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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Thu, 23 Feb 1995 09:07:36 +0000 |
parents | dcb43c6d4c42 |
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6447 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/objects | |
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6 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
6447 | 7 @chapter Lisp Data Types |
8 @cindex object | |
9 @cindex Lisp object | |
10 @cindex type | |
11 @cindex data type | |
12 | |
13 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
14 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
15 possible objects. | |
16 | |
17 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
18 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
19 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
20 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
21 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
22 | |
23 @cindex primitive type | |
24 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
25 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive | |
26 types}. Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These | |
27 types include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
28 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{subr}, @dfn{byte-code function}, and | |
29 several special types, such as @dfn{buffer}, that are related to | |
30 editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
31 | |
32 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
33 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
34 | |
35 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are | |
36 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the | |
37 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat | |
38 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. | |
39 | |
40 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
41 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
42 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
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43 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value |
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44 you store in it, type and all. |
6447 | 45 |
46 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
47 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
48 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
49 | |
50 @menu | |
51 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
52 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
53 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
54 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
55 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. | |
56 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
57 @end menu | |
58 | |
59 @node Printed Representation | |
60 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
61 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
62 @cindex printed representation | |
63 @cindex read syntax | |
64 | |
65 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
66 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
67 that object. The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the | |
68 input accepted by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that | |
69 object. Most objects have more than one possible read syntax. Some | |
70 types of object have no read syntax; except for these cases, the printed | |
71 representation of an object is also a read syntax for it. | |
72 | |
73 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
74 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
75 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
76 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
77 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
78 | |
79 @cindex hash notation | |
80 Every type has a printed representation. Some types have no read | |
81 syntax, since it may not make sense to enter objects of these types | |
82 directly in a Lisp program. For example, the buffer type does not have | |
83 a read syntax. Objects of these types are printed in @dfn{hash | |
84 notation}: the characters @samp{#<} followed by a descriptive string | |
85 (typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and closed | |
86 with a matching @samp{>}. Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the | |
87 Lisp reader signals the error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it | |
88 encounters @samp{#<}. | |
89 @kindex invalid-read-syntax | |
90 | |
91 @example | |
92 (current-buffer) | |
93 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
94 @end example | |
95 | |
96 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
97 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
98 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
99 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
100 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
101 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
102 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
103 | |
104 @node Comments | |
105 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
106 @section Comments | |
107 @cindex comments | |
108 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
109 | |
110 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
111 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
112 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
113 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
114 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
115 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
116 system. | |
117 | |
118 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. | |
119 | |
120 @node Programming Types | |
121 @section Programming Types | |
122 @cindex programming types | |
123 | |
124 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
125 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
126 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
127 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
128 | |
129 @menu | |
130 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
131 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
132 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
133 control characters. | |
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134 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, |
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135 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. |
6447 | 136 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. |
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137 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). |
6447 | 138 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. |
139 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
140 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
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141 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. |
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142 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another |
6447 | 143 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. |
144 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
145 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
146 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
147 functions. | |
148 @end menu | |
149 | |
150 @node Integer Type | |
151 @subsection Integer Type | |
152 | |
10559 | 153 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}134217728 to |
154 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., | |
6447 | 155 @ifinfo |
10559 | 156 -2**27 |
6447 | 157 @end ifinfo |
158 @tex | |
10559 | 159 $-2^{27}$ |
6447 | 160 @end tex |
161 to | |
162 @ifinfo | |
10559 | 163 2**27 - 1) |
6447 | 164 @end ifinfo |
165 @tex | |
10559 | 166 $2^{28}-1$) |
6447 | 167 @end tex |
10559 | 168 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is |
169 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
170 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} is @minus{}134217728 on most | |
171 machines. | |
6447 | 172 |
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173 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an |
6447 | 174 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The |
175 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
176 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
177 | |
178 @example | |
179 @group | |
180 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
181 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
182 1. ; @r{Also The integer 1.} | |
183 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
10559 | 184 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1!} |
185 ; @r{ (on a 28-bit implementation)} | |
6447 | 186 @end group |
187 @end example | |
188 | |
189 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
190 | |
191 @node Floating Point Type | |
192 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
193 | |
194 Emacs version 19 supports floating point numbers (though there is a | |
195 compilation option to disable them). The precise range of floating | |
196 point numbers is machine-specific. | |
197 | |
198 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
199 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
200 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
201 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
202 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
203 | |
204 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
205 | |
206 @node Character Type | |
207 @subsection Character Type | |
208 @cindex @sc{ASCII} character codes | |
209 | |
210 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
211 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
212 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
213 | |
214 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more | |
215 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of | |
216 characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
217 | |
218 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to the | |
219 range of 0 to 255---eight bits. If you store a larger integer into a | |
220 string, buffer or file, it is truncated to that range. Characters that | |
221 represent keyboard input have a much wider range. | |
222 | |
223 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
224 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
225 @cindex syntax for characters | |
226 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a | |
227 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for | |
228 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very | |
229 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats | |
230 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start | |
231 with a question mark. | |
232 | |
233 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
234 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
235 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
236 character @kbd{a}. | |
237 | |
238 For example: | |
239 | |
240 @example | |
241 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
242 @end example | |
243 | |
244 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
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245 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for |
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246 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\ } is the |
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247 way to write the space character. If the character is @samp{\}, you |
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248 @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. |
6447 | 249 |
250 @cindex whitespace | |
251 @cindex bell character | |
252 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
253 @cindex backspace | |
254 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
255 @cindex tab | |
256 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
257 @cindex vertical tab | |
258 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
259 @cindex formfeed | |
260 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
261 @cindex newline | |
262 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
263 @cindex return | |
264 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
265 @cindex escape | |
266 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
267 You can express the characters Control-g, backspace, tab, newline, | |
268 vertical tab, formfeed, return, and escape as @samp{?\a}, @samp{?\b}, | |
269 @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\e}, | |
270 respectively. Those values are 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 27 in | |
271 decimal. Thus, | |
272 | |
273 @example | |
274 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{@kbd{C-g}} | |
275 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} | |
276 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
277 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @key{LFD}, @kbd{C-j}} | |
278 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} | |
279 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
280 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
281 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
282 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} | |
283 @end example | |
284 | |
285 @cindex escape sequence | |
286 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
287 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an escape | |
288 character; this usage has nothing to do with the character @key{ESC}. | |
289 | |
290 @cindex control characters | |
291 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
292 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
293 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
294 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
295 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
296 | |
297 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
298 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
299 | |
300 @example | |
301 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
302 @end example | |
303 | |
304 For use in strings and buffers, you are limited to the control | |
305 characters that exist in @sc{ASCII}, but for keyboard input purposes, | |
306 you can turn any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The | |
307 character codes for these non-@sc{ASCII} control characters include the | |
308 2**22 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control | |
309 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ASCII} | |
310 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using an | |
311 X terminal. | |
312 | |
313 You can think of the @key{DEL} character as @kbd{Control-?}: | |
314 | |
315 @example | |
316 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
317 @end example | |
318 | |
319 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, | |
320 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
321 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. This does not affect the meaning | |
322 of the program, but may guide the understanding of people who read it. | |
323 | |
324 @cindex meta characters | |
325 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
326 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
327 2**23 bit set (which on most machines makes it a negative number). We | |
328 use high bits for this and other modifiers to make possible a wide range | |
329 of basic character codes. | |
330 | |
331 In a string, the 2**7 bit indicates a meta character, so the meta | |
332 characters that can fit in a string have codes in the range from 128 to | |
333 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ASCII} characters. | |
334 (In Emacs versions 18 and older, this convention was used for characters | |
335 outside of strings as well.) | |
336 | |
337 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
338 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
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339 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other |
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340 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, |
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341 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as |
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342 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. |
6447 | 343 |
344 The case of an ordinary letter is indicated by its character code as | |
345 part of @sc{ASCII}, but @sc{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a | |
346 control character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the 2**21 bit | |
347 to indicate that the shift key was used for typing a control character. | |
348 This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals or other | |
349 special terminals; ordinary terminals do not indicate the distinction to | |
350 the computer in any way. | |
351 | |
352 @cindex hyper characters | |
353 @cindex super characters | |
354 @cindex alt characters | |
355 The X Window System defines three other modifier bits that can be set | |
356 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes | |
357 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. Thus, | |
358 @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. Numerically, the | |
359 bit values are 2**18 for alt, 2**19 for super and 2**20 for hyper. | |
360 | |
361 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant | |
362 @cindex question mark in character constant | |
363 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
364 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
365 @cindex octal character code | |
366 Finally, the most general read syntax consists of a question mark | |
367 followed by a backslash and the character code in octal (up to three | |
368 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, | |
369 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
370 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ASCII} | |
371 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more | |
372 important than the @sc{ASCII} representation. | |
373 | |
374 @example | |
375 @group | |
376 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
377 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
378 @end group | |
379 @end example | |
380 | |
381 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without | |
382 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
383 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
384 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
385 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
386 Lisp code. Also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as | |
387 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of | |
388 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t}, instead of an | |
389 actual whitespace character such as a tab. | |
390 | |
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391 @node Symbol Type |
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392 @subsection Symbol Type |
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393 |
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394 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The symbol |
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395 name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In ordinary |
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396 use, the name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
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397 |
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398 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a |
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399 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp |
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400 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized |
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401 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is |
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402 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, |
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403 independently. |
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404 |
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405 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols |
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406 @cindex backslash in symbols |
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407 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names |
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408 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters |
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409 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters |
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410 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. |
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411 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force |
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412 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}} are |
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413 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other |
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414 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a |
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415 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in |
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416 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the |
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417 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab |
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418 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the |
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419 letter @kbd{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you |
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420 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to |
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421 do such a thing. |
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422 |
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423 @cindex CL note---case of letters |
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424 @quotation |
7734 | 425 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always |
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426 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. This is |
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427 in contrast to Emacs Lisp, in which upper case and lower case letters |
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428 are distinct. |
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429 @end quotation |
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430 |
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431 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in |
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432 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. |
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433 This is not necessary in the last example because the rest of the name |
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434 makes it invalid as a number. |
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435 |
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436 @example |
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437 @group |
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438 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} |
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439 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} |
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440 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} |
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441 @end group |
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442 @group |
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443 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} |
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444 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} |
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445 @end group |
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446 @group |
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447 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} |
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448 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} |
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449 @end group |
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450 @group |
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451 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} |
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452 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the |
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453 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. |
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454 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} |
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455 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} |
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456 @end group |
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457 @end example |
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458 |
6447 | 459 @node Sequence Type |
460 @subsection Sequence Types | |
461 | |
462 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
463 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
464 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
465 considered a sequence. | |
466 | |
467 Arrays are further subdivided into strings and vectors. Vectors can | |
468 hold elements of any type, but string elements must be characters in the | |
469 range from 0 to 255. However, the characters in a string can have text | |
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470 properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}); |
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471 vectors do not support text properties even when their elements happen |
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472 to be characters. |
6447 | 473 |
474 Lists, strings and vectors are different, but they have important | |
475 similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all have | |
476 elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. Also, | |
477 several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of | |
478 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract | |
479 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
480 Vectors}. | |
481 | |
482 It is impossible to read the same sequence twice, since sequences are | |
483 always created anew upon reading. If you read the read syntax for a | |
484 sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. There is one | |
485 exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the same object, | |
486 @code{nil}. | |
487 | |
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488 @node Cons Cell Type |
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489 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types |
6447 | 490 @cindex address field of register |
491 @cindex decrement field of register | |
492 | |
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493 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object comprising two pointers named the |
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494 @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr}. Each of them can point to any Lisp object. |
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495 |
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496 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the |
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497 @sc{cdr} of each cons cell points either to another cons cell or to the |
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498 empty list. @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because |
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499 most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list |
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500 structure} has come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. |
6447 | 501 |
502 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} have only historical meaning now. The | |
503 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which | |
504 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
505 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
506 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
507 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
508 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn is named | |
509 for its purpose, the construction of cells. | |
510 | |
511 @cindex atom | |
512 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
513 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called | |
514 @dfn{atoms}. | |
515 | |
516 @cindex parenthesis | |
517 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and | |
518 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
519 right parenthesis. | |
520 | |
521 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
522 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
523 @sc{car} of the cons cell points to the element, and its @sc{cdr} points | |
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524 to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next element in the |
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525 list. The @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is set to point to @code{nil}. |
6447 | 526 |
527 @cindex box diagrams, for lists | |
528 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
529 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are | |
530 shown as pairs of boxes. (The Lisp reader cannot read such an | |
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531 illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be understood by |
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532 both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be understood only |
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533 by humans.) The following represents the three-element list @code{(rose |
6447 | 534 violet buttercup)}: |
535 | |
536 @example | |
537 @group | |
538 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
539 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
540 | | | | |
541 | | | | |
542 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
543 @end group | |
544 @end example | |
545 | |
546 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can refer to any Lisp | |
547 object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow is a | |
548 reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons cell. | |
549 | |
550 In this example, the first box, the @sc{car} of the first cons cell, | |
551 refers to or ``contains'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second box, the | |
552 @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next pair of boxes, the | |
553 second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons cell refers to | |
554 @code{violet} and the @sc{cdr} refers to the third cons cell. The | |
555 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell refers to @code{nil}. | |
556 | |
557 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet | |
558 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: | |
559 | |
560 @smallexample | |
561 @group | |
562 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
563 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
564 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
565 | | | | | | | | | | |
566 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
567 @end group | |
568 @end smallexample | |
569 | |
570 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
571 @cindex @code{nil} in lists | |
572 @cindex empty list | |
573 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
574 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
575 and a list. | |
576 | |
577 Here are examples of lists written in Lisp syntax: | |
578 | |
579 @example | |
580 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
581 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
582 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
583 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
584 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
585 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
586 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
587 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
588 @end example | |
589 | |
590 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
591 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
592 | |
593 @example | |
594 @group | |
595 ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
596 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
597 | | | |
598 | | | |
599 --> A --> nil | |
600 @end group | |
601 @end example | |
602 | |
603 @menu | |
604 * Dotted Pair Notation:: An alternative syntax for lists. | |
605 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
606 @end menu | |
607 | |
608 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
609 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
610 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
611 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
612 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
613 | |
614 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is an alternative syntax for cons cells | |
615 that represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
616 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is | |
617 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
618 pair notation is therefore more general than list syntax. In the dotted | |
619 pair notation, the list @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 | |
620 . nil)))}. For @code{nil}-terminated lists, the two notations produce | |
621 the same result, but list notation is usually clearer and more | |
622 convenient when it is applicable. When printing a list, the dotted pair | |
623 notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cell is not a list. | |
624 | |
625 Here's how box notation can illustrate dotted pairs. This example | |
626 shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: | |
627 | |
628 @example | |
629 @group | |
630 ___ ___ | |
631 |___|___|--> violet | |
632 | | |
633 | | |
634 --> rose | |
635 @end group | |
636 @end example | |
637 | |
638 Dotted pair notation can be combined with list notation to represent a | |
639 chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. For example, | |
640 @code{(rose violet . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet | |
641 . buttercup))}. The object looks like this: | |
642 | |
643 @example | |
644 @group | |
645 ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
646 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> buttercup | |
647 | | | |
648 | | | |
649 --> rose --> violet | |
650 @end group | |
651 @end example | |
652 | |
653 These diagrams make it evident why @w{@code{(rose .@: violet .@: | |
654 buttercup)}} is invalid syntax; it would require a cons cell that has | |
655 three parts rather than two. | |
656 | |
657 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))} | |
658 and looks like this: | |
659 | |
660 @example | |
661 @group | |
662 ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
663 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
664 | | | |
665 | | | |
666 --> rose --> violet | |
667 @end group | |
668 @end example | |
669 | |
670 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
671 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
672 @ifinfo | |
673 It looks like this: | |
674 | |
675 @example | |
676 @group | |
677 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
678 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
679 | | | | |
680 | | | | |
681 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
682 @end group | |
683 @end example | |
684 @end ifinfo | |
685 | |
686 @node Association List Type | |
687 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
688 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
689 | |
690 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
691 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
692 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
693 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
694 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
695 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
696 the list. | |
697 | |
698 For example, | |
699 | |
700 @example | |
701 (setq alist-of-colors | |
702 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) | |
703 @end example | |
704 | |
705 @noindent | |
706 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
707 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
708 | |
709 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
710 functions that work on alists. | |
711 | |
712 @node Array Type | |
713 @subsection Array Type | |
714 | |
715 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
716 referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of | |
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717 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes the same amount of |
6447 | 718 time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires time |
719 proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements at | |
720 the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the beginning | |
721 of a list.) | |
722 | |
723 Emacs defines two types of array, strings and vectors. A string is an | |
724 array of characters and a vector is an array of arbitrary objects. Both | |
725 are one-dimensional. (Most other programming languages support | |
726 multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; you can get the | |
727 same effect with an array of arrays.) Each type of array has its own | |
728 read syntax; see @ref{String Type}, and @ref{Vector Type}. | |
729 | |
730 An array may have any length up to the largest integer; but once | |
731 created, it has a fixed size. The first element of an array has index | |
732 zero, the second element has index 1, and so on. This is called | |
733 @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For example, an array of four elements has | |
734 indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. | |
735 | |
736 The array type is contained in the sequence type and contains both the | |
737 string type and the vector type. | |
738 | |
739 @node String Type | |
740 @subsection String Type | |
741 | |
742 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
743 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
744 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
745 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
746 of a string returns the same string. | |
747 | |
748 @cindex @samp{"} in strings | |
749 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
750 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
751 @cindex backslash in strings | |
752 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of | |
753 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. The Lisp | |
754 reader accepts the same formats for reading the characters of a string | |
755 as it does for reading single characters (without the question mark that | |
756 begins a character literal). You can enter a nonprinting character such | |
757 as tab, @kbd{C-a} or @kbd{M-C-A} using the convenient escape sequences, | |
758 like this: @code{"\t, \C-a, \M-\C-a"}. You can include a double-quote | |
759 in a string by preceding it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} is a | |
760 string containing just a single double-quote character. | |
761 (@xref{Character Type}, for a description of the read syntax for | |
762 characters.) | |
763 | |
764 If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate a meta character in a | |
765 string constant, this sets the 2**7 bit of the character in the string. | |
766 This is not the same representation that the meta modifier has in a | |
767 character on its own (not inside a string). @xref{Character Type}. | |
768 | |
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769 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt |
6447 | 770 modifiers; they can hold @sc{ASCII} control characters, but no others. |
771 They do not distinguish case in @sc{ASCII} control characters. | |
772 | |
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773 The printed representation of a string consists of a double-quote, the |
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774 characters it contains, and another double-quote. However, you must |
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775 escape any backslash or double-quote characters in the string with a |
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776 backslash, like this: @code{"this \" is an embedded quote"}. |
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777 |
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778 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; |
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779 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a |
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780 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded |
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781 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader |
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782 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. |
6447 | 783 @cindex newline in strings |
784 | |
785 @example | |
786 "It is useful to include newlines | |
787 in documentation strings, | |
788 but the newline is \ | |
789 ignored if escaped." | |
790 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines | |
791 in documentation strings, | |
792 but the newline is ignored if escaped." | |
793 @end example | |
794 | |
795 A string can hold properties of the text it contains, in addition to | |
796 the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy text between | |
797 strings and buffers to preserve the properties with no special effort. | |
798 @xref{Text Properties}. Strings with text properties have a special | |
799 read and print syntax: | |
800 | |
801 @example | |
802 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
803 @end example | |
804 | |
805 @noindent | |
806 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
807 of three as follows: | |
808 | |
809 @example | |
810 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
811 @end example | |
812 | |
813 @noindent | |
814 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
815 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
816 that range. | |
817 | |
818 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that work on strings. | |
819 | |
820 @node Vector Type | |
821 @subsection Vector Type | |
822 | |
823 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
824 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
825 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
826 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
827 | |
828 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
829 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
830 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
831 for evaluation. | |
832 | |
833 @example | |
834 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
835 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
836 @end example | |
837 | |
838 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
839 | |
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840 @node Function Type |
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841 @subsection Function Type |
6447 | 842 |
843 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable, | |
844 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However, | |
845 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the | |
846 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions: | |
847 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda | |
848 Expressions}). | |
849 | |
850 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
851 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
852 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous | |
853 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid | |
854 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}). | |
855 | |
856 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
857 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
858 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
859 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
860 | |
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861 @node Macro Type |
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862 @subsection Macro Type |
6447 | 863 |
864 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
865 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
866 different parameter-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a | |
867 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} | |
868 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
869 | |
870 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
871 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
872 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
873 of how to write a macro. | |
874 | |
875 @node Primitive Function Type | |
876 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
877 @cindex special forms | |
878 | |
879 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
880 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
881 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
882 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
883 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
884 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
885 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
886 | |
887 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
888 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to substitute a | |
889 function written in Lisp for a primitive of the same name. The reason | |
890 is that the primitive function may be called directly from C code. | |
891 Calls to the redefined function from Lisp will use the new definition, | |
892 but calls from C code may still use the built-in definition. | |
893 | |
894 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
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895 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the |
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896 functions written in Lisp. |
6447 | 897 |
898 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
899 with the name of the subroutine. | |
900 | |
901 @example | |
902 @group | |
903 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
904 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
905 @result{} #<subr car> | |
906 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
907 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
908 @end group | |
909 @end example | |
910 | |
911 @node Byte-Code Type | |
912 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
913 | |
914 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
915 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
916 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
917 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
918 the byte compiler. | |
919 | |
920 The printed representation for a byte-code function object is like that | |
921 for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the opening @samp{[}. | |
922 | |
923 @node Autoload Type | |
924 @subsection Autoload Type | |
925 | |
926 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
927 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol as | |
928 a placeholder for the real definition; it says that the real definition | |
929 is found in a file of Lisp code that should be loaded when necessary. | |
930 The autoload object contains the name of the file, plus some other | |
931 information about the real definition. | |
932 | |
933 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
934 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
935 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
936 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
937 in the loaded file. | |
938 | |
939 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
940 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
941 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
942 | |
943 @node Editing Types | |
944 @section Editing Types | |
945 @cindex editing types | |
946 | |
947 The types in the previous section are common to many Lisp dialects. | |
948 Emacs Lisp provides several additional data types for purposes connected | |
949 with editing. | |
950 | |
951 @menu | |
952 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
953 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
954 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
955 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. | |
956 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. | |
957 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. | |
958 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. | |
959 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
960 * Syntax Table Type:: What a character means. | |
961 * Display Table Type:: How display tables are represented. | |
962 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
963 @end menu | |
964 | |
965 @node Buffer Type | |
966 @subsection Buffer Type | |
967 | |
968 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
969 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
970 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
971 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
972 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a | |
973 buffer need not be displayed in any window. | |
974 | |
975 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
976 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
977 different. For example, insertion of text into a buffer is very | |
978 efficient, whereas ``inserting'' text into a string requires | |
979 concatenating substrings, and the result is an entirely new string | |
980 object. | |
981 | |
982 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} | |
983 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current | |
984 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current | |
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985 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs |
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986 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a |
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987 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions |
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988 (@pxref{Text}). |
6447 | 989 |
990 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
991 | |
992 @itemize @bullet | |
993 @item | |
994 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
995 | |
996 @item | |
997 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
998 | |
999 @item | |
1000 a local variable binding list (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). | |
1001 @end itemize | |
1002 | |
1003 @noindent | |
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1004 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually |
6447 | 1005 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the |
1006 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1007 programs. | |
1008 | |
1009 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation with the | |
1010 buffer name. | |
1011 | |
1012 @example | |
1013 @group | |
1014 (current-buffer) | |
1015 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1016 @end group | |
1017 @end example | |
1018 | |
1019 @node Marker Type | |
1020 @subsection Marker Type | |
1021 | |
1022 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1023 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1024 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1025 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1026 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1027 | |
1028 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1029 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1030 | |
1031 @example | |
1032 @group | |
1033 (point-marker) | |
1034 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1035 @end group | |
1036 @end example | |
1037 | |
1038 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1039 markers. | |
1040 | |
1041 @node Window Type | |
1042 @subsection Window Type | |
1043 | |
1044 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1045 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1046 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1047 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1048 | |
1049 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1050 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1051 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1052 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1053 necessarily the case. | |
1054 | |
1055 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1056 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1057 | |
1058 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1059 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1060 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1061 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1062 | |
1063 @example | |
1064 @group | |
1065 (selected-window) | |
1066 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1067 @end group | |
1068 @end example | |
1069 | |
1070 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1071 | |
1072 @node Frame Type | |
1073 @subsection Frame Type | |
1074 | |
1075 A @var{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more | |
1076 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus | |
1077 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or | |
1078 horizontally into smaller windows. | |
1079 | |
1080 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1081 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1082 uniquely). | |
1083 | |
1084 @example | |
1085 @group | |
1086 (selected-frame) | |
1087 @result{} #<frame xemacs@@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu 0xdac80> | |
1088 @end group | |
1089 @end example | |
1090 | |
1091 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1092 | |
1093 @node Window Configuration Type | |
1094 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1095 @cindex screen layout | |
1096 | |
1097 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1098 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1099 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1100 | |
1101 Window configurations do not have a read syntax. They print as | |
1102 @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window Configurations}, for a | |
1103 description of several functions related to window configurations. | |
1104 | |
1105 @node Process Type | |
1106 @subsection Process Type | |
1107 | |
1108 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1109 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1110 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1111 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1112 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1113 | |
1114 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1115 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1116 to the subprocess. | |
1117 | |
1118 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1119 giving the name of the process: | |
1120 | |
1121 @example | |
1122 @group | |
1123 (process-list) | |
1124 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1125 @end group | |
1126 @end example | |
1127 | |
1128 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1129 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1130 from processes. | |
1131 | |
1132 @node Stream Type | |
1133 @subsection Stream Type | |
1134 | |
1135 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1136 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1137 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1138 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1139 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1140 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1141 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1142 | |
1143 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1144 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1145 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1146 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1147 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1148 Area}). | |
1149 | |
1150 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1151 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1152 | |
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1153 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions |
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1154 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. |
6447 | 1155 |
1156 @node Keymap Type | |
1157 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1158 | |
1159 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1160 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1161 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1162 | |
1163 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1164 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1165 | |
1166 @node Syntax Table Type | |
1167 @subsection Syntax Table Type | |
1168 | |
1169 A @dfn{syntax table} is a vector of 256 integers. Each element of the | |
1170 vector defines how one character is interpreted when it appears in a | |
1171 buffer. For example, in C mode (@pxref{Major Modes}), the @samp{+} | |
1172 character is punctuation, but in Lisp mode it is a valid character in a | |
1173 symbol. These modes specify different interpretations by changing the | |
1174 syntax table entry for @samp{+}, at index 43 in the syntax table. | |
1175 | |
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1176 Syntax tables are used only for scanning text in buffers, not for |
6447 | 1177 reading Lisp expressions. The table the Lisp interpreter uses to read |
1178 expressions is built into the Emacs source code and cannot be changed; | |
1179 thus, to change the list delimiters to be @samp{@{} and @samp{@}} | |
1180 instead of @samp{(} and @samp{)} would be impossible. | |
1181 | |
1182 @xref{Syntax Tables}, for details about syntax classes and how to make | |
1183 and modify syntax tables. | |
1184 | |
1185 @node Display Table Type | |
1186 @subsection Display Table Type | |
1187 | |
1188 A @dfn{display table} specifies how to display each character code. | |
1189 Each buffer and each window can have its own display table. A display | |
1190 table is actually a vector of length 261. @xref{Display Tables}. | |
1191 | |
1192 @node Overlay Type | |
1193 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1194 | |
1195 An @dfn{overlay} specifies temporary alteration of the display | |
1196 appearance of a part of a buffer. It contains markers delimiting a | |
1197 range of the buffer, plus a property list (a list whose elements are | |
1198 alternating property names and values). Overlays are used to present | |
1199 parts of the buffer temporarily in a different display style. | |
1200 | |
1201 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. They have no | |
1202 read syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and | |
1203 range of positions. | |
1204 | |
1205 @node Type Predicates | |
1206 @section Type Predicates | |
1207 @cindex predicates | |
1208 @cindex type checking | |
1209 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1210 | |
1211 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1212 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1213 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1214 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1215 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1216 a type that the function can use. | |
1217 | |
1218 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1219 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1220 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
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1221 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: |
6447 | 1222 |
1223 @example | |
1224 @group | |
1225 (+ 2 'a) | |
1226 @error{} Wrong type argument: integer-or-marker-p, a | |
1227 @end group | |
1228 @end example | |
1229 | |
1230 @cindex type predicates | |
1231 @cindex testing types | |
1232 Lisp provides functions, called @dfn{type predicates}, to test whether | |
1233 an object is a member of a given type. (Following a convention of long | |
1234 standing, the names of most Emacs Lisp predicates end in @samp{p}.) | |
1235 | |
1236 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
1237 with references to further information. | |
1238 | |
1239 @table @code | |
1240 @item atom | |
1241 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1242 | |
1243 @item arrayp | |
1244 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1245 | |
1246 @item bufferp | |
1247 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1248 | |
1249 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1250 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1251 | |
1252 @item case-table-p | |
1253 @xref{Case Table, case-table-p}. | |
1254 | |
1255 @item char-or-string-p | |
1256 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1257 | |
1258 @item commandp | |
1259 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1260 | |
1261 @item consp | |
1262 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1263 | |
1264 @item floatp | |
1265 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1266 | |
1267 @item frame-live-p | |
1268 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1269 | |
1270 @item framep | |
1271 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1272 | |
1273 @item integer-or-marker-p | |
1274 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1275 | |
1276 @item integerp | |
1277 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1278 | |
1279 @item keymapp | |
1280 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1281 | |
1282 @item listp | |
1283 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1284 | |
1285 @item markerp | |
1286 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1287 | |
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1288 @item wholenump |
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1289 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. |
6447 | 1290 |
1291 @item nlistp | |
1292 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1293 | |
1294 @item numberp | |
1295 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1296 | |
1297 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1298 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1299 | |
1300 @item overlayp | |
1301 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1302 | |
1303 @item processp | |
1304 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1305 | |
1306 @item sequencep | |
1307 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1308 | |
1309 @item stringp | |
1310 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1311 | |
1312 @item subrp | |
1313 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1314 | |
1315 @item symbolp | |
1316 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1317 | |
1318 @item syntax-table-p | |
1319 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1320 | |
1321 @item user-variable-p | |
1322 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1323 | |
1324 @item vectorp | |
1325 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1326 | |
1327 @item window-configuration-p | |
1328 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1329 | |
1330 @item window-live-p | |
1331 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1332 | |
1333 @item windowp | |
1334 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1335 @end table | |
1336 | |
1337 @node Equality Predicates | |
1338 @section Equality Predicates | |
1339 @cindex equality | |
1340 | |
1341 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two | |
1342 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific | |
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1343 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
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1344 describing the data type. |
6447 | 1345 |
1346 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1347 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1348 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a | |
1349 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other. | |
1350 | |
1351 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1352 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1353 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1354 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1355 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1356 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1357 object. | |
1358 | |
1359 (The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol that is | |
1360 not interned in the standard @code{obarray}. When uninterned symbols | |
1361 are in use, symbol names are no longer unique. Distinct symbols with | |
1362 the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating Symbols}.) | |
1363 | |
1364 @example | |
1365 @group | |
1366 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1367 @result{} t | |
1368 @end group | |
1369 | |
1370 @group | |
1371 (eq 456 456) | |
1372 @result{} t | |
1373 @end group | |
1374 | |
1375 @group | |
1376 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1377 @result{} nil | |
1378 @end group | |
1379 | |
1380 @group | |
1381 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1382 @result{} nil | |
1383 @end group | |
1384 | |
1385 @group | |
1386 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1387 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1388 (eq foo foo) | |
1389 @result{} t | |
1390 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1391 @result{} nil | |
1392 @end group | |
1393 | |
1394 @group | |
1395 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1396 @result{} nil | |
1397 @end group | |
1398 | |
1399 @group | |
1400 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1401 @result{} nil | |
1402 @end group | |
1403 @end example | |
1404 | |
1405 @end defun | |
1406 | |
1407 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1408 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1409 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1410 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
1411 arguments to see if their elements are the same. So, if two objects are | |
1412 @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not always true. | |
1413 | |
1414 @example | |
1415 @group | |
1416 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
1417 @result{} t | |
1418 @end group | |
1419 | |
1420 @group | |
1421 (equal 456 456) | |
1422 @result{} t | |
1423 @end group | |
1424 | |
1425 @group | |
1426 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
1427 @result{} t | |
1428 @end group | |
1429 @group | |
1430 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1431 @result{} nil | |
1432 @end group | |
1433 | |
1434 @group | |
1435 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1436 @result{} t | |
1437 @end group | |
1438 @group | |
1439 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1440 @result{} nil | |
1441 @end group | |
1442 | |
1443 @group | |
1444 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1445 @result{} t | |
1446 @end group | |
1447 @group | |
1448 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1449 @result{} nil | |
1450 @end group | |
1451 | |
1452 @group | |
1453 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1454 @result{} t | |
1455 @end group | |
1456 | |
1457 @group | |
1458 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1459 @result{} nil | |
1460 @end group | |
1461 @end example | |
1462 | |
1463 Comparison of strings uses @code{string=}, and is case-sensitive. | |
1464 | |
1465 @example | |
1466 @group | |
1467 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
1468 @result{} nil | |
1469 @end group | |
1470 @end example | |
1471 @end defun | |
1472 | |
1473 The test for equality is implemented recursively, and circular lists may | |
1474 therefore cause infinite recursion (leading to an error). |