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annotate lispref/variables.texi @ 26880:98564c5250e4
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author | Kenichi Handa <handa@m17n.org> |
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date | Wed, 15 Dec 1999 00:28:11 +0000 |
parents | 798aeda17389 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/variables | |
6 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top | |
7 @chapter Variables | |
8 @cindex variable | |
9 | |
10 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value. | |
11 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the | |
12 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for | |
13 symbols. | |
14 | |
15 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented | |
16 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp | |
17 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable | |
18 name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the | |
19 symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as | |
20 a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
21 | |
22 The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual | |
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23 form of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp |
6510 | 24 objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program |
25 is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the | |
26 variable. | |
27 | |
28 @menu | |
29 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere. | |
30 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change. | |
31 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily. | |
32 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values. | |
33 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable. | |
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34 * Tips for Defining:: How to avoid bad results from quitting |
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35 within the code to initialize a variable. |
6510 | 36 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names |
37 are known only at run time. | |
38 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables. | |
39 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values. | |
40 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer. | |
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41 * Frame-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one frame. |
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42 * Future Local Variables:: New kinds of local values we might add some day. |
6510 | 43 @end menu |
44 | |
45 @node Global Variables | |
46 @section Global Variables | |
47 @cindex global variable | |
48 | |
49 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that | |
50 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect | |
51 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains | |
52 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the | |
53 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable. | |
54 | |
55 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example, | |
56 | |
57 @example | |
58 (setq x '(a b)) | |
59 @end example | |
60 | |
61 @noindent | |
62 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that | |
63 @code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the | |
64 variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value. | |
65 | |
66 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol | |
67 by itself as an expression. Thus, | |
68 | |
69 @example | |
70 @group | |
71 x @result{} (a b) | |
72 @end group | |
73 @end example | |
74 | |
75 @noindent | |
76 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed. | |
77 | |
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78 If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the old |
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79 one: |
6510 | 80 |
81 @example | |
82 @group | |
83 x | |
84 @result{} (a b) | |
85 @end group | |
86 @group | |
87 (setq x 4) | |
88 @result{} 4 | |
89 @end group | |
90 @group | |
91 x | |
92 @result{} 4 | |
93 @end group | |
94 @end example | |
95 | |
96 @node Constant Variables | |
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97 @section Variables that Never Change |
6510 | 98 @vindex nil |
99 @vindex t | |
100 @kindex setting-constant | |
26200 | 101 @cindex keyword symbol |
6510 | 102 |
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103 In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. These |
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104 include @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name starts |
26200 | 105 with @samp{:} (these are called @dfn{keywords}). These symbols cannot |
106 be rebound, nor can their values be changed. Any attempt to set or bind | |
107 @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. The | |
108 same is true for a keyword (a symbol whose name starts with @samp{:}), | |
109 if it is interned in the standard obarray, except that setting such a | |
110 symbol to itself is not an error. | |
6510 | 111 |
112 @example | |
113 @group | |
114 nil @equiv{} 'nil | |
115 @result{} nil | |
116 @end group | |
117 @group | |
118 (setq nil 500) | |
119 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil | |
120 @end group | |
121 @end example | |
122 | |
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123 @defvar keyword-symbols-constant-flag |
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124 @tindex keyword-symbols-constant-flag |
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125 If this variable is @code{nil}, you are allowed to set and bind symbols |
26200 | 126 whose names start with @samp{:} however you wish. This is to make it |
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127 possible to run old Lisp programs which do that. |
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128 @end defvar |
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129 |
6510 | 130 @node Local Variables |
131 @section Local Variables | |
132 @cindex binding local variables | |
133 @cindex local variables | |
134 @cindex local binding | |
135 @cindex global binding | |
136 | |
137 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded | |
138 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that | |
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139 exist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes. |
6510 | 140 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are |
141 called @dfn{local variables}. | |
142 | |
143 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive | |
144 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let} | |
145 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified | |
146 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form. | |
147 | |
148 @cindex shadowing of variables | |
149 Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of | |
150 one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over, | |
151 the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the | |
152 previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and | |
153 local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}). | |
154 | |
155 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local, | |
156 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or | |
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157 previous local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we |
6510 | 158 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value. |
159 | |
160 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value. | |
161 Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the | |
162 local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the | |
163 local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value | |
164 is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a | |
165 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does | |
166 not create a new binding. | |
167 | |
168 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where | |
169 (conceptually) the global value is kept. | |
170 | |
171 @cindex current binding | |
172 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for | |
173 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a | |
174 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the | |
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175 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called |
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176 @dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no |
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177 local bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding. |
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178 We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existing |
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179 binding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns |
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180 the value of its current binding. |
6510 | 181 |
182 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create | |
183 local bindings. | |
184 | |
185 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
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186 This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then |
6510 | 187 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form |
188 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}. | |
189 | |
190 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case | |
191 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form | |
192 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is | |
193 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form} | |
194 is omitted, @code{nil} is used. | |
195 | |
196 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the | |
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197 order they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them. |
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198 Here is an example of this: @code{Z} is bound to the old value of |
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199 @code{Y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{Y}, which is 1. |
6510 | 200 |
201 @example | |
202 @group | |
203 (setq Y 2) | |
204 @result{} 2 | |
205 @end group | |
206 @group | |
207 (let ((Y 1) | |
208 (Z Y)) | |
209 (list Y Z)) | |
210 @result{} (1 2) | |
211 @end group | |
212 @end example | |
213 @end defspec | |
214 | |
215 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
216 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right | |
217 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for | |
218 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can | |
219 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*} | |
220 form. Compare the following example with the example above for | |
221 @code{let}. | |
222 | |
223 @example | |
224 @group | |
225 (setq Y 2) | |
226 @result{} 2 | |
227 @end group | |
228 @group | |
229 (let* ((Y 1) | |
230 (Z Y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{Y}.} | |
231 (list Y Z)) | |
232 @result{} (1 1) | |
233 @end group | |
234 @end example | |
235 @end defspec | |
236 | |
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237 Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local |
6510 | 238 bindings: |
239 | |
240 @itemize @bullet | |
241 @item | |
242 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}). | |
243 | |
244 @item | |
245 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}). | |
246 | |
247 @item | |
248 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}). | |
249 @end itemize | |
250 | |
12098 | 251 Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local |
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252 Variables}) and frame-local bindings (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}); a |
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253 few variables have terminal-local bindings (@pxref{Multiple Displays}). |
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254 These kinds of bindings work somewhat like ordinary local bindings, but |
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255 they are localized depending on ``where'' you are in Emacs, rather than |
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256 localized in time. |
12098 | 257 |
6510 | 258 @defvar max-specpdl-size |
259 @cindex variable limit error | |
260 @cindex evaluation error | |
261 @cindex infinite recursion | |
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262 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable |
6510 | 263 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}) |
264 that are allowed before signaling an error (with data @code{"Variable | |
265 binding depth exceeds max-specpdl-size"}). | |
266 | |
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267 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way |
6510 | 268 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function. |
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269 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting. |
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270 @xref{Eval}. |
6510 | 271 |
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272 The default value is 600. Entry to the Lisp debugger increases the |
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273 value, if there is little room left, to make sure the debugger itself |
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274 has room to execute. |
6510 | 275 @end defvar |
276 | |
277 @node Void Variables | |
278 @section When a Variable is ``Void'' | |
279 @kindex void-variable | |
280 @cindex void variable | |
281 | |
282 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we | |
283 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the | |
284 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to | |
285 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than | |
286 a value. | |
287 | |
288 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol | |
289 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any | |
290 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not | |
291 have any value. | |
292 | |
293 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more | |
294 using @code{makunbound}. | |
295 | |
296 @defun makunbound symbol | |
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297 This function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void. |
6510 | 298 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal |
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299 the error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again. |
6510 | 300 |
301 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}. | |
302 | |
303 @example | |
304 @group | |
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305 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.} |
6510 | 306 @result{} x |
307 @end group | |
308 @group | |
309 x | |
310 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
311 @end group | |
312 @end example | |
313 | |
314 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most | |
315 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void | |
316 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings | |
317 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as | |
318 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from | |
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319 the construct that made it, the previous local or global binding is |
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320 reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly |
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321 reexposed binding was void all along. |
6510 | 322 |
323 @smallexample | |
324 @group | |
325 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.} | |
326 @result{} 1 | |
327 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
328 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.} | |
329 x) | |
330 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
331 @end group | |
332 @group | |
333 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.} | |
334 @result{} 1 | |
335 | |
336 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
337 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.} | |
338 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.} | |
339 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.} | |
340 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
341 @end group | |
342 | |
343 @group | |
344 (let ((x 2)) | |
345 (let ((x 3)) | |
346 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.} | |
347 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.} | |
348 @result{} 2 | |
349 @end group | |
350 @end smallexample | |
351 @end defun | |
352 | |
353 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is | |
354 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has | |
355 always been void. | |
356 | |
357 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is | |
358 currently void. | |
359 | |
360 @defun boundp variable | |
361 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void; | |
362 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns | |
363 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
364 | |
365 @smallexample | |
366 @group | |
367 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.} | |
368 @result{} nil | |
369 @end group | |
370 @group | |
371 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
372 (boundp 'abracadabra)) | |
373 @result{} t | |
374 @end group | |
375 @group | |
376 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.} | |
377 @result{} nil | |
378 @end group | |
379 @group | |
380 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.} | |
381 @result{} 5 | |
382 @end group | |
383 @group | |
384 (boundp 'abracadabra) | |
385 @result{} t | |
386 @end group | |
387 @end smallexample | |
388 @end defun | |
389 | |
390 @node Defining Variables | |
391 @section Defining Global Variables | |
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392 @cindex variable definition |
6510 | 393 |
394 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable | |
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395 with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst} |
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396 or @code{defvar}. |
6510 | 397 |
398 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform | |
399 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be | |
400 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system | |
401 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they | |
402 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and | |
403 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and | |
404 variables in a program. | |
405 | |
406 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily | |
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407 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the value |
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408 should ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a |
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409 variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar} |
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410 declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization: |
6510 | 411 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while |
412 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void. | |
413 | |
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414 @ignore |
6510 | 415 One would expect user option variables to be defined with |
416 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this | |
417 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded: | |
418 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is | |
419 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init | |
420 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For | |
421 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}. | |
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422 @end ignore |
6510 | 423 |
424 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
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425 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can also |
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426 initialize and document it. The definition informs a person reading |
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427 your code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set or |
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428 changed. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be |
6510 | 429 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}. |
430 | |
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431 If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar} |
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432 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol} |
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433 already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not even |
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434 evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value} |
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435 is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case. |
6510 | 436 |
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437 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, |
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438 @code{defvar} operates on the default value, which is buffer-independent, |
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439 not the current (buffer-local) binding. It sets the default value if |
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440 the default value is void. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. |
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441 |
12098 | 442 When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} in |
443 Emacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of | |
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444 @code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally, without |
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445 testing whether its value is void. |
6510 | 446 |
447 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation | |
448 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of | |
449 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is | |
450 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The | |
451 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property. | |
452 | |
453 If the first character of @var{doc-string} is @samp{*}, it means that | |
454 this variable is considered a user option. This lets users set the | |
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455 variable conveniently using the commands @code{set-variable} and |
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456 @code{edit-options}. However, it is better to use @code{defcustom} |
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457 instead of @code{defvar} for user option variables, so you can specify |
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458 customization information. @xref{Customization}. |
6510 | 459 |
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460 Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does not |
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461 initialize it: |
6510 | 462 |
463 @example | |
464 @group | |
465 (defvar foo) | |
466 @result{} foo | |
467 @end group | |
468 @end example | |
469 | |
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470 This example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and gives |
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471 it a documentation string: |
6510 | 472 |
473 @example | |
474 @group | |
475 (defvar bar 23 | |
476 "The normal weight of a bar.") | |
477 @result{} bar | |
478 @end group | |
479 @end example | |
480 | |
481 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar}, | |
482 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar} | |
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483 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an error |
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484 if it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.) |
6510 | 485 |
486 @example | |
487 @group | |
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488 (defvar bar (1+ nil) |
6510 | 489 "*The normal weight of a bar.") |
490 @result{} bar | |
491 @end group | |
492 @group | |
493 bar | |
494 @result{} 23 | |
495 @end group | |
496 @end example | |
497 | |
498 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form: | |
499 | |
500 @example | |
501 @group | |
502 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string}) | |
503 @equiv{} | |
504 (progn | |
505 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol})) | |
506 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value})) | |
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507 (if '@var{doc-string} |
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508 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string})) |
6510 | 509 '@var{symbol}) |
510 @end group | |
511 @end example | |
512 | |
513 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used | |
514 at top level in a file where its value does not matter. | |
515 @end defspec | |
516 | |
517 @defspec defconst symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
518 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it. | |
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519 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standard |
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520 global value, established here, that should not be changed by the user |
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521 or by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the |
6510 | 522 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}. |
523 | |
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524 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of |
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525 @var{symbol} to the result if @var{value} is given. If @var{symbol} |
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526 does have a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} |
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527 sets the default value, not the buffer-local value. (But you should not |
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528 be making buffer-local bindings for a symbol that is defined with |
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529 @code{defconst}.) |
6510 | 530 |
531 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed | |
532 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding). | |
533 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory. | |
534 | |
535 @example | |
536 @group | |
537 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.") | |
538 @result{} pi | |
539 @end group | |
540 @group | |
541 (setq pi 3) | |
542 @result{} pi | |
543 @end group | |
544 @group | |
545 pi | |
546 @result{} 3 | |
547 @end group | |
548 @end example | |
549 @end defspec | |
550 | |
551 @defun user-variable-p variable | |
552 @cindex user option | |
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553 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a |
6510 | 554 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and |
555 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the | |
556 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.) | |
557 | |
558 User option variables are distinguished from other variables by the | |
559 first character of the @code{variable-documentation} property. If the | |
560 property exists and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, | |
561 then the variable is a user option. | |
562 @end defun | |
563 | |
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564 @kindex variable-interactive |
6510 | 565 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property, |
12098 | 566 the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading the |
567 new value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it were | |
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568 specified in @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However, |
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569 this feature is largely obsoleted by @code{defcustom} |
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570 (@pxref{Customization}). |
6510 | 571 |
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572 @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special |
6510 | 573 forms are used while the variable has a local binding, they set the |
574 local binding's value; the global binding is not changed. This is not | |
575 what we really want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top | |
576 level in a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make | |
577 sure to load the file before making a local binding for the variable. | |
578 | |
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579 @node Tips for Defining |
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580 @section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly |
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581 |
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582 When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicated |
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583 value (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put the |
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584 entire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this: |
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585 |
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586 @example |
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587 (defvar my-mode-map |
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588 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) |
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589 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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590 @dots{} |
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591 map) |
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592 @var{docstring}) |
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593 @end example |
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594 |
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595 @noindent |
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596 This method has several benefits. First, if the user quits while |
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597 loading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized or |
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598 initialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized, |
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599 reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading the |
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600 file once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that is |
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601 important if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (such |
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602 as, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with |
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603 @kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely. |
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604 |
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605 Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage: |
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606 it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names the |
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607 variable. Here's a safe way to avoid that: |
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608 |
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609 @example |
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610 (defvar my-mode-map nil |
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611 @var{docstring}) |
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612 (unless my-mode-map |
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613 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) |
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614 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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615 @dots{} |
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616 (setq my-mode-map map))) |
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617 @end example |
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618 |
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619 @noindent |
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620 This has all the same advantages as putting the initialization inside |
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621 the @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once on |
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622 each form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable. |
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623 |
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624 But be careful not to write the code like this: |
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625 |
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626 @example |
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627 (defvar my-mode-map nil |
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628 @var{docstring}) |
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629 (unless my-mode-map |
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630 (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap)) |
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631 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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632 @dots{}) |
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633 @end example |
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634 |
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635 @noindent |
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636 This code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more than |
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637 one step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves the |
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638 variable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Once |
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639 that happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; it |
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640 will remain incomplete. |
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641 |
6510 | 642 @node Accessing Variables |
643 @section Accessing Variable Values | |
644 | |
645 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which | |
646 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the | |
647 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what | |
648 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which | |
649 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}. | |
650 | |
651 @defun symbol-value symbol | |
652 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in | |
653 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it | |
654 has no local bindings. | |
655 | |
656 @example | |
657 @group | |
658 (setq abracadabra 5) | |
659 @result{} 5 | |
660 @end group | |
661 @group | |
662 (setq foo 9) | |
663 @result{} 9 | |
664 @end group | |
665 | |
666 @group | |
667 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}} | |
668 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
669 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
670 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)) | |
671 @result{} foo | |
672 @end group | |
673 | |
674 @group | |
675 ;; @r{Here the value of @code{abracadabra},} | |
676 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},} | |
677 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
678 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
679 (symbol-value abracadabra)) | |
680 @result{} 9 | |
681 @end group | |
682 | |
683 @group | |
684 (symbol-value 'abracadabra) | |
685 @result{} 5 | |
686 @end group | |
687 @end example | |
688 | |
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689 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of |
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690 @var{symbol} is void. |
6510 | 691 @end defun |
692 | |
693 @node Setting Variables | |
694 @section How to Alter a Variable Value | |
695 | |
696 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special | |
697 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at | |
698 run time, use the function @code{set}. | |
699 | |
700 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{} | |
701 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's | |
702 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of | |
703 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing | |
704 binding of the symbol is changed. | |
705 | |
706 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you | |
707 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The | |
708 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.'' | |
709 | |
710 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}. | |
711 | |
712 @example | |
713 @group | |
714 (setq x (1+ 2)) | |
715 @result{} 3 | |
716 @end group | |
717 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.} | |
718 @result{} 3 | |
719 @group | |
720 (let ((x 5)) | |
721 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.} | |
722 x) | |
723 @result{} 6 | |
724 @end group | |
725 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.} | |
726 @result{} 3 | |
727 @end example | |
728 | |
729 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first | |
730 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the | |
731 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on: | |
732 | |
733 @example | |
734 @group | |
735 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before} | |
736 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.} | |
737 @result{} 11 | |
738 @end group | |
739 @end example | |
740 @end defspec | |
741 | |
742 @defun set symbol value | |
743 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns | |
744 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for | |
745 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set. | |
746 | |
747 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is | |
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748 set; shadowed bindings are not affected. |
6510 | 749 |
750 @example | |
751 @group | |
752 (set one 1) | |
753 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one | |
754 @end group | |
755 @group | |
756 (set 'one 1) | |
757 @result{} 1 | |
758 @end group | |
759 @group | |
760 (set 'two 'one) | |
761 @result{} one | |
762 @end group | |
763 @group | |
764 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.} | |
765 @result{} 2 | |
766 @end group | |
767 @group | |
768 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.} | |
769 @result{} 2 | |
770 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,} | |
771 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.} | |
772 one) | |
773 @result{} 3 | |
774 @end group | |
775 @group | |
776 one | |
777 @result{} 2 | |
778 @end group | |
779 @end example | |
780 | |
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781 If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument} |
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782 error is signaled. |
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783 |
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784 @example |
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785 (set '(x y) 'z) |
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786 @error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y) |
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787 @end example |
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788 |
6510 | 789 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than |
790 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use | |
791 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the | |
792 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used; | |
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793 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing |
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794 at run time which variable to set. For example, the command |
6510 | 795 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then |
796 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}. | |
797 | |
798 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local | |
799 @quotation | |
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800 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the |
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801 symbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings. |
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802 In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set} |
6510 | 803 always affects the most local existing binding. |
804 @end quotation | |
805 @end defun | |
806 | |
12067 | 807 One other function for setting a variable is designed to add |
808 an element to a list if it is not already present in the list. | |
809 | |
810 @defun add-to-list symbol element | |
811 This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by consing @var{element} | |
812 onto the old value, if @var{element} is not already a member of that | |
12098 | 813 value. It returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. The |
814 value of @var{symbol} had better be a list already before the call. | |
815 | |
816 The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; @code{add-to-list} | |
817 is an ordinary function, like @code{set} and unlike @code{setq}. Quote | |
818 the argument yourself if that is what you want. | |
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819 @end defun |
12067 | 820 |
821 Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-list}: | |
822 | |
823 @example | |
824 (setq foo '(a b)) | |
825 @result{} (a b) | |
826 | |
827 (add-to-list 'foo 'c) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.} | |
828 @result{} (c a b) | |
829 | |
830 (add-to-list 'foo 'b) ;; @r{No effect.} | |
831 @result{} (c a b) | |
832 | |
833 foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.} | |
834 @result{} (c a b) | |
835 @end example | |
836 | |
837 An equivalent expression for @code{(add-to-list '@var{var} | |
838 @var{value})} is this: | |
839 | |
840 @example | |
841 (or (member @var{value} @var{var}) | |
842 (setq @var{var} (cons @var{value} @var{var}))) | |
843 @end example | |
844 | |
6510 | 845 @node Variable Scoping |
846 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings | |
847 | |
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848 A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings, |
6510 | 849 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global |
850 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over | |
851 the others. | |
852 | |
853 @cindex scope | |
854 @cindex extent | |
855 @cindex dynamic scoping | |
856 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and | |
857 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in | |
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858 the source code the binding can be accessed. ``Indefinite scope'' means |
6510 | 859 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable |
860 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is | |
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861 executing, the binding exists. ``Dynamic extent'' means that the binding |
6510 | 862 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it. |
863 | |
864 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called | |
865 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use | |
866 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be | |
867 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable. | |
868 | |
869 @cindex CL note---special variables | |
870 @quotation | |
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871 @b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp are |
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872 dynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp. |
6510 | 873 @end quotation |
874 | |
875 @menu | |
876 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible. | |
877 Comparison with other languages. | |
878 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists. | |
879 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping. | |
880 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems. | |
881 @end menu | |
882 | |
883 @node Scope | |
884 @subsection Scope | |
885 | |
886 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings. | |
887 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a | |
888 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function | |
889 definitions: | |
890 | |
891 @example | |
892 @group | |
893 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.} | |
894 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.} | |
895 @end group | |
896 | |
897 @group | |
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898 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.} |
6510 | 899 (list x)) |
900 @end group | |
901 @end example | |
902 | |
903 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in | |
904 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because | |
905 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function | |
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906 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically-scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user} |
6510 | 907 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in |
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908 @code{binder}, depending on the circumstances: |
6510 | 909 |
910 @itemize @bullet | |
911 @item | |
912 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all, | |
913 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from | |
914 @code{binder}. | |
915 | |
916 @item | |
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917 If we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then the |
6510 | 918 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}: |
919 | |
920 @example | |
921 @group | |
922 (defun foo (lose) | |
923 (user)) | |
924 @end group | |
925 @end example | |
926 | |
927 @item | |
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928 However, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, |
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929 then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in |
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930 @code{user}: |
6510 | 931 |
932 @example | |
933 (defun foo (x) | |
934 (user)) | |
935 @end example | |
936 | |
937 @noindent | |
938 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}. | |
939 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in | |
940 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound | |
941 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}. | |
942 @end itemize | |
943 | |
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944 Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of |
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945 lexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offer |
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946 dynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm, |
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947 there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particular |
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948 variable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, but |
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949 implementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier. |
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950 |
6510 | 951 @node Extent |
952 @subsection Extent | |
953 | |
954 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a | |
955 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while | |
956 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic | |
957 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages, | |
958 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent. | |
959 | |
960 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This | |
961 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form | |
962 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support | |
963 this, but Emacs Lisp does not. | |
964 | |
965 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a | |
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966 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. This |
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967 would work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp, |
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968 because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n} |
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969 is no longer bound to the actual argument 2. |
6510 | 970 |
971 @example | |
972 (defun make-add (n) | |
973 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.} | |
974 @result{} make-add | |
975 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}} | |
976 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.} | |
977 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m)) | |
978 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.} | |
979 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n | |
980 @end example | |
981 | |
982 @cindex closures not available | |
983 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures'', objects that are like functions | |
984 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have | |
985 closures. | |
986 | |
987 @node Impl of Scope | |
988 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping | |
989 @cindex deep binding | |
990 | |
991 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually | |
992 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is | |
993 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems. | |
994 | |
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995 Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs. |
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996 At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings |
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997 onto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. We |
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998 can pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the binding |
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999 construct. |
6510 | 1000 |
1001 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to | |
1002 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is | |
1003 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the | |
1004 current binding, then store the new value into that binding. | |
1005 | |
1006 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it | |
1007 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is | |
1008 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function | |
1009 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the | |
1010 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite. | |
1011 | |
1012 @cindex shallow binding | |
1013 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a | |
1014 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard | |
1015 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the | |
1016 symbol. | |
1017 | |
1018 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in | |
1019 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value | |
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1020 (belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the new |
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1021 local value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping |
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1022 the old value off the stack, into the value cell. |
6510 | 1023 |
1024 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep | |
1025 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a | |
1026 binding. | |
1027 | |
1028 @node Using Scoping | |
1029 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping | |
1030 | |
1031 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a | |
1032 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs | |
1033 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique: | |
1034 | |
1035 @itemize @bullet | |
1036 @item | |
1037 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close | |
1038 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within | |
1039 one program. | |
1040 | |
1041 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see | |
1042 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses | |
1043 elsewhere. | |
1044 | |
1045 @item | |
1046 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all | |
1047 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever | |
1048 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable | |
1049 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case | |
1050 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it | |
1051 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it. | |
1052 | |
1053 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what | |
1054 the effect will be. | |
1055 @end itemize | |
1056 | |
12098 | 1057 In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}. |
1058 This helps other people understand your program by telling them to look | |
1059 for inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the byte | |
1060 compiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don't | |
1061 use short names like @code{x}. | |
1062 | |
6510 | 1063 @node Buffer-Local Variables |
1064 @section Buffer-Local Variables | |
1065 @cindex variables, buffer-local | |
1066 @cindex buffer-local variables | |
1067 | |
1068 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming | |
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1069 languages in one form or another. Emacs, however, also supports additional, |
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1070 unusual kinds of variable binding: @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which |
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1071 apply only in one buffer, and @dfn{frame-local} bindings, which apply only in |
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1072 one frame. Having different values for a variable in different buffers |
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1073 and/or frames is an important customization method. |
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1074 |
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1075 This section describes buffer-local bindings; for frame-local |
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1076 bindings, see the following section, @ref{Frame-Local Variables}. (A few |
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1077 variables have bindings that are local to each terminal; see |
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1078 @ref{Multiple Displays}.) |
6510 | 1079 |
1080 @menu | |
1081 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts. | |
1082 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings. | |
1083 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers | |
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1084 that don't have their own buffer-local values. |
6510 | 1085 @end menu |
1086 | |
1087 @node Intro to Buffer-Local | |
1088 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables | |
1089 | |
1090 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a | |
1091 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is | |
1092 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while | |
1093 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding, | |
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1094 so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change is |
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1095 visible only in the buffer where you made it. |
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1096 |
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1097 The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with any |
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1098 specific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases, |
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1099 this is the global binding. |
6510 | 1100 |
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1101 A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in |
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1102 other buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers that |
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1103 don't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes all |
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1104 newly-created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that does |
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1105 not have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding |
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1106 (assuming there are no frame-local bindings to complicate the matter), |
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1107 so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the default |
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1108 binding. |
6510 | 1109 |
1110 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change | |
1111 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and | |
1112 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only | |
1113 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable | |
1114 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and | |
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1115 then setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}. |
6510 | 1116 |
1117 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with | |
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1118 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typically |
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1119 use. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including |
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1120 those yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unless |
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1121 they are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings. |
6510 | 1122 |
1123 @cindex automatically buffer-local | |
1124 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as | |
1125 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling | |
1126 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the | |
1127 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More | |
1128 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes | |
1129 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All | |
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1130 buffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual, |
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1131 but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the current |
6510 | 1132 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving |
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1133 the default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannot |
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1134 be changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it is |
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1135 with @code{setq-default}. |
6510 | 1136 |
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1137 @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local values in one or |
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1138 more buffers, you can get Emacs very confused by binding the variable |
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1139 with @code{let}, changing to a different current buffer in which a |
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1140 different binding is in effect, and then exiting the @code{let}. This |
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1141 can scramble the values of the buffer-local and default bindings. |
6510 | 1142 |
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1143 To preserve your sanity, avoid using a variable in that way. If you |
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1144 use @code{save-excursion} around each piece of code that changes to a |
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1145 different current buffer, you will not have this problem |
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1146 (@pxref{Excursions}). Here is an example of what to avoid: |
6510 | 1147 |
1148 @example | |
1149 @group | |
1150 (setq foo 'b) | |
1151 (set-buffer "a") | |
1152 (make-local-variable 'foo) | |
1153 @end group | |
1154 (setq foo 'a) | |
1155 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
1156 (set-buffer "b") | |
12098 | 1157 @var{body}@dots{}) |
6510 | 1158 @group |
1159 foo @result{} 'a ; @r{The old buffer-local value from buffer @samp{a}} | |
1160 ; @r{is now the default value.} | |
1161 @end group | |
1162 @group | |
1163 (set-buffer "a") | |
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1164 foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{The local @code{let} value that should be gone} |
6510 | 1165 ; @r{is now the buffer-local value in buffer @samp{a}.} |
1166 @end group | |
1167 @end example | |
1168 | |
1169 @noindent | |
1170 But @code{save-excursion} as shown here avoids the problem: | |
1171 | |
1172 @example | |
1173 @group | |
1174 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
1175 (save-excursion | |
1176 (set-buffer "b") | |
1177 @var{body}@dots{})) | |
1178 @end group | |
1179 @end example | |
1180 | |
1181 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the | |
1182 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}. | |
1183 | |
1184 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local | |
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1185 values when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, The |
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1186 GNU Emacs Manual}. |
6510 | 1187 |
1188 @node Creating Buffer-Local | |
1189 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings | |
1190 | |
1191 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable | |
1192 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for | |
1193 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value | |
1194 returned is @var{variable}. | |
1195 | |
1196 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1197 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value | |
1198 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains | |
1199 void. | |
1200 | |
1201 @example | |
1202 @group | |
1203 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:} | |
1204 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.} | |
1205 @result{} 5 | |
1206 @end group | |
1207 @group | |
1208 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.} | |
1209 @result{} foo | |
1210 @end group | |
1211 @group | |
1212 foo ; @r{That did not change} | |
1213 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.} | |
1214 @end group | |
1215 @group | |
1216 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value} | |
1217 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.} | |
1218 @end group | |
1219 @group | |
1220 foo | |
1221 @result{} 6 | |
1222 @end group | |
1223 | |
1224 @group | |
1225 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.} | |
1226 (save-excursion | |
1227 (set-buffer "b2") | |
1228 foo) | |
1229 @result{} 5 | |
1230 @end group | |
1231 @end example | |
8214 | 1232 |
1233 Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that | |
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1234 variable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do this |
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1235 is not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This is |
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1236 because @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds of |
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1237 bindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for. |
12067 | 1238 |
12098 | 1239 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error. Such |
1240 variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. @xref{Multiple | |
1241 Displays}. | |
1242 | |
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1243 @strong{Note:} Do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hook |
12067 | 1244 variable. Instead, use @code{make-local-hook}. @xref{Hooks}. |
6510 | 1245 @end deffn |
1246 | |
1247 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable | |
1248 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically | |
1249 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it | |
1250 local to the current buffer at the time. | |
1251 | |
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1252 A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with |
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1253 @code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-local |
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1254 binding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or |
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1255 @code{setq}) does so. |
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1256 |
6510 | 1257 The value returned is @var{variable}. |
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1258 |
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1259 @strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use |
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1260 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simply |
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1261 because users @emph{might} want to customize them differently in |
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1262 different buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wish |
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1263 to. It is better to leave the choice to them. |
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1264 |
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1265 The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucial |
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1266 that no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when a |
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1267 variable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which depends |
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1268 on having separate values in separate buffers, then using |
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1269 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution. |
6510 | 1270 @end deffn |
1271 | |
12098 | 1272 @defun local-variable-p variable &optional buffer |
1273 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer | |
1274 @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise, | |
1275 @code{nil}. | |
1276 @end defun | |
1277 | |
6510 | 1278 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer |
1279 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in | |
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1280 buffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer is |
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1281 used.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) in |
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1282 which each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value. |
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1283 However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void, |
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1284 then the variable appears directly in the resulting list. |
6510 | 1285 |
1286 @example | |
1287 @group | |
1288 (make-local-variable 'foobar) | |
1289 (makunbound 'foobar) | |
1290 (make-local-variable 'bind-me) | |
1291 (setq bind-me 69) | |
1292 @end group | |
1293 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables)) | |
1294 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:} | |
1295 @result{} ((mark-active . nil) | |
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1296 (buffer-undo-list . nil) |
6510 | 1297 (mode-name . "Fundamental") |
1298 @dots{} | |
1299 @group | |
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1300 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.} |
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1301 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:} |
6510 | 1302 foobar |
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1303 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:} |
6510 | 1304 (bind-me . 69)) |
1305 @end group | |
1306 @end example | |
1307 | |
1308 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this | |
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1309 list does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables. |
6510 | 1310 @end defun |
1311 | |
1312 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable | |
1313 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for | |
1314 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the | |
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1315 default binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. This |
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1316 typically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since the |
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1317 default value is usually different from the buffer-local value just |
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1318 eliminated. |
6510 | 1319 |
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1320 If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automatically |
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1321 becomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible in |
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1322 the current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will |
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1323 once again create a buffer-local binding for it. |
6510 | 1324 |
1325 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}. | |
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1326 |
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1327 This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one |
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1328 buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create |
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1329 buffer-local variables interactively. |
6510 | 1330 @end deffn |
1331 | |
1332 @defun kill-all-local-variables | |
1333 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the | |
1334 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent''. As a | |
1335 result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables. | |
1336 | |
1337 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the | |
1338 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the | |
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1339 value of @code{(standard-syntax-table)}, the case table to |
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1340 @code{(standard-case-table)}, and the abbrev table to the value of |
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1341 @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}. |
6510 | 1342 |
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1343 The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook |
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1344 @code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below). |
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1345 |
6510 | 1346 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the |
1347 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects | |
1348 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the | |
1349 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent. | |
1350 | |
1351 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}. | |
1352 @end defun | |
1353 | |
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1354 @defvar change-major-mode-hook |
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1355 The function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hook |
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1356 before it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrange |
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1357 for something special to be done if the user switches to a different |
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1358 major mode. For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that |
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1359 it will disappear after doing its job and will not interfere with the |
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1360 subsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}. |
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1361 @end defvar |
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1362 |
6510 | 1363 @c Emacs 19 feature |
1364 @cindex permanent local variable | |
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1365 A buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a |
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1366 symbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}. |
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1367 Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file |
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1368 came from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents. |
6510 | 1369 |
1370 @node Default Value | |
1371 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable | |
1372 @cindex default value | |
1373 | |
1374 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also | |
1375 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in | |
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1376 effect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame has |
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1377 its own binding for the variable. |
6510 | 1378 |
1379 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and | |
1380 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current | |
1381 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use | |
1382 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of | |
1383 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when | |
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1384 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for |
6510 | 1385 this variable. |
1386 | |
1387 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1388 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the | |
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1389 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any |
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1390 buffer-local or frame-local value. |
6510 | 1391 |
1392 @defun default-value symbol | |
1393 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value | |
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1394 that is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values for |
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1395 this variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent |
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1396 to @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}). |
6510 | 1397 @end defun |
1398 | |
1399 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
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1400 @defun default-boundp symbol |
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1401 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s |
6510 | 1402 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns |
1403 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error. | |
1404 | |
1405 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to | |
1406 @code{symbol-value}. | |
1407 @end defun | |
1408 | |
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1409 @defspec setq-default [symbol form]@dots{} |
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1410 This special form gives each @var{symbol} a new default value, which is |
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1411 the result of evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. It does not |
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1412 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{form}. The value of the |
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1413 @code{setq-default} form is the value of the last @var{form}. |
6510 | 1414 |
1415 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not | |
1416 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same | |
1417 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current | |
1418 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long | |
1419 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the | |
1420 current buffer sees. | |
1421 | |
1422 @example | |
1423 @group | |
1424 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
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1425 (make-local-variable 'buffer-local) |
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1426 @result{} buffer-local |
6510 | 1427 @end group |
1428 @group | |
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1429 (setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo) |
6510 | 1430 @result{} value-in-foo |
1431 @end group | |
1432 @group | |
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1433 (setq-default buffer-local 'new-default) |
6510 | 1434 @result{} new-default |
1435 @end group | |
1436 @group | |
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1437 buffer-local |
6510 | 1438 @result{} value-in-foo |
1439 @end group | |
1440 @group | |
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1441 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1442 @result{} new-default |
1443 @end group | |
1444 | |
1445 @group | |
1446 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:} | |
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1447 buffer-local |
6510 | 1448 @result{} new-default |
1449 @end group | |
1450 @group | |
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1451 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1452 @result{} new-default |
1453 @end group | |
1454 @group | |
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1455 (setq buffer-local 'another-default) |
6510 | 1456 @result{} another-default |
1457 @end group | |
1458 @group | |
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1459 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1460 @result{} another-default |
1461 @end group | |
1462 | |
1463 @group | |
1464 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
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1465 buffer-local |
6510 | 1466 @result{} value-in-foo |
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1467 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1468 @result{} another-default |
1469 @end group | |
1470 @end example | |
1471 @end defspec | |
1472 | |
1473 @defun set-default symbol value | |
1474 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is | |
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1475 an ordinary evaluated argument. |
6510 | 1476 |
1477 @example | |
1478 @group | |
1479 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23) | |
1480 @result{} 23 | |
1481 @end group | |
1482 @group | |
1483 (default-value 'a) | |
1484 @result{} 23 | |
1485 @end group | |
1486 @end example | |
1487 @end defun | |
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1488 |
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1489 @node Frame-Local Variables |
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1490 @section Frame-Local Variables |
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1491 |
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1492 Just as variables can have buffer-local bindings, they can also have |
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1493 frame-local bindings. These bindings belong to one frame, and are in |
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1494 effect when that frame is selected. Frame-local bindings are actually |
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1495 frame parameters: you create a frame-local binding in a specific frame |
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1496 by calling @code{modify-frame-parameters} and specifying the variable |
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1497 name as the parameter name. |
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1498 |
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1499 To enable frame-local bindings for a certain variable, call the function |
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1500 @code{make-variable-frame-local}. |
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1501 |
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1502 @deffn Command make-variable-frame-local variable |
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1503 Enable the use of frame-local bindings for @var{variable}. This does |
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1504 not in itself create any frame-local bindings for the variable; however, |
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1505 if some frame already has a value for @var{variable} as a frame |
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1506 parameter, that value automatically becomes a frame-local binding. |
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1507 |
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1508 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error, |
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1509 because such variables cannot have frame-local bindings as well. |
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1510 @xref{Multiple Displays}. A few variables that are implemented |
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1511 specially in Emacs can be (and usually are) buffer-local, but can never |
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1512 be frame-local. |
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1513 @end deffn |
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1514 |
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1515 Buffer-local bindings take precedence over frame-local bindings. Thus, |
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1516 consider a variable @code{foo}: if the current buffer has a buffer-local |
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1517 binding for @code{foo}, that binding is active; otherwise, if the |
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1518 selected frame has a frame-local binding for @code{foo}, that binding is |
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1519 active; otherwise, the default binding of @code{foo} is active. |
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1520 |
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1521 Here is an example. First we prepare a few bindings for @code{foo}: |
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1522 |
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1523 @example |
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1524 (setq f1 (selected-frame)) |
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1525 (make-variable-frame-local 'foo) |
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1526 |
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1527 ;; @r{Make a buffer-local binding for @code{foo} in @samp{b1}.} |
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1528 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1529 (make-local-variable 'foo) |
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1530 (setq foo '(b 1)) |
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1531 |
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1532 ;; @r{Make a frame-local binding for @code{foo} in a new frame.} |
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1533 ;; @r{Store that frame in @code{f2}.} |
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1534 (setq f2 (make-frame)) |
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1535 (modify-frame-parameters f2 '((foo . (f 2)))) |
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1536 @end example |
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1537 |
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1538 Now we examine @code{foo} in various contexts. Whenever the |
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1539 buffer @samp{b1} is current, its buffer-local binding is in effect, |
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1540 regardless of the selected frame: |
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1541 |
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1542 @example |
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1543 (select-frame f1) |
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1544 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1545 foo |
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1546 @result{} (b 1) |
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1547 |
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1548 (select-frame f2) |
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1549 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1550 foo |
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1551 @result{} (b 1) |
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1552 @end example |
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1553 |
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1554 @noindent |
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1555 Otherwise, the frame gets a chance to provide the binding; when frame |
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1556 @code{f2} is selected, its frame-local binding is in effect: |
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1557 |
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1558 @example |
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1559 (select-frame f2) |
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1560 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1561 foo |
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1562 @result{} (f 2) |
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1563 @end example |
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1564 |
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1565 @noindent |
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1566 When neither the current buffer nor the selected frame provides |
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1567 a binding, the default binding is used: |
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1568 |
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1569 @example |
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1570 (select-frame f1) |
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1571 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1572 foo |
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1573 @result{} nil |
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1574 @end example |
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1575 |
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1576 @noindent |
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1577 When the active binding of a variable is a frame-local binding, setting |
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1578 the variable changes that binding. You can observe the result with |
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1579 @code{frame-parameters}: |
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1580 |
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1581 @example |
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1582 (select-frame f2) |
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1583 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1584 (setq foo 'nobody) |
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1585 (assq 'foo (frame-parameters f2)) |
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1586 @result{} (foo . nobody) |
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1587 @end example |
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1588 |
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1589 @node Future Local Variables |
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1590 @section Possible Future Local Variables |
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1591 |
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1592 We have considered the idea of bindings that are local to a category |
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1593 of frames---for example, all color frames, or all frames with dark |
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1594 backgrounds. We have not implemented them because it is not clear that |
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1595 this feature is really useful. You can get more or less the same |
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1596 results by adding a function to @code{after-make-frame-hook}, set up to |
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1597 define a particular frame parameter according to the appropriate |
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1598 conditions for each frame. |
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1599 |
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1600 It would also be possible to implement window-local bindings. We |
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1601 don't know of many situations where they would be useful, and it seems |
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1602 that indirect buffers (@pxref{Indirect Buffers}) with buffer-local |
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1603 bindings offer a way to handle these situations more robustly. |
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1604 |
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1605 If sufficient application is found for either of these two kinds of |
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1606 local bindings, we will provide it in a subsequent Emacs version. |
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1607 |
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1608 |