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annotate lispref/functions.texi @ 67470:98e70ddf4e0e
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author | Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org> |
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date | Sat, 10 Dec 2005 11:30:33 +0000 |
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6455 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, |
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4 @c 2004, 2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6455 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/functions | |
7 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top | |
8 @chapter Functions | |
9 | |
10 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
11 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
12 define them. | |
13 | |
14 @menu | |
15 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
16 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
17 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
18 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
19 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
20 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
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21 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. |
6455 | 22 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition |
23 of a symbol. | |
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24 * Obsolete Functions:: Declaring functions obsolete. |
6455 | 25 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. |
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26 * Function Safety:: Determining whether a function is safe to call. |
6455 | 27 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives |
28 that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
29 @end menu | |
30 | |
31 @node What Is a Function | |
32 @section What Is a Function? | |
33 | |
34 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
35 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
36 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
37 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
38 the contents of data structures. | |
39 | |
40 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
41 function-like objects. | |
42 | |
43 @table @dfn | |
44 @item function | |
45 @cindex function | |
46 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
47 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
48 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
49 macros are not functions. | |
50 | |
51 @item primitive | |
52 @cindex primitive | |
53 @cindex subr | |
54 @cindex built-in function | |
55 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
56 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
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57 @dfn{built-in functions}, or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also |
6455 | 58 considered primitives.) |
59 | |
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60 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is either |
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61 because it is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface |
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62 to operating system services, or because it needs to run fast. |
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63 Primitives can be modified or added only by changing the C sources and |
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64 recompiling the editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. |
6455 | 65 |
66 @item lambda expression | |
67 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
68 These are described in the following section. | |
27193 | 69 @ifnottex |
6455 | 70 @xref{Lambda Expressions}. |
27193 | 71 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 72 |
73 @item special form | |
74 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
75 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
76 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
77 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
78 Structures}. | |
79 | |
80 @item macro | |
81 @cindex macro | |
82 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
83 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
84 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
12098 | 85 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of |
86 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and | |
87 use macros. | |
6455 | 88 |
89 @item command | |
90 @cindex command | |
91 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
92 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
93 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
94 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
95 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
96 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
97 | |
98 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
99 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
100 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
101 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
102 @xref{Command Overview}. | |
103 | |
104 @item keystroke command | |
105 @cindex keystroke command | |
106 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
107 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
108 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
109 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
110 | |
111 @item byte-code function | |
112 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
113 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
114 @end table | |
115 | |
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116 @defun functionp object |
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117 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of |
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118 function, or a special form, or, recursively, a symbol whose function |
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119 definition is a function or special form. (This does not include |
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120 macros.) |
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121 @end defun |
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122 |
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123 Unlike @code{functionp}, the next three functions do @emph{not} |
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124 treat a symbol as its function definition. |
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125 |
6455 | 126 @defun subrp object |
127 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
128 (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
129 | |
130 @example | |
131 @group | |
132 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
133 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
134 @end group | |
135 @group | |
136 (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
137 @result{} t | |
138 @end group | |
139 @end example | |
140 @end defun | |
141 | |
142 @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
143 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
144 function. For example: | |
145 | |
146 @example | |
147 @group | |
148 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
149 @result{} t | |
150 @end group | |
151 @end example | |
152 @end defun | |
153 | |
33999 | 154 @defun subr-arity subr |
155 @tindex subr-arity | |
156 This function provides information about the argument list of a | |
157 primitive, @var{subr}. The returned value is a pair | |
158 @code{(@var{min} . @var{max})}. @var{min} is the minimum number of | |
159 args. @var{max} is the maximum number or the symbol @code{many}, for a | |
160 function with @code{&rest} arguments, or the symbol @code{unevalled} if | |
161 @var{subr} is a special form. | |
162 @end defun | |
163 | |
6455 | 164 @node Lambda Expressions |
165 @section Lambda Expressions | |
166 @cindex lambda expression | |
167 | |
168 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
169 | |
170 @example | |
171 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
172 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
173 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
174 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
175 @end example | |
176 | |
177 @noindent | |
12098 | 178 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it |
179 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some | |
180 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at | |
181 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an | |
182 expression, but to be called as a function. | |
6455 | 183 |
184 @menu | |
185 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
186 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
187 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
188 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
189 @end menu | |
190 | |
191 @node Lambda Components | |
192 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
193 | |
27193 | 194 @ifnottex |
6455 | 195 |
196 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
197 looks like this: | |
198 | |
199 @example | |
200 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
201 [@var{documentation-string}] | |
202 [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
203 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
204 @end example | |
27193 | 205 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 206 |
207 @cindex lambda list | |
208 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
209 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
210 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
211 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
212 functions. | |
213 | |
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214 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names. |
6455 | 215 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, |
216 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
217 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
218 @xref{Local Variables}. | |
219 | |
7193 | 220 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the |
221 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help | |
222 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
6455 | 223 |
224 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
225 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
226 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
227 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
228 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
229 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
230 declaration. | |
231 | |
232 @cindex body of function | |
233 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
234 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
235 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
236 function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
237 | |
238 @node Simple Lambda | |
239 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
240 | |
241 Consider for example the following function: | |
242 | |
243 @example | |
244 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
245 @end example | |
246 | |
247 @noindent | |
248 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
249 expression, like this: | |
250 | |
251 @example | |
252 @group | |
253 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
254 1 2 3) | |
255 @end group | |
256 @end example | |
257 | |
258 @noindent | |
259 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
260 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
261 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
262 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
263 | |
264 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
265 this example: | |
266 | |
267 @example | |
268 @group | |
269 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
270 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
271 @end group | |
272 @end example | |
273 | |
274 @noindent | |
275 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
7193 | 276 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the |
277 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
6455 | 278 |
279 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
280 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
281 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
282 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
283 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
284 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
285 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
286 | |
287 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
288 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
289 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
290 variables. | |
291 | |
292 @node Argument List | |
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293 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists |
6455 | 294 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments |
295 @cindex argument binding | |
296 @cindex binding arguments | |
297 | |
298 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
299 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
300 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
301 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
302 | |
303 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
304 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
305 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
306 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
307 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
7193 | 308 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list} |
6455 | 309 and @code{+} do. |
310 | |
311 @cindex optional arguments | |
312 @cindex rest arguments | |
313 @kindex &optional | |
314 @kindex &rest | |
315 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
316 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
317 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
318 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
319 | |
320 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
321 | |
322 @example | |
323 @group | |
324 (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
325 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
326 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
327 @end group | |
328 @end example | |
329 | |
330 @noindent | |
331 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
332 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
333 | |
334 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
335 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
336 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
337 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
338 be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
339 | |
340 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
7193 | 341 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the |
6455 | 342 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and |
7193 | 343 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to |
344 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value. | |
345 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to | |
346 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied. | |
6455 | 347 |
348 @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
349 @quotation | |
350 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
351 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
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352 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p'' |
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353 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed. |
6455 | 354 @end quotation |
355 | |
356 For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
357 | |
358 @example | |
359 (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
360 @end example | |
361 | |
362 @noindent | |
363 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
364 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
365 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
366 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
367 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
368 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
369 is @code{nil}. | |
370 | |
371 There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
372 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
373 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
39168 | 374 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the |
375 third argument be for? Would it be used for the @var{c}, or for | |
376 @var{d}? One can argue for both possibilities. Similarly, it makes | |
377 no sense to have any more arguments (either required or optional) | |
378 after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
6455 | 379 |
380 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
381 | |
382 @smallexample | |
383 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
384 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
385 @result{} 2 | |
386 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
387 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
388 1 2) | |
389 @result{} 3 | |
390 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
391 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
392 1 2 3 4 5) | |
393 @result{} 15 | |
394 @end smallexample | |
395 | |
396 @node Function Documentation | |
397 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
398 @cindex documentation of function | |
399 | |
400 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
401 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
402 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
403 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
404 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
405 accessed. | |
406 | |
12098 | 407 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the |
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408 functions in your program, even those that are called only from within |
12098 | 409 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they |
410 are easier to access. | |
6455 | 411 |
412 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
413 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
414 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
415 | |
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416 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the |
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417 source file, but since these spaces come before the starting |
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418 double-quote, they are not part of the string. Some people make a |
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419 practice of indenting any additional lines of the string so that the |
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420 text lines up in the program source. @emph{That is a mistake.} The |
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421 indentation of the following lines is inside the string; what looks |
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422 nice in the source code will look ugly when displayed by the help |
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423 commands. |
6455 | 424 |
425 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
426 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
427 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
428 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
429 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
430 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
431 as the return value and as the documentation. | |
432 | |
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433 The last line of the documentation string can specify calling |
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434 conventions different from the actual function arguments. Write |
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435 text like this: |
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436 |
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437 @example |
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438 \(fn @var{arglist}) |
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439 @end example |
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440 |
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441 @noindent |
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442 following a blank line, at the beginning of the line, with no newline |
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443 following it inside the documentation string. (The @samp{\} is used |
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444 to avoid confusing the Emacs motion commands.) The calling convention |
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445 specified in this way appears in help messages in place of the one |
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446 derived from the actual arguments of the function. |
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447 |
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448 This feature is particularly useful for macro definitions, since the |
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449 arguments written in a macro definition often do not correspond to the |
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450 way users think of the parts of the macro call. |
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451 |
6455 | 452 @node Function Names |
453 @section Naming a Function | |
454 @cindex function definition | |
455 @cindex named function | |
456 @cindex function name | |
457 | |
458 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
459 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
460 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
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461 @code{lambda}, a byte-code function object, or a primitive subr-object. |
6455 | 462 |
463 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
464 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
465 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
466 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
467 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
468 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
469 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
470 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
471 | |
472 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
473 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
474 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
475 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
476 | |
477 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
478 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
479 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
480 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
481 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
482 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
483 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
484 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
485 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
486 practice). | |
487 | |
488 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
489 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not | |
490 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
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491 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, the |
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492 distinction is not important. |
6455 | 493 |
494 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
495 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
496 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
497 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
498 equally well a name for the same function. | |
499 | |
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500 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; these |
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501 two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. (Some Lisp |
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502 dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a symbol's value |
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503 and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable is also its |
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504 function definition.) If you have not given a symbol a function |
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505 definition, you cannot use it as a function; whether the symbol has a |
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506 value as a variable makes no difference to this. |
6455 | 507 |
508 @node Defining Functions | |
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509 @section Defining Functions |
6455 | 510 @cindex defining a function |
511 | |
512 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
513 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
514 @code{defun} special form. | |
515 | |
516 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
517 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
518 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
519 | |
520 @example | |
521 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
522 @end example | |
523 | |
524 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
525 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
526 value. | |
527 | |
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528 As described previously, @var{argument-list} is a list of argument |
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529 names and may include the keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} |
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530 (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}). Also, the first two of the |
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531 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive |
6455 | 532 declaration. |
533 | |
534 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
535 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
536 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
537 | |
538 Here are some examples: | |
539 | |
540 @example | |
541 @group | |
542 (defun foo () 5) | |
543 @result{} foo | |
544 @end group | |
545 @group | |
546 (foo) | |
547 @result{} 5 | |
548 @end group | |
549 | |
550 @group | |
551 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
552 (list a b c)) | |
553 @result{} bar | |
554 @end group | |
555 @group | |
556 (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
557 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
558 @end group | |
559 @group | |
560 (bar 1) | |
561 @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
562 @end group | |
563 @group | |
564 (bar) | |
565 @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
566 @end group | |
567 | |
568 @group | |
569 (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
570 "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
571 (interactive) | |
572 (backward-word 1) | |
573 (forward-word 1) | |
574 (backward-char 1) | |
575 (capitalize-word 1)) | |
576 @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
577 @end group | |
578 @end example | |
579 | |
580 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
581 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
582 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
583 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
584 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
585 @end defspec | |
586 | |
56215 | 587 @defun defalias name definition &optional docstring |
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588 @anchor{Definition of defalias} |
6455 | 589 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with |
7193 | 590 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function). |
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591 It returns @var{definition}. |
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592 |
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593 If @var{docstring} is non-@code{nil}, it becomes the function |
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594 documentation of @var{name}. Otherwise, any documentation provided by |
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595 @var{definition} is used. |
12098 | 596 |
597 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function | |
598 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in | |
599 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records | |
600 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun} | |
601 (@pxref{Unloading}). | |
602 | |
603 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other | |
604 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such | |
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605 records. @xref{Function Cells}. |
6455 | 606 @end defun |
607 | |
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608 You cannot create a new primitive function with @code{defun} or |
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609 @code{defalias}, but you can use them to change the function definition of |
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610 any symbol, even one such as @code{car} or @code{x-popup-menu} whose |
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611 normal definition is a primitive. However, this is risky: for |
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612 instance, it is next to impossible to redefine @code{car} without |
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613 breaking Lisp completely. Redefining an obscure function such as |
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614 @code{x-popup-menu} is less dangerous, but it still may not work as |
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615 you expect. If there are calls to the primitive from C code, they |
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616 call the primitive's C definition directly, so changing the symbol's |
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617 definition will have no effect on them. |
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618 |
12098 | 619 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun} |
620 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}. | |
621 | |
6455 | 622 @node Calling Functions |
623 @section Calling Functions | |
624 @cindex function invocation | |
625 @cindex calling a function | |
626 | |
627 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
628 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
629 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
630 | |
7193 | 631 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. |
632 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the | |
633 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}. | |
634 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
6455 | 635 |
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636 When you write a list as an expression in your program, you specify |
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637 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, in the text |
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638 of the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you |
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639 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use |
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640 the function @code{funcall}. When you also need to determine at run |
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641 time how many arguments to pass, use @code{apply}. |
6455 | 642 |
643 @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
644 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
645 whatever @var{function} returns. | |
646 | |
647 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
648 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
649 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
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650 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the |
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651 expressions you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. |
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652 These values are @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of |
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653 calling @var{function}; the operation of @code{funcall} is like the |
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654 normal procedure for calling a function, once its arguments have |
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655 already been evaluated. |
6455 | 656 |
657 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
658 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
659 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
660 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
661 above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
662 | |
663 @example | |
664 @group | |
665 (setq f 'list) | |
666 @result{} list | |
667 @end group | |
668 @group | |
669 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
670 @result{} (x y z) | |
671 @end group | |
672 @group | |
673 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
674 @result{} (x y (z)) | |
675 @end group | |
676 @group | |
677 (funcall 'and t nil) | |
678 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
679 @end group | |
680 @end example | |
681 | |
26192 | 682 Compare these examples with the examples of @code{apply}. |
6455 | 683 @end defun |
684 | |
685 @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
686 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
687 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
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688 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate |
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689 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply} |
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690 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an |
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691 argument. |
6455 | 692 |
693 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
694 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
695 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
696 @code{apply}. | |
697 | |
698 @example | |
699 @group | |
700 (setq f 'list) | |
701 @result{} list | |
702 @end group | |
703 @group | |
704 (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
705 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
706 @end group | |
707 @group | |
708 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
709 @result{} 10 | |
710 @end group | |
711 @group | |
712 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
713 @result{} 10 | |
714 @end group | |
715 | |
716 @group | |
717 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
718 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
719 @end group | |
720 @end example | |
721 | |
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722 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see @ref{Definition |
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723 of mapcar}. |
6455 | 724 @end defun |
725 | |
726 @cindex functionals | |
727 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
728 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
729 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
730 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
731 | |
12098 | 732 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op |
733 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
6455 | 734 function: |
735 | |
736 @defun identity arg | |
737 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
738 @end defun | |
739 | |
740 @defun ignore &rest args | |
741 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
742 @end defun | |
743 | |
744 @node Mapping Functions | |
745 @section Mapping Functions | |
746 @cindex mapping functions | |
747 | |
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748 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function (@emph{not} a |
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749 special form or macro) to each element of a list or other collection. |
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750 Emacs Lisp has several such functions; @code{mapcar} and |
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751 @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described here. |
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752 @xref{Definition of mapatoms}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which |
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753 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Definition of maphash}, |
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754 for the function @code{maphash} which maps over key/value associations |
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755 in a hash table. |
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756 |
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757 These mapping functions do not allow char-tables because a char-table |
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758 is a sparse array whose nominal range of indices is very large. To map |
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759 over a char-table in a way that deals properly with its sparse nature, |
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760 use the function @code{map-char-table} (@pxref{Char-Tables}). |
6455 | 761 |
56215 | 762 @defun mapcar function sequence |
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763 @anchor{Definition of mapcar} |
7193 | 764 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} |
765 in turn, and returns a list of the results. | |
6455 | 766 |
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767 The argument @var{sequence} can be any kind of sequence except a |
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768 char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a bool-vector, or a string. The |
6455 | 769 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the |
770 length of @var{sequence}. | |
771 | |
772 @smallexample | |
773 @group | |
774 @exdent @r{For example:} | |
775 | |
776 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
777 @result{} (a c e) | |
778 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
779 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
780 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc") | |
781 @result{} ("a" "b" "c") | |
782 @end group | |
783 | |
784 @group | |
785 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
786 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
787 @end group | |
788 | |
789 @group | |
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790 (defun mapcar* (function &rest args) |
6455 | 791 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. |
792 Return the list of results." | |
793 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
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794 (if (not (memq nil args)) |
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795 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{car}s.} |
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796 (cons (apply function (mapcar 'car args)) |
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797 (apply 'mapcar* function |
6455 | 798 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} |
799 (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
800 @end group | |
801 | |
802 @group | |
803 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
804 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
805 @end group | |
806 @end smallexample | |
807 @end defun | |
808 | |
28556 | 809 @defun mapc function sequence |
810 @tindex mapc | |
811 @code{mapc} is like @code{mapcar} except that @var{function} is used for | |
812 side-effects only---the values it returns are ignored, not collected | |
813 into a list. @code{mapc} always returns @var{sequence}. | |
814 @end defun | |
815 | |
6455 | 816 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator |
817 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
818 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
819 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
820 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
821 other suitable punctuation. | |
822 | |
823 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
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824 argument and return a string. The argument @var{sequence} can be any |
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825 kind of sequence except a char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a |
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826 bool-vector, or a string. |
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827 |
6455 | 828 @smallexample |
829 @group | |
830 (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
831 '(The cat in the hat) | |
832 " ") | |
833 @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
834 @end group | |
835 | |
836 @group | |
837 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
838 "HAL-8000" | |
839 "") | |
840 @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
841 @end group | |
842 @end smallexample | |
843 @end defun | |
844 | |
845 @node Anonymous Functions | |
846 @section Anonymous Functions | |
847 @cindex anonymous function | |
848 | |
849 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
850 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
851 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions | |
852 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is | |
853 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an | |
854 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. | |
855 | |
856 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
857 | |
858 @smallexample | |
859 @group | |
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860 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) |
6455 | 861 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) |
862 @end group | |
863 @end smallexample | |
864 | |
865 @noindent | |
866 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
867 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
868 @code{silly}. | |
869 | |
870 Here is how we might call this function: | |
871 | |
872 @example | |
873 @group | |
874 (funcall silly 1) | |
875 @result{} 13 | |
876 @end group | |
877 @end example | |
878 | |
879 @noindent | |
880 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function | |
881 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given | |
882 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.) | |
883 | |
884 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
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885 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to |
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886 the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each |
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887 element of a list. |
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888 |
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889 Here we define a function @code{change-property} which |
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890 uses a function as its third argument: |
6455 | 891 |
892 @example | |
893 @group | |
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894 (defun change-property (symbol prop function) |
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895 (let ((value (get symbol prop))) |
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896 (put symbol prop (funcall function value)))) |
6455 | 897 @end group |
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898 @end example |
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899 |
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900 @noindent |
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901 Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property}, |
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902 passing it a function to double a number: |
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903 |
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904 @example |
6455 | 905 @group |
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906 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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907 (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) |
6455 | 908 @end group |
909 @end example | |
910 | |
911 @noindent | |
912 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead | |
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913 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this: |
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914 |
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915 @example |
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916 @group |
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917 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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918 (change-property symbol prop |
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919 (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))))) |
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920 @end group |
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921 @end example |
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922 |
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923 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you |
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924 compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you |
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925 compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous |
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926 function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first |
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927 definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to |
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928 @code{change-property} is the precise list shown: |
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929 |
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930 @example |
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931 (lambda (x) (* x 2)) |
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932 @end example |
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933 |
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934 @noindent |
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935 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it |
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936 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will |
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937 do with the list. Perhaps it will check whether the @sc{car} of the third |
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938 element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the |
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939 compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function. |
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940 |
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941 Nowadays it is possible to omit @code{function} entirely, like this: |
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942 |
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943 @example |
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944 @group |
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945 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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946 (change-property symbol prop (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) |
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947 @end group |
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948 @end example |
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949 |
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950 @noindent |
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951 This is because @code{lambda} itself implies @code{function}. |
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952 |
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953 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when |
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954 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of |
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955 comment: |
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956 |
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957 @example |
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958 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} |
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959 @end example |
6455 | 960 |
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961 @cindex @samp{#'} syntax |
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962 The read syntax @code{#'} is a short-hand for using @code{function}. |
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963 For example, |
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964 |
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965 @example |
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966 #'(lambda (x) (* x x)) |
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967 @end example |
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968 |
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969 @noindent |
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970 is equivalent to |
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971 |
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972 @example |
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973 (function (lambda (x) (* x x))) |
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974 @end example |
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975 |
6455 | 976 @defspec function function-object |
977 @cindex function quoting | |
978 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
979 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
980 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
981 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
982 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
983 @end defspec | |
984 | |
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985 @xref{describe-symbols example}, for a realistic example using |
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986 @code{function} and an anonymous function. |
6455 | 987 |
988 @node Function Cells | |
989 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
990 | |
991 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
992 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
993 and set the function cell of symbols. | |
994 | |
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995 See also the function @code{indirect-function}. @xref{Definition of |
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996 indirect-function}. |
7193 | 997 |
6455 | 998 @defun symbol-function symbol |
999 @kindex void-function | |
1000 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
1001 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
1002 signaled. | |
1003 | |
1004 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
1005 function. | |
1006 | |
1007 @example | |
1008 @group | |
1009 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
1010 @result{} bar | |
1011 @end group | |
1012 @group | |
1013 (symbol-function 'bar) | |
1014 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
1015 @end group | |
1016 @group | |
1017 (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
1018 @result{} bar | |
1019 @end group | |
1020 @group | |
1021 (symbol-function 'baz) | |
1022 @result{} bar | |
1023 @end group | |
1024 @end example | |
1025 @end defun | |
1026 | |
1027 @cindex void function cell | |
1028 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
1029 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
1030 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
1031 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
1032 | |
1033 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
1034 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
1035 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
1036 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
7193 | 1037 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever. |
6455 | 1038 |
1039 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
1040 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
1041 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
1042 | |
1043 @defun fboundp symbol | |
1044 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
1045 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
1046 is a legitimate function. | |
1047 @end defun | |
1048 | |
1049 @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
1050 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
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1051 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a |
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1052 @code{void-function} error. It returns @var{symbol}. (See also |
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1053 @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Void Variables}.) |
6455 | 1054 |
1055 @example | |
1056 @group | |
1057 (defun foo (x) x) | |
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1058 @result{} foo |
6455 | 1059 @end group |
1060 @group | |
7193 | 1061 (foo 1) |
1062 @result{}1 | |
1063 @end group | |
1064 @group | |
6455 | 1065 (fmakunbound 'foo) |
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1066 @result{} foo |
6455 | 1067 @end group |
1068 @group | |
1069 (foo 1) | |
1070 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
1071 @end group | |
1072 @end example | |
1073 @end defun | |
1074 | |
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1075 @defun fset symbol definition |
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1076 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of |
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1077 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally |
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1078 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but |
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1079 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated |
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1080 argument. |
6455 | 1081 |
1082 There are three normal uses of this function: | |
1083 | |
1084 @itemize @bullet | |
1085 @item | |
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1086 Copying one symbol's function definition to another---in other words, |
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1087 making an alternate name for a function. (If you think of this as the |
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1088 definition of the new name, you should use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1089 @code{fset}; see @ref{Definition of defalias}.) |
6455 | 1090 |
1091 @item | |
1092 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
7193 | 1093 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset} |
1094 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol | |
1095 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition | |
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1096 @code{s2} presently has. (Once again use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1097 @code{fset} if you think of this as the definition of @code{s1}.) |
6455 | 1098 |
1099 @item | |
1100 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
1101 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
1102 @code{fset}. | |
1103 @end itemize | |
1104 | |
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1105 Here are examples of these uses: |
6455 | 1106 |
1107 @example | |
1108 @group | |
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1109 ;; @r{Save @code{foo}'s definition in @code{old-foo}.} |
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1110 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) |
6455 | 1111 @end group |
1112 | |
1113 @group | |
1114 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
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1115 ;; @r{(Most likely, @code{defalias} would be better than @code{fset} here.)} |
6455 | 1116 (fset 'xfirst 'car) |
1117 @result{} car | |
1118 @end group | |
1119 @group | |
1120 (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
1121 @result{} 1 | |
1122 @end group | |
1123 @group | |
1124 (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
1125 @result{} car | |
1126 @end group | |
1127 @group | |
1128 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
1129 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1130 @end group | |
1131 | |
1132 @group | |
1133 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
1134 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
1135 @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
1136 @end group | |
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1137 |
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1138 @group |
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1139 ;; @r{Here is a function that alters other functions.} |
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1140 (defun copy-function-definition (new old) |
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1141 "Define NEW with the same function definition as OLD." |
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1142 (fset new (symbol-function old))) |
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1143 @end group |
6455 | 1144 @end example |
1145 @end defun | |
1146 | |
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1147 @code{fset} is sometimes used to save the old definition of a |
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1148 function before redefining it. That permits the new definition to |
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1149 invoke the old definition. But it is unmodular and unclean for a Lisp |
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1150 file to redefine a function defined elsewhere. If you want to modify |
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1151 a function defined by another package, it is cleaner to use |
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1152 @code{defadvice} (@pxref{Advising Functions}). |
12098 | 1153 |
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1154 @node Obsolete Functions |
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1155 @section Declaring Functions Obsolete |
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1156 |
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1157 You can use @code{make-obsolete} to declare a function obsolete. This |
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1158 indicates that the function may be removed at some stage in the future. |
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1159 |
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1160 @defun make-obsolete obsolete-name current-name &optional when |
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1161 This function makes the byte compiler warn that the function |
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1162 @var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, the |
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1163 warning message says to use @var{current-name} instead of |
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1164 @var{obsolete-name}. @var{current-name} does not need to be an alias for |
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1165 @var{obsolete-name}; it can be a different function with similar |
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1166 functionality. If @var{current-name} is a string, it is the warning |
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1167 message. |
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1168 |
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1169 If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the function |
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1170 was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release number. |
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1171 @end defun |
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1172 |
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1173 You can define a function as an alias and declare it obsolete at the |
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1174 same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-function-alias}. |
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1175 |
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1176 @defmac define-obsolete-function-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring |
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1177 This macro marks the function @var{obsolete-name} obsolete and also |
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1178 defines it as an alias for the function @var{current-name}. It is |
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1179 equivalent to the following: |
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1180 |
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1181 @example |
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1182 (defalias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring}) |
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1183 (make-obsolete @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when}) |
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1184 @end example |
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1185 @end defmac |
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1186 |
6455 | 1187 @node Inline Functions |
1188 @section Inline Functions | |
1189 @cindex inline functions | |
1190 | |
1191 @findex defsubst | |
1192 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1193 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1194 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1195 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1196 | |
1197 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1198 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change | |
1199 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old | |
1200 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of | |
1201 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not | |
1202 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial. | |
1203 | |
1204 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1205 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1206 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1207 generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1208 | |
1209 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
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1210 inline function would execute. (@xref{Macros}.) But the macro would be |
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1211 limited to direct use in expressions---a macro cannot be called with |
6455 | 1212 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to |
21682
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1213 convert an ordinary function into a macro. To convert it into an inline |
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1214 function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} with @code{defsubst}. |
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1215 Since each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you |
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1216 needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you |
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1217 do for macros. (@xref{Argument Evaluation}.) |
6455 | 1218 |
7193 | 1219 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file, |
6455 | 1220 following the definition, just like macros. |
1221 | |
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1222 @node Function Safety |
62096
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1223 @section Determining whether a Function is Safe to Call |
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1224 @cindex function safety |
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1225 @cindex safety of functions |
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1226 |
52924
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1227 Some major modes such as SES call functions that are stored in user |
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1228 files. (@inforef{Top, ,ses}, for more information on SES.) User |
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|
1229 files sometimes have poor pedigrees---you can get a spreadsheet from |
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1230 someone you've just met, or you can get one through email from someone |
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1231 you've never met. So it is risky to call a function whose source code |
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1232 is stored in a user file until you have determined that it is safe. |
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1233 |
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1234 @defun unsafep form &optional unsafep-vars |
52759 | 1235 Returns @code{nil} if @var{form} is a @dfn{safe} Lisp expression, or |
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1236 returns a list that describes why it might be unsafe. The argument |
47667
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1237 @var{unsafep-vars} is a list of symbols known to have temporary |
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1238 bindings at this point; it is mainly used for internal recursive |
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1239 calls. The current buffer is an implicit argument, which provides a |
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1240 list of buffer-local bindings. |
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1241 @end defun |
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1242 |
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1243 Being quick and simple, @code{unsafep} does a very light analysis and |
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1244 rejects many Lisp expressions that are actually safe. There are no |
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1245 known cases where @code{unsafep} returns @code{nil} for an unsafe |
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1246 expression. However, a ``safe'' Lisp expression can return a string |
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1247 with a @code{display} property, containing an associated Lisp |
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1248 expression to be executed after the string is inserted into a buffer. |
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1249 This associated expression can be a virus. In order to be safe, you |
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1250 must delete properties from all strings calculated by user code before |
47667
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1251 inserting them into buffers. |
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|
1252 |
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1253 @ignore |
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1254 What is a safe Lisp expression? Basically, it's an expression that |
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1255 calls only built-in functions with no side effects (or only innocuous |
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1256 ones). Innocuous side effects include displaying messages and |
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1257 altering non-risky buffer-local variables (but not global variables). |
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1258 |
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1259 @table @dfn |
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1260 @item Safe expression |
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1261 @itemize |
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1262 @item |
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1263 An atom or quoted thing. |
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1264 @item |
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1265 A call to a safe function (see below), if all its arguments are |
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1266 safe expressions. |
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1267 @item |
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1268 One of the special forms @code{and}, @code{catch}, @code{cond}, |
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1269 @code{if}, @code{or}, @code{prog1}, @code{prog2}, @code{progn}, |
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1270 @code{while}, and @code{unwind-protect}], if all its arguments are |
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|
1271 safe. |
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1272 @item |
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1273 A form that creates temporary bindings (@code{condition-case}, |
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1274 @code{dolist}, @code{dotimes}, @code{lambda}, @code{let}, or |
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|
1275 @code{let*}), if all args are safe and the symbols to be bound are not |
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|
1276 explicitly risky (see @pxref{File Local Variables}). |
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1277 @item |
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1278 An assignment using @code{add-to-list}, @code{setq}, @code{push}, or |
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|
1279 @code{pop}, if all args are safe and the symbols to be assigned are |
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|
1280 not explicitly risky and they already have temporary or buffer-local |
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|
1281 bindings. |
47667
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1282 @item |
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1283 One of [apply, mapc, mapcar, mapconcat] if the first argument is a |
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1284 safe explicit lambda and the other args are safe expressions. |
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1285 @end itemize |
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1286 |
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1287 @item Safe function |
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1288 @itemize |
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1289 @item |
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1290 A lambda containing safe expressions. |
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1291 @item |
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1292 A symbol on the list @code{safe-functions}, so the user says it's safe. |
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1293 @item |
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1294 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{side-effect-free} property. |
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1295 @item |
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1296 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-function} property. Value t |
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1297 indicates a function that is safe but has innocuous side effects. |
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1298 Other values will someday indicate functions with classes of side |
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1299 effects that are not always safe. |
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1300 @end itemize |
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1301 |
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1302 The @code{side-effect-free} and @code{safe-function} properties are |
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1303 provided for built-in functions and for low-level functions and macros |
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1304 defined in @file{subr.el}. You can assign these properties for the |
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1305 functions you write. |
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1306 @end table |
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1307 @end ignore |
6455 | 1308 |
1309 @node Related Topics | |
1310 @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1311 | |
1312 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1313 function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1314 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1315 | |
1316 @table @code | |
1317 @item apply | |
1318 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1319 | |
1320 @item autoload | |
1321 See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1322 | |
1323 @item call-interactively | |
1324 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1325 | |
1326 @item commandp | |
1327 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1328 | |
1329 @item documentation | |
1330 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1331 | |
1332 @item eval | |
1333 See @ref{Eval}. | |
1334 | |
1335 @item funcall | |
1336 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1337 | |
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1338 @item function |
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1339 See @ref{Anonymous Functions}. |
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1340 |
6455 | 1341 @item ignore |
1342 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1343 | |
1344 @item indirect-function | |
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1345 See @ref{Function Indirection}. |
6455 | 1346 |
1347 @item interactive | |
1348 See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1349 | |
1350 @item interactive-p | |
1351 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1352 | |
1353 @item mapatoms | |
1354 See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1355 | |
1356 @item mapcar | |
1357 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1358 | |
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1359 @item map-char-table |
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1360 See @ref{Char-Tables}. |
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1361 |
6455 | 1362 @item mapconcat |
1363 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1364 | |
1365 @item undefined | |
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1366 See @ref{Functions for Key Lookup}. |
6455 | 1367 @end table |
1368 | |
52401 | 1369 @ignore |
1370 arch-tag: 39100cdf-8a55-4898-acba-595db619e8e2 | |
1371 @end ignore |