of the spliced list
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270 become elements at the same level as the other elements of the resulting
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271 list. The equivalent code without using @samp{`} is often unreadable.
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272 Here are some examples:
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273
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274 @example
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275 @group
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276 (setq some-list '(2 3))
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277 @result{} (2 3)
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278 @end group
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279 @group
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280 (cons 1 (append some-list '(4) some-list))
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281 @result{} (1 2 3 4 2 3)
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282 @end group
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283 @group
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284 `(1 ,@@some-list 4 ,@@some-list)
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285 @result{} (1 2 3 4 2 3)
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286 @end group
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287
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288 @group
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289 (setq list '(hack foo bar))
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290 @result{} (hack foo bar)
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291 @end group
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292 @group
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293 (cons 'use
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294 (cons 'the
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295 (cons 'words (append (cdr list) '(as elements)))))
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296 @result{} (use the words foo bar as elements)
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297 @end group
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298 @group
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299 `(use the words ,@@(cdr list) as elements)
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300 @result{} (use the words foo bar as elements)
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301 @end group
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302 @end example
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303
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304 In old Emacs versions, before version 19.29, @samp{`} used a different
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305 syntax which required an extra level of parentheses around the entire
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306 backquote construct. Likewise, each @samp{,} or @samp{,@@} substitution
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307 required an extra level of parentheses surrounding both the @samp{,} or
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308 @samp{,@@} and the following expression. The old syntax required
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309 whitespace between the @samp{`}, @samp{,} or @samp{,@@} and the
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310 following expression.
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311
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312 This syntax is still accepted, for compatibility with old Emacs
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313 versions, but we recommend not using it in new programs.
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314
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315 @node Problems with Macros
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316 @section Common Problems Using Macros
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317
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318 The basic facts of macro expansion have counterintuitive consequences.
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319 This section describes some important consequences that can lead to
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320 trouble, and rules to follow to avoid trouble.
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321
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322 @menu
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323 * Wrong Time:: Do the work in the expansion, not in the macro.
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324 * Argument Evaluation:: The expansion should evaluate each macro arg once.
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325 * Surprising Local Vars:: Local variable bindings in the expansion
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326 require special care.
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327 * Eval During Expansion:: Don't evaluate them; put them in the expansion.
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328 * Repeated Expansion:: Avoid depending on how many times expansion is done.
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329 @end menu
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330
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331 @node Wrong Time
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332 @subsection Wrong Time
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333
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334 The most common problem in writing macros is doing too some of the
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335 real work prematurely---while expanding the macro, rather than in the
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336 expansion itself. For instance, one real package had this nmacro
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337 definition:
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338
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339 @example
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340 (defmacro my-set-buffer-multibyte (arg)
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341 (if (fboundp 'set-buffer-multibyte)
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342 (set-buffer-multibyte arg)))
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343 @end example
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344
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345 With this erroneous macro definition, the program worked fine when
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346 interpreted but failed when compiled. This macro definition called
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347 @code{set-buffer-multibyte} during compilation, which was wrong, and
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348 then did nothing when the compiled package was run. The definition
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349 that the programmer really wanted was this:
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350
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351 @example
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352 (defmacro my-set-buffer-multibyte (arg)
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353 (if (fboundp 'set-buffer-multibyte)
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354 `(set-buffer-multibyte ,arg)))
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355 @end example
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356
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357 @noindent
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358 This macro expands, if appropriate, into a call to
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359 @code{set-buffer-multibyte} that will be executed when the compiled
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360 program is actually run.
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361
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362 @node Argument Evaluation
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363 @subsection Evaluating Macro Arguments Repeatedly
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364
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365 When defining a macro you must pay attention to the number of times
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366 the arguments will be evaluated when the expansion is executed. The
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367 following macro (used to facilitate iteration) illustrates the problem.
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368 This macro allows us to write a simple ``for'' loop such as one might
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369 find in Pascal.
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370
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371 @findex for
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372 @smallexample
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373 @group
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374 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body)
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375 "Execute a simple \"for\" loop.
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376 For example, (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))."
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377 (list 'let (list (list var init))
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378 (cons 'while (cons (list '<= var final)
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379 (append body (list (list 'inc var)))))))
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380 @end group
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381 @result{} for
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382
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383 @group
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384 (for i from 1 to 3 do
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385 (setq square (* i i))
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386 (princ (format "\n%d %d" i square)))
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387 @expansion{}
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388 @end group
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389 @group
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390 (let ((i 1))
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391 (while (<= i 3)
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392 (setq square (* i i))
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393 (princ (format "%d %d" i square))
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394 (inc i)))
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395 @end group
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396 @group
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397
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398 @print{}1 1
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399 @print{}2 4
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400 @print{}3 9
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401 @result{} nil
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402 @end group
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403 @end smallexample
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404
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405 @noindent
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406 The arguments @code{from}, @code{to}, and @code{do} in this macro are
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407 ``syntactic sugar''; they are entirely ignored. The idea is that you
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408 will write noise words (such as @code{from}, @code{to}, and @code{do})
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409 in those positions in the macro call.
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410
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411 Here's an equivalent definition simplified through use of backquote:
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412
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413 @smallexample
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414 @group
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415 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body)
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416 "Execute a simple \"for\" loop.
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417 For example, (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))."
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418 `(let ((,var ,init))
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419 (while (<= ,var ,final)
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420 ,@@body
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421 (inc ,var))))
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422 @end group
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423 @end smallexample
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424
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425 Both forms of this definition (with backquote and without) suffer from
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426 the defect that @var{final} is evaluated on every iteration. If
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427 @var{final} is a constant, this is not a problem. If it is a more
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428 complex form, say @code{(long-complex-calculation x)}, this can slow
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429 down the execution significantly. If @var{final} has side effects,
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430 executing it more than once is probably incorrect.
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431
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432 @cindex macro argument evaluation
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433 A well-designed macro definition takes steps to avoid this problem by
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434 producing an expansion that evaluates the argument expressions exactly
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435 once unless repeated evaluation is part of the intended purpose of the
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436 macro. Here is a correct expansion for the @code{for} macro:
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437
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438 @smallexample
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439 @group
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440 (let ((i 1)
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441 (max 3))
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442 (while (<= i max)
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443 (setq square (* i i))
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444 (princ (format "%d %d" i square))
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445 (inc i)))
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446 @end group
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447 @end smallexample
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448
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449 Here is a macro definition that creates this expansion:
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450
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451 @smallexample
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452 @group
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453 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body)
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454 "Execute a simple for loop: (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))."
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455 `(let ((,var ,init)
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456 (max ,final))
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457 (while (<= ,var max)
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458 ,@@body
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459 (inc ,var))))
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460 @end group
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461 @end smallexample
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462
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463 Unfortunately, this fix introduces another problem,
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464 described in the following section.
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465
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466 @node Surprising Local Vars
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467 @subsection Local Variables in Macro Expansions
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468
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469 @ifnottex
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470 In the previous section, the definition of @code{for} was fixed as
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471 follows to make the expansion evaluate the macro arguments the proper
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472 number of times:
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473
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474 @smallexample
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475 @group
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476 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body)
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477 "Execute a simple for loop: (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))."
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478 @end group
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479 @group
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480 `(let ((,var ,init)
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481 (max ,final))
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482 (while (<= ,var max)
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483 ,@@body
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484 (inc ,var))))
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485 @end group
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486 @end smallexample
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487 @end ifnottex
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488
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489 The new definition of @code{for} has a new problem: it introduces a
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490 local variable named @code{max} which the user does not expect. This
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491 causes trouble in examples such as the following:
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492
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493 @smallexample
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494 @group
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495 (let ((max 0))
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496 (for x from 0 to 10 do
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497 (let ((this (frob x)))
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498 (if (< max this)
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499 (setq max this)))))
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500 @end group
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501 @end smallexample
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502
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503 @noindent
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504 The references to @code{max} inside the body of the @code{for}, which
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505 are supposed to refer to the user's binding of @code{max}, really access
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506 the binding made by @code{for}.
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507
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508 The way to correct this is to use an uninterned symbol instead of
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509 @code{max} (@pxref{Creating Symbols}). The uninterned symbol can be
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510 bound and referred to just like any other symbol, but since it is
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511 created by @code{for}, we know that it cannot already appear in the
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512 user's program. Since it is not interned, there is no way the user can
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513 put it into the program later. It will never appear anywhere except
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514 where put by @code{for}. Here is a definition of @code{for} that works
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515 this way:
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516
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517 @smallexample
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518 @group
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519 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body)
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520 "Execute a simple for loop: (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))."
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521 (let ((tempvar (make-symbol "max")))
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522 `(let ((,var ,init)
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523 (,tempvar ,final))
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524 (while (<= ,var ,tempvar)
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525 ,@@body
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526 (inc ,var)))))
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527 @end group
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528 @end smallexample
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529
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530 @noindent
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531 This creates an uninterned symbol named @code{max} and puts it in the
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532 expansion instead of the usual interned symbol @code{max} that appears
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533 in expressions ordinarily.
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534
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535 @node Eval During Expansion
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536 @subsection Evaluating Macro Arguments in Expansion
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537
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538 Another problem can happen if the macro definition itself
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539 evaluates any of the macro argument expressions, such as by calling
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540 @code{eval} (@pxref{Eval}). If the argument is supposed to refer to the
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541 user's variables, you may have trouble if the user happens to use a
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542 variable with the same name as one of the macro arguments. Inside the
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543 macro body, the macro argument binding is the most local binding of this
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544 variable, so any references inside the form being evaluated do refer to
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545 it. Here is an example:
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546
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547 @example
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548 @group
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549 (defmacro foo (a)
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550 (list 'setq (eval a) t))
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551 @result{} foo
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552 @end group
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553 @group
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554 (setq x 'b)
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555 (foo x) @expansion{} (setq b t)
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556 @result{} t ; @r{and @code{b} has been set.}
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557 ;; @r{but}
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558 (setq a 'c)
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559 (foo a) @expansion{} (setq a t)
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560 @result{} t ; @r{but this set @code{a}, not @code{c}.}
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561
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562 @end group
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563 @end example
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564
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565 It makes a difference whether the user's variable is named @code{a} or
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566 @code{x}, because @code{a} conflicts with the macro argument variable
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567 @code{a}.
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568
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569 Another problem with calling @code{eval} in a macro definition is that
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570 it probably won't do what you intend in a compiled program. The
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571 byte-compiler runs macro definitions while compiling the program, when
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572 the program's own computations (which you might have wished to access
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573 with @code{eval}) don't occur and its local variable bindings don't
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574 exist.
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575
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576 To avoid these problems, @strong{don't evaluate an argument expression
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577 while computing the macro expansion}. Instead, substitute the
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578 expression into the macro expansion, so that its value will be computed
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579 as part of executing the expansion. This is how the other examples in
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580 this chapter work.
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581
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582 @node Repeated Expansion
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583 @subsection How Many Times is the Macro Expanded?
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584
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585 Occasionally problems result from the fact that a macro call is
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586 expanded each time it is evaluated in an interpreted function, but is
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587 expanded only once (during compilation) for a compiled function. If the
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588 macro definition has side effects, they will work differently depending
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589 on how many times the macro is expanded.
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590
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591 Therefore, you should avoid side effects in computation of the
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592 macro expansion, unless you really know what you are doing.
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593
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594 One special kind of side effect can't be avoided: constructing Lisp
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595 objects. Almost all macro expansions include constructed lists; that is
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596 the whole point of most macros. This is usually safe; there is just one
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597 case where you must be careful: when the object you construct is part of a
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598 quoted constant in the macro expansion.
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599
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600 If the macro is expanded just once, in compilation, then the object is
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601 constructed just once, during compilation. But in interpreted
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602 execution, the macro is expanded each time the macro call runs, and this
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603 means a new object is constructed each time.
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604
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605 In most clean Lisp code, this difference won't matter. It can matter
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606 only if you perform side-effects on the objects constructed by the macro
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607 definition. Thus, to avoid trouble, @strong{avoid side effects on
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608 objects constructed by macro definitions}. Here is an example of how
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609 such side effects can get you into trouble:
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610
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611 @lisp
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612 @group
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613 (defmacro empty-object ()
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614 (list 'quote (cons nil nil)))
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615 @end group
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616
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617 @group
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618 (defun initialize (condition)
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619 (let ((object (empty-object)))
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620 (if condition
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621 (setcar object condition))
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622 object))
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623 @end group
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624 @end lisp
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625
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626 @noindent
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627 If @code{initialize} is interpreted, a new list @code{(nil)} is
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628 constructed each time @code{initialize} is called. Thus, no side effect
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629 survives between calls. If @code{initialize} is compiled, then the
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630 macro @code{empty-object} is expanded during compilation, producing a
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631 single ``constant'' @code{(nil)} that is reused and altered each time
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632 @code{initialize} is called.
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633
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634 One way to avoid pathological cases like this is to think of
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635 @code{empty-object} as a funny kind of constant, not as a memory
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636 allocation construct. You wouldn't use @code{setcar} on a constant such
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637 as @code{'(nil)}, so naturally you won't use it on @code{(empty-object)}
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638 either.