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author | Kenichi Handa <handa@m17n.org> |
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date | Tue, 04 Jul 2000 07:38:15 +0000 |
parents | f7b7fdb0f3f4 |
children | 9d5a9e59c339 |
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6453 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
27189 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 |
4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
6453 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/control | |
7 @node Control Structures, Variables, Evaluation, Top | |
8 @chapter Control Structures | |
9 @cindex special forms for control structures | |
10 @cindex control structures | |
11 | |
12 A Lisp program consists of expressions or @dfn{forms} (@pxref{Forms}). | |
25089 | 13 We control the order of execution of these forms by enclosing them in |
6453 | 14 @dfn{control structures}. Control structures are special forms which |
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15 control when, whether, or how many times to execute the forms they |
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16 contain. |
6453 | 17 |
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18 The simplest order of execution is sequential execution: first form |
6453 | 19 @var{a}, then form @var{b}, and so on. This is what happens when you |
20 write several forms in succession in the body of a function, or at top | |
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21 level in a file of Lisp code---the forms are executed in the order |
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22 written. We call this @dfn{textual order}. For example, if a function |
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23 body consists of two forms @var{a} and @var{b}, evaluation of the |
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24 function evaluates first @var{a} and then @var{b}. The result of |
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25 evaluating @var{b} becomes the value of the function. |
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26 |
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27 Explicit control structures make possible an order of execution other |
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28 than sequential. |
6453 | 29 |
30 Emacs Lisp provides several kinds of control structure, including | |
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31 other varieties of sequencing, conditionals, iteration, and (controlled) |
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32 jumps---all discussed below. The built-in control structures are |
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33 special forms since their subforms are not necessarily evaluated or not |
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34 evaluated sequentially. You can use macros to define your own control |
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35 structure constructs (@pxref{Macros}). |
6453 | 36 |
37 @menu | |
38 * Sequencing:: Evaluation in textual order. | |
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39 * Conditionals:: @code{if}, @code{cond}, @code{when}, @code{unless}. |
6453 | 40 * Combining Conditions:: @code{and}, @code{or}, @code{not}. |
41 * Iteration:: @code{while} loops. | |
42 * Nonlocal Exits:: Jumping out of a sequence. | |
43 @end menu | |
44 | |
45 @node Sequencing | |
46 @section Sequencing | |
47 | |
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48 Evaluating forms in the order they appear is the most common way |
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49 control passes from one form to another. In some contexts, such as in a |
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50 function body, this happens automatically. Elsewhere you must use a |
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51 control structure construct to do this: @code{progn}, the simplest |
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52 control construct of Lisp. |
6453 | 53 |
54 A @code{progn} special form looks like this: | |
55 | |
56 @example | |
57 @group | |
58 (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} @dots{}) | |
59 @end group | |
60 @end example | |
61 | |
62 @noindent | |
25089 | 63 and it says to execute the forms @var{a}, @var{b}, @var{c}, and so on, in |
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64 that order. These forms are called the @dfn{body} of the @code{progn} form. |
6453 | 65 The value of the last form in the body becomes the value of the entire |
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66 @code{progn}. @code{(progn)} returns @code{nil}. |
6453 | 67 |
68 @cindex implicit @code{progn} | |
69 In the early days of Lisp, @code{progn} was the only way to execute | |
70 two or more forms in succession and use the value of the last of them. | |
71 But programmers found they often needed to use a @code{progn} in the | |
72 body of a function, where (at that time) only one form was allowed. So | |
73 the body of a function was made into an ``implicit @code{progn}'': | |
74 several forms are allowed just as in the body of an actual @code{progn}. | |
75 Many other control structures likewise contain an implicit @code{progn}. | |
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76 As a result, @code{progn} is not used as much as it was many years ago. |
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77 It is needed now most often inside an @code{unwind-protect}, @code{and}, |
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78 @code{or}, or in the @var{then}-part of an @code{if}. |
6453 | 79 |
80 @defspec progn forms@dots{} | |
81 This special form evaluates all of the @var{forms}, in textual | |
82 order, returning the result of the final form. | |
83 | |
84 @example | |
85 @group | |
86 (progn (print "The first form") | |
87 (print "The second form") | |
88 (print "The third form")) | |
89 @print{} "The first form" | |
90 @print{} "The second form" | |
91 @print{} "The third form" | |
92 @result{} "The third form" | |
93 @end group | |
94 @end example | |
95 @end defspec | |
96 | |
97 Two other control constructs likewise evaluate a series of forms but return | |
98 a different value: | |
99 | |
100 @defspec prog1 form1 forms@dots{} | |
101 This special form evaluates @var{form1} and all of the @var{forms}, in | |
102 textual order, returning the result of @var{form1}. | |
103 | |
104 @example | |
105 @group | |
106 (prog1 (print "The first form") | |
107 (print "The second form") | |
108 (print "The third form")) | |
109 @print{} "The first form" | |
110 @print{} "The second form" | |
111 @print{} "The third form" | |
112 @result{} "The first form" | |
113 @end group | |
114 @end example | |
115 | |
116 Here is a way to remove the first element from a list in the variable | |
117 @code{x}, then return the value of that former element: | |
118 | |
119 @example | |
120 (prog1 (car x) (setq x (cdr x))) | |
121 @end example | |
122 @end defspec | |
123 | |
124 @defspec prog2 form1 form2 forms@dots{} | |
125 This special form evaluates @var{form1}, @var{form2}, and all of the | |
126 following @var{forms}, in textual order, returning the result of | |
127 @var{form2}. | |
128 | |
129 @example | |
130 @group | |
131 (prog2 (print "The first form") | |
132 (print "The second form") | |
133 (print "The third form")) | |
134 @print{} "The first form" | |
135 @print{} "The second form" | |
136 @print{} "The third form" | |
137 @result{} "The second form" | |
138 @end group | |
139 @end example | |
140 @end defspec | |
141 | |
142 @node Conditionals | |
143 @section Conditionals | |
144 @cindex conditional evaluation | |
145 | |
146 Conditional control structures choose among alternatives. Emacs Lisp | |
16850 | 147 has four conditional forms: @code{if}, which is much the same as in |
148 other languages; @code{when} and @code{unless}, which are variants of | |
149 @code{if}; and @code{cond}, which is a generalized case statement. | |
6453 | 150 |
151 @defspec if condition then-form else-forms@dots{} | |
152 @code{if} chooses between the @var{then-form} and the @var{else-forms} | |
153 based on the value of @var{condition}. If the evaluated @var{condition} is | |
154 non-@code{nil}, @var{then-form} is evaluated and the result returned. | |
155 Otherwise, the @var{else-forms} are evaluated in textual order, and the | |
156 value of the last one is returned. (The @var{else} part of @code{if} is | |
157 an example of an implicit @code{progn}. @xref{Sequencing}.) | |
158 | |
159 If @var{condition} has the value @code{nil}, and no @var{else-forms} are | |
160 given, @code{if} returns @code{nil}. | |
161 | |
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162 @code{if} is a special form because the branch that is not selected is |
6453 | 163 never evaluated---it is ignored. Thus, in the example below, |
164 @code{true} is not printed because @code{print} is never called. | |
165 | |
166 @example | |
167 @group | |
168 (if nil | |
169 (print 'true) | |
170 'very-false) | |
171 @result{} very-false | |
172 @end group | |
173 @end example | |
174 @end defspec | |
175 | |
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176 @defmac when condition then-forms@dots{} |
16850 | 177 This is a variant of @code{if} where there are no @var{else-forms}, |
178 and possibly several @var{then-forms}. In particular, | |
179 | |
180 @example | |
181 (when @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
182 @end example | |
183 | |
184 @noindent | |
185 is entirely equivalent to | |
186 | |
187 @example | |
188 (if @var{condition} (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) nil) | |
189 @end example | |
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190 @end defmac |
16850 | 191 |
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192 @defmac unless condition forms@dots{} |
16850 | 193 This is a variant of @code{if} where there is no @var{then-form}: |
194 | |
195 @example | |
196 (unless @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
197 @end example | |
198 | |
199 @noindent | |
200 is entirely equivalent to | |
201 | |
202 @example | |
203 (if @var{condition} nil | |
204 @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
205 @end example | |
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206 @end defmac |
16850 | 207 |
6453 | 208 @defspec cond clause@dots{} |
209 @code{cond} chooses among an arbitrary number of alternatives. Each | |
210 @var{clause} in the @code{cond} must be a list. The @sc{car} of this | |
211 list is the @var{condition}; the remaining elements, if any, the | |
212 @var{body-forms}. Thus, a clause looks like this: | |
213 | |
214 @example | |
215 (@var{condition} @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
216 @end example | |
217 | |
218 @code{cond} tries the clauses in textual order, by evaluating the | |
219 @var{condition} of each clause. If the value of @var{condition} is | |
220 non-@code{nil}, the clause ``succeeds''; then @code{cond} evaluates its | |
221 @var{body-forms}, and the value of the last of @var{body-forms} becomes | |
222 the value of the @code{cond}. The remaining clauses are ignored. | |
223 | |
224 If the value of @var{condition} is @code{nil}, the clause ``fails'', so | |
225 the @code{cond} moves on to the following clause, trying its | |
226 @var{condition}. | |
227 | |
228 If every @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil}, so that every clause | |
229 fails, @code{cond} returns @code{nil}. | |
230 | |
231 A clause may also look like this: | |
232 | |
233 @example | |
234 (@var{condition}) | |
235 @end example | |
236 | |
237 @noindent | |
238 Then, if @var{condition} is non-@code{nil} when tested, the value of | |
239 @var{condition} becomes the value of the @code{cond} form. | |
240 | |
241 The following example has four clauses, which test for the cases where | |
242 the value of @code{x} is a number, string, buffer and symbol, | |
243 respectively: | |
244 | |
245 @example | |
246 @group | |
247 (cond ((numberp x) x) | |
248 ((stringp x) x) | |
249 ((bufferp x) | |
250 (setq temporary-hack x) ; @r{multiple body-forms} | |
251 (buffer-name x)) ; @r{in one clause} | |
252 ((symbolp x) (symbol-value x))) | |
253 @end group | |
254 @end example | |
255 | |
256 Often we want to execute the last clause whenever none of the previous | |
257 clauses was successful. To do this, we use @code{t} as the | |
258 @var{condition} of the last clause, like this: @code{(t | |
259 @var{body-forms})}. The form @code{t} evaluates to @code{t}, which is | |
260 never @code{nil}, so this clause never fails, provided the @code{cond} | |
261 gets to it at all. | |
262 | |
263 For example, | |
264 | |
265 @example | |
266 @group | |
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267 (setq a 5) |
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268 (cond ((eq a 'hack) 'foo) |
6453 | 269 (t "default")) |
270 @result{} "default" | |
271 @end group | |
272 @end example | |
273 | |
274 @noindent | |
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275 This @code{cond} expression returns @code{foo} if the value of @code{a} |
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276 is @code{hack}, and returns the string @code{"default"} otherwise. |
6453 | 277 @end defspec |
278 | |
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279 Any conditional construct can be expressed with @code{cond} or with |
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280 @code{if}. Therefore, the choice between them is a matter of style. |
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281 For example: |
6453 | 282 |
283 @example | |
284 @group | |
285 (if @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
286 @equiv{} | |
287 (cond (@var{a} @var{b}) (t @var{c})) | |
288 @end group | |
289 @end example | |
290 | |
291 @node Combining Conditions | |
292 @section Constructs for Combining Conditions | |
293 | |
294 This section describes three constructs that are often used together | |
295 with @code{if} and @code{cond} to express complicated conditions. The | |
296 constructs @code{and} and @code{or} can also be used individually as | |
297 kinds of multiple conditional constructs. | |
298 | |
299 @defun not condition | |
300 This function tests for the falsehood of @var{condition}. It returns | |
301 @code{t} if @var{condition} is @code{nil}, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
302 The function @code{not} is identical to @code{null}, and we recommend | |
303 using the name @code{null} if you are testing for an empty list. | |
304 @end defun | |
305 | |
306 @defspec and conditions@dots{} | |
307 The @code{and} special form tests whether all the @var{conditions} are | |
308 true. It works by evaluating the @var{conditions} one by one in the | |
309 order written. | |
310 | |
311 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to @code{nil}, then the result | |
312 of the @code{and} must be @code{nil} regardless of the remaining | |
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313 @var{conditions}; so @code{and} returns @code{nil} right away, ignoring |
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314 the remaining @var{conditions}. |
6453 | 315 |
316 If all the @var{conditions} turn out non-@code{nil}, then the value of | |
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317 the last of them becomes the value of the @code{and} form. Just |
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318 @code{(and)}, with no @var{conditions}, returns @code{t}, appropriate |
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319 because all the @var{conditions} turned out non-@code{nil}. (Think |
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320 about it; which one did not?) |
6453 | 321 |
322 Here is an example. The first condition returns the integer 1, which is | |
323 not @code{nil}. Similarly, the second condition returns the integer 2, | |
324 which is not @code{nil}. The third condition is @code{nil}, so the | |
325 remaining condition is never evaluated. | |
326 | |
327 @example | |
328 @group | |
329 (and (print 1) (print 2) nil (print 3)) | |
330 @print{} 1 | |
331 @print{} 2 | |
332 @result{} nil | |
333 @end group | |
334 @end example | |
335 | |
336 Here is a more realistic example of using @code{and}: | |
337 | |
338 @example | |
339 @group | |
340 (if (and (consp foo) (eq (car foo) 'x)) | |
341 (message "foo is a list starting with x")) | |
342 @end group | |
343 @end example | |
344 | |
345 @noindent | |
346 Note that @code{(car foo)} is not executed if @code{(consp foo)} returns | |
347 @code{nil}, thus avoiding an error. | |
348 | |
349 @code{and} can be expressed in terms of either @code{if} or @code{cond}. | |
350 For example: | |
351 | |
352 @example | |
353 @group | |
354 (and @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3}) | |
355 @equiv{} | |
356 (if @var{arg1} (if @var{arg2} @var{arg3})) | |
357 @equiv{} | |
358 (cond (@var{arg1} (cond (@var{arg2} @var{arg3})))) | |
359 @end group | |
360 @end example | |
361 @end defspec | |
362 | |
363 @defspec or conditions@dots{} | |
364 The @code{or} special form tests whether at least one of the | |
365 @var{conditions} is true. It works by evaluating all the | |
366 @var{conditions} one by one in the order written. | |
367 | |
368 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to a non-@code{nil} value, then | |
369 the result of the @code{or} must be non-@code{nil}; so @code{or} returns | |
370 right away, ignoring the remaining @var{conditions}. The value it | |
371 returns is the non-@code{nil} value of the condition just evaluated. | |
372 | |
373 If all the @var{conditions} turn out @code{nil}, then the @code{or} | |
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374 expression returns @code{nil}. Just @code{(or)}, with no |
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375 @var{conditions}, returns @code{nil}, appropriate because all the |
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376 @var{conditions} turned out @code{nil}. (Think about it; which one |
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377 did not?) |
6453 | 378 |
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379 For example, this expression tests whether @code{x} is either |
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380 @code{nil} or the integer zero: |
6453 | 381 |
382 @example | |
383 (or (eq x nil) (eq x 0)) | |
384 @end example | |
385 | |
386 Like the @code{and} construct, @code{or} can be written in terms of | |
387 @code{cond}. For example: | |
388 | |
389 @example | |
390 @group | |
391 (or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3}) | |
392 @equiv{} | |
393 (cond (@var{arg1}) | |
394 (@var{arg2}) | |
395 (@var{arg3})) | |
396 @end group | |
397 @end example | |
398 | |
399 You could almost write @code{or} in terms of @code{if}, but not quite: | |
400 | |
401 @example | |
402 @group | |
403 (if @var{arg1} @var{arg1} | |
404 (if @var{arg2} @var{arg2} | |
405 @var{arg3})) | |
406 @end group | |
407 @end example | |
408 | |
409 @noindent | |
410 This is not completely equivalent because it can evaluate @var{arg1} or | |
411 @var{arg2} twice. By contrast, @code{(or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} | |
412 @var{arg3})} never evaluates any argument more than once. | |
413 @end defspec | |
414 | |
415 @node Iteration | |
416 @section Iteration | |
417 @cindex iteration | |
418 @cindex recursion | |
419 | |
420 Iteration means executing part of a program repetitively. For | |
421 example, you might want to repeat some computation once for each element | |
422 of a list, or once for each integer from 0 to @var{n}. You can do this | |
423 in Emacs Lisp with the special form @code{while}: | |
424 | |
425 @defspec while condition forms@dots{} | |
426 @code{while} first evaluates @var{condition}. If the result is | |
427 non-@code{nil}, it evaluates @var{forms} in textual order. Then it | |
428 reevaluates @var{condition}, and if the result is non-@code{nil}, it | |
429 evaluates @var{forms} again. This process repeats until @var{condition} | |
430 evaluates to @code{nil}. | |
431 | |
432 There is no limit on the number of iterations that may occur. The loop | |
433 will continue until either @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil} or | |
434 until an error or @code{throw} jumps out of it (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}). | |
435 | |
436 The value of a @code{while} form is always @code{nil}. | |
437 | |
438 @example | |
439 @group | |
440 (setq num 0) | |
441 @result{} 0 | |
442 @end group | |
443 @group | |
444 (while (< num 4) | |
445 (princ (format "Iteration %d." num)) | |
446 (setq num (1+ num))) | |
447 @print{} Iteration 0. | |
448 @print{} Iteration 1. | |
449 @print{} Iteration 2. | |
450 @print{} Iteration 3. | |
451 @result{} nil | |
452 @end group | |
453 @end example | |
454 | |
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455 To write a ``repeat...until'' loop, which will execute something on each |
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456 iteration and then do the end-test, put the body followed by the |
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457 end-test in a @code{progn} as the first argument of @code{while}, as |
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458 shown here: |
6453 | 459 |
460 @example | |
461 @group | |
462 (while (progn | |
463 (forward-line 1) | |
464 (not (looking-at "^$")))) | |
465 @end group | |
466 @end example | |
467 | |
468 @noindent | |
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469 This moves forward one line and continues moving by lines until it |
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470 reaches an empty line. It is peculiar in that the @code{while} has no |
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471 body, just the end test (which also does the real work of moving point). |
6453 | 472 @end defspec |
473 | |
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474 The @code{dolist} and @code{dotimes} macros provide convenient ways to |
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475 write two common kinds of loops. |
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476 |
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477 @defmac dolist (var list [result]) body@dots{} |
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478 @tindex dolist |
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479 This construct executes @var{body} once for each element of @var{list}, |
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480 using the variable @var{var} to hold the current element. Then it |
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481 returns the value of evaluating @var{result}, or @code{nil} if |
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482 @var{result} is omitted. For example, here is how you could use |
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483 @code{dolist} to define the @code{reverse} function: |
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484 |
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485 @example |
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486 (defun reverse (list) |
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487 (let (value) |
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488 (dolist (elt list value) |
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489 (setq value (cons elt value))))) |
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490 @end example |
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491 @end defmac |
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492 |
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493 @defmac dotimes (var count [result]) body@dots{} |
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494 @tindex dotimes |
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495 This construct executes @var{body} once for each integer from 0 |
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496 (inclusive) to @var{count} (exclusive), using the variable @var{var} to |
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497 hold the integer for the current iteration. Then it returns the value |
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498 of evaluating @var{result}, or @code{nil} if @var{result} is omitted. |
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499 Here is an example of using @code{dotimes} do something 100 times: |
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500 |
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501 @example |
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502 (dotimes (i 100) |
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503 (insert "I will not obey absurd orders\n")) |
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504 @end example |
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505 @end defmac |
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506 |
6453 | 507 @node Nonlocal Exits |
508 @section Nonlocal Exits | |
509 @cindex nonlocal exits | |
510 | |
511 A @dfn{nonlocal exit} is a transfer of control from one point in a | |
512 program to another remote point. Nonlocal exits can occur in Emacs Lisp | |
513 as a result of errors; you can also use them under explicit control. | |
514 Nonlocal exits unbind all variable bindings made by the constructs being | |
515 exited. | |
516 | |
517 @menu | |
518 * Catch and Throw:: Nonlocal exits for the program's own purposes. | |
519 * Examples of Catch:: Showing how such nonlocal exits can be written. | |
520 * Errors:: How errors are signaled and handled. | |
521 * Cleanups:: Arranging to run a cleanup form if an error happens. | |
522 @end menu | |
523 | |
524 @node Catch and Throw | |
525 @subsection Explicit Nonlocal Exits: @code{catch} and @code{throw} | |
526 | |
527 Most control constructs affect only the flow of control within the | |
528 construct itself. The function @code{throw} is the exception to this | |
529 rule of normal program execution: it performs a nonlocal exit on | |
530 request. (There are other exceptions, but they are for error handling | |
531 only.) @code{throw} is used inside a @code{catch}, and jumps back to | |
532 that @code{catch}. For example: | |
533 | |
534 @example | |
535 @group | |
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536 (defun foo-outer () |
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537 (catch 'foo |
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538 (foo-inner))) |
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539 |
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540 (defun foo-inner () |
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541 @dots{} |
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542 (if x |
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543 (throw 'foo t)) |
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544 @dots{}) |
6453 | 545 @end group |
546 @end example | |
547 | |
548 @noindent | |
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549 The @code{throw} form, if executed, transfers control straight back to |
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550 the corresponding @code{catch}, which returns immediately. The code |
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551 following the @code{throw} is not executed. The second argument of |
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552 @code{throw} is used as the return value of the @code{catch}. |
6453 | 553 |
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554 The function @code{throw} finds the matching @code{catch} based on the |
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555 first argument: it searches for a @code{catch} whose first argument is |
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556 @code{eq} to the one specified in the @code{throw}. If there is more |
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557 than one applicable @code{catch}, the innermost one takes precedence. |
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558 Thus, in the above example, the @code{throw} specifies @code{foo}, and |
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559 the @code{catch} in @code{foo-outer} specifies the same symbol, so that |
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560 @code{catch} is the applicable one (assuming there is no other matching |
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561 @code{catch} in between). |
6453 | 562 |
563 Executing @code{throw} exits all Lisp constructs up to the matching | |
564 @code{catch}, including function calls. When binding constructs such as | |
565 @code{let} or function calls are exited in this way, the bindings are | |
566 unbound, just as they are when these constructs exit normally | |
567 (@pxref{Local Variables}). Likewise, @code{throw} restores the buffer | |
568 and position saved by @code{save-excursion} (@pxref{Excursions}), and | |
569 the narrowing status saved by @code{save-restriction} and the window | |
570 selection saved by @code{save-window-excursion} (@pxref{Window | |
571 Configurations}). It also runs any cleanups established with the | |
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572 @code{unwind-protect} special form when it exits that form |
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573 (@pxref{Cleanups}). |
6453 | 574 |
575 The @code{throw} need not appear lexically within the @code{catch} | |
576 that it jumps to. It can equally well be called from another function | |
577 called within the @code{catch}. As long as the @code{throw} takes place | |
578 chronologically after entry to the @code{catch}, and chronologically | |
579 before exit from it, it has access to that @code{catch}. This is why | |
580 @code{throw} can be used in commands such as @code{exit-recursive-edit} | |
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581 that throw back to the editor command loop (@pxref{Recursive Editing}). |
6453 | 582 |
583 @cindex CL note---only @code{throw} in Emacs | |
584 @quotation | |
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585 @b{Common Lisp note:} Most other versions of Lisp, including Common Lisp, |
6453 | 586 have several ways of transferring control nonsequentially: @code{return}, |
587 @code{return-from}, and @code{go}, for example. Emacs Lisp has only | |
588 @code{throw}. | |
589 @end quotation | |
590 | |
591 @defspec catch tag body@dots{} | |
592 @cindex tag on run time stack | |
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593 @code{catch} establishes a return point for the @code{throw} function. |
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594 The return point is distinguished from other such return points by |
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595 @var{tag}, which may be any Lisp object except @code{nil}. The argument |
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596 @var{tag} is evaluated normally before the return point is established. |
6453 | 597 |
598 With the return point in effect, @code{catch} evaluates the forms of the | |
25089 | 599 @var{body} in textual order. If the forms execute normally (without |
600 error or nonlocal exit) the value of the last body form is returned from | |
6453 | 601 the @code{catch}. |
602 | |
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603 If a @code{throw} is executed during the execution of @var{body}, |
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604 specifying the same value @var{tag}, the @code{catch} form exits |
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605 immediately; the value it returns is whatever was specified as the |
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606 second argument of @code{throw}. |
6453 | 607 @end defspec |
608 | |
609 @defun throw tag value | |
610 The purpose of @code{throw} is to return from a return point previously | |
611 established with @code{catch}. The argument @var{tag} is used to choose | |
612 among the various existing return points; it must be @code{eq} to the value | |
613 specified in the @code{catch}. If multiple return points match @var{tag}, | |
614 the innermost one is used. | |
615 | |
616 The argument @var{value} is used as the value to return from that | |
617 @code{catch}. | |
618 | |
619 @kindex no-catch | |
620 If no return point is in effect with tag @var{tag}, then a @code{no-catch} | |
621 error is signaled with data @code{(@var{tag} @var{value})}. | |
622 @end defun | |
623 | |
624 @node Examples of Catch | |
625 @subsection Examples of @code{catch} and @code{throw} | |
626 | |
627 One way to use @code{catch} and @code{throw} is to exit from a doubly | |
628 nested loop. (In most languages, this would be done with a ``go to''.) | |
629 Here we compute @code{(foo @var{i} @var{j})} for @var{i} and @var{j} | |
630 varying from 0 to 9: | |
631 | |
632 @example | |
633 @group | |
634 (defun search-foo () | |
635 (catch 'loop | |
636 (let ((i 0)) | |
637 (while (< i 10) | |
638 (let ((j 0)) | |
639 (while (< j 10) | |
640 (if (foo i j) | |
641 (throw 'loop (list i j))) | |
642 (setq j (1+ j)))) | |
643 (setq i (1+ i)))))) | |
644 @end group | |
645 @end example | |
646 | |
647 @noindent | |
648 If @code{foo} ever returns non-@code{nil}, we stop immediately and return a | |
649 list of @var{i} and @var{j}. If @code{foo} always returns @code{nil}, the | |
650 @code{catch} returns normally, and the value is @code{nil}, since that | |
651 is the result of the @code{while}. | |
652 | |
653 Here are two tricky examples, slightly different, showing two | |
654 return points at once. First, two return points with the same tag, | |
655 @code{hack}: | |
656 | |
657 @example | |
658 @group | |
659 (defun catch2 (tag) | |
660 (catch tag | |
661 (throw 'hack 'yes))) | |
662 @result{} catch2 | |
663 @end group | |
664 | |
665 @group | |
666 (catch 'hack | |
667 (print (catch2 'hack)) | |
668 'no) | |
669 @print{} yes | |
670 @result{} no | |
671 @end group | |
672 @end example | |
673 | |
674 @noindent | |
675 Since both return points have tags that match the @code{throw}, it goes to | |
676 the inner one, the one established in @code{catch2}. Therefore, | |
677 @code{catch2} returns normally with value @code{yes}, and this value is | |
678 printed. Finally the second body form in the outer @code{catch}, which is | |
679 @code{'no}, is evaluated and returned from the outer @code{catch}. | |
680 | |
681 Now let's change the argument given to @code{catch2}: | |
682 | |
683 @example | |
684 @group | |
685 (catch 'hack | |
686 (print (catch2 'quux)) | |
687 'no) | |
688 @result{} yes | |
689 @end group | |
690 @end example | |
691 | |
692 @noindent | |
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693 We still have two return points, but this time only the outer one has |
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694 the tag @code{hack}; the inner one has the tag @code{quux} instead. |
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695 Therefore, @code{throw} makes the outer @code{catch} return the value |
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696 @code{yes}. The function @code{print} is never called, and the |
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697 body-form @code{'no} is never evaluated. |
6453 | 698 |
699 @node Errors | |
700 @subsection Errors | |
701 @cindex errors | |
702 | |
703 When Emacs Lisp attempts to evaluate a form that, for some reason, | |
704 cannot be evaluated, it @dfn{signals} an @dfn{error}. | |
705 | |
706 When an error is signaled, Emacs's default reaction is to print an | |
707 error message and terminate execution of the current command. This is | |
708 the right thing to do in most cases, such as if you type @kbd{C-f} at | |
709 the end of the buffer. | |
710 | |
711 In complicated programs, simple termination may not be what you want. | |
712 For example, the program may have made temporary changes in data | |
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713 structures, or created temporary buffers that should be deleted before |
6453 | 714 the program is finished. In such cases, you would use |
715 @code{unwind-protect} to establish @dfn{cleanup expressions} to be | |
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716 evaluated in case of error. (@xref{Cleanups}.) Occasionally, you may |
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717 wish the program to continue execution despite an error in a subroutine. |
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718 In these cases, you would use @code{condition-case} to establish |
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719 @dfn{error handlers} to recover control in case of error. |
6453 | 720 |
721 Resist the temptation to use error handling to transfer control from | |
722 one part of the program to another; use @code{catch} and @code{throw} | |
723 instead. @xref{Catch and Throw}. | |
724 | |
725 @menu | |
726 * Signaling Errors:: How to report an error. | |
727 * Processing of Errors:: What Emacs does when you report an error. | |
728 * Handling Errors:: How you can trap errors and continue execution. | |
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729 * Error Symbols:: How errors are classified for trapping them. |
6453 | 730 @end menu |
731 | |
732 @node Signaling Errors | |
733 @subsubsection How to Signal an Error | |
734 @cindex signaling errors | |
735 | |
736 Most errors are signaled ``automatically'' within Lisp primitives | |
737 which you call for other purposes, such as if you try to take the | |
738 @sc{car} of an integer or move forward a character at the end of the | |
25089 | 739 buffer. You can also signal errors explicitly with the functions |
6453 | 740 @code{error} and @code{signal}. |
741 | |
742 Quitting, which happens when the user types @kbd{C-g}, is not | |
743 considered an error, but it is handled almost like an error. | |
744 @xref{Quitting}. | |
745 | |
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746 The error message should state what is wrong (``File does not |
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747 exist''), not how things ought to be (``File must exist''). The |
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748 convention in Emacs Lisp is that error messages should start with a |
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749 capital letter, but should not end with any sort of punctuation. |
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750 |
6453 | 751 @defun error format-string &rest args |
752 This function signals an error with an error message constructed by | |
753 applying @code{format} (@pxref{String Conversion}) to | |
754 @var{format-string} and @var{args}. | |
755 | |
756 These examples show typical uses of @code{error}: | |
757 | |
758 @example | |
759 @group | |
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760 (error "That is an error -- try something else") |
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761 @error{} That is an error -- try something else |
6453 | 762 @end group |
763 | |
764 @group | |
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765 (error "You have committed %d errors" 10) |
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766 @error{} You have committed 10 errors |
6453 | 767 @end group |
768 @end example | |
769 | |
770 @code{error} works by calling @code{signal} with two arguments: the | |
771 error symbol @code{error}, and a list containing the string returned by | |
772 @code{format}. | |
773 | |
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774 @strong{Warning:} If you want to use your own string as an error message |
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775 verbatim, don't just write @code{(error @var{string})}. If @var{string} |
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776 contains @samp{%}, it will be interpreted as a format specifier, with |
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777 undesirable results. Instead, use @code{(error "%s" @var{string})}. |
6453 | 778 @end defun |
779 | |
780 @defun signal error-symbol data | |
781 This function signals an error named by @var{error-symbol}. The | |
782 argument @var{data} is a list of additional Lisp objects relevant to the | |
783 circumstances of the error. | |
784 | |
785 The argument @var{error-symbol} must be an @dfn{error symbol}---a symbol | |
786 bearing a property @code{error-conditions} whose value is a list of | |
787 condition names. This is how Emacs Lisp classifies different sorts of | |
788 errors. | |
789 | |
790 The number and significance of the objects in @var{data} depends on | |
791 @var{error-symbol}. For example, with a @code{wrong-type-arg} error, | |
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792 there should be two objects in the list: a predicate that describes the type |
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793 that was expected, and the object that failed to fit that type. |
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794 @xref{Error Symbols}, for a description of error symbols. |
6453 | 795 |
796 Both @var{error-symbol} and @var{data} are available to any error | |
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797 handlers that handle the error: @code{condition-case} binds a local |
6453 | 798 variable to a list of the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} .@: |
799 @var{data})} (@pxref{Handling Errors}). If the error is not handled, | |
800 these two values are used in printing the error message. | |
801 | |
802 The function @code{signal} never returns (though in older Emacs versions | |
803 it could sometimes return). | |
804 | |
805 @smallexample | |
806 @group | |
807 (signal 'wrong-number-of-arguments '(x y)) | |
808 @error{} Wrong number of arguments: x, y | |
809 @end group | |
810 | |
811 @group | |
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812 (signal 'no-such-error '("My unknown error condition")) |
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813 @error{} peculiar error: "My unknown error condition" |
6453 | 814 @end group |
815 @end smallexample | |
816 @end defun | |
817 | |
818 @cindex CL note---no continuable errors | |
819 @quotation | |
820 @b{Common Lisp note:} Emacs Lisp has nothing like the Common Lisp | |
821 concept of continuable errors. | |
822 @end quotation | |
823 | |
824 @node Processing of Errors | |
825 @subsubsection How Emacs Processes Errors | |
826 | |
827 When an error is signaled, @code{signal} searches for an active | |
828 @dfn{handler} for the error. A handler is a sequence of Lisp | |
829 expressions designated to be executed if an error happens in part of the | |
830 Lisp program. If the error has an applicable handler, the handler is | |
831 executed, and control resumes following the handler. The handler | |
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832 executes in the environment of the @code{condition-case} that |
6453 | 833 established it; all functions called within that @code{condition-case} |
834 have already been exited, and the handler cannot return to them. | |
835 | |
836 If there is no applicable handler for the error, the current command is | |
837 terminated and control returns to the editor command loop, because the | |
838 command loop has an implicit handler for all kinds of errors. The | |
839 command loop's handler uses the error symbol and associated data to | |
840 print an error message. | |
841 | |
842 @cindex @code{debug-on-error} use | |
843 An error that has no explicit handler may call the Lisp debugger. The | |
844 debugger is enabled if the variable @code{debug-on-error} (@pxref{Error | |
845 Debugging}) is non-@code{nil}. Unlike error handlers, the debugger runs | |
846 in the environment of the error, so that you can examine values of | |
847 variables precisely as they were at the time of the error. | |
848 | |
849 @node Handling Errors | |
850 @subsubsection Writing Code to Handle Errors | |
851 @cindex error handler | |
852 @cindex handling errors | |
853 | |
854 The usual effect of signaling an error is to terminate the command | |
855 that is running and return immediately to the Emacs editor command loop. | |
856 You can arrange to trap errors occurring in a part of your program by | |
857 establishing an error handler, with the special form | |
858 @code{condition-case}. A simple example looks like this: | |
859 | |
860 @example | |
861 @group | |
862 (condition-case nil | |
863 (delete-file filename) | |
864 (error nil)) | |
865 @end group | |
866 @end example | |
867 | |
868 @noindent | |
869 This deletes the file named @var{filename}, catching any error and | |
870 returning @code{nil} if an error occurs. | |
871 | |
872 The second argument of @code{condition-case} is called the | |
873 @dfn{protected form}. (In the example above, the protected form is a | |
874 call to @code{delete-file}.) The error handlers go into effect when | |
875 this form begins execution and are deactivated when this form returns. | |
876 They remain in effect for all the intervening time. In particular, they | |
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877 are in effect during the execution of functions called by this form, in |
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878 their subroutines, and so on. This is a good thing, since, strictly |
6453 | 879 speaking, errors can be signaled only by Lisp primitives (including |
880 @code{signal} and @code{error}) called by the protected form, not by the | |
881 protected form itself. | |
882 | |
883 The arguments after the protected form are handlers. Each handler | |
884 lists one or more @dfn{condition names} (which are symbols) to specify | |
885 which errors it will handle. The error symbol specified when an error | |
886 is signaled also defines a list of condition names. A handler applies | |
887 to an error if they have any condition names in common. In the example | |
888 above, there is one handler, and it specifies one condition name, | |
889 @code{error}, which covers all errors. | |
890 | |
891 The search for an applicable handler checks all the established handlers | |
892 starting with the most recently established one. Thus, if two nested | |
893 @code{condition-case} forms offer to handle the same error, the inner of | |
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894 the two gets to handle it. |
6453 | 895 |
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896 If an error is handled by some @code{condition-case} form, this |
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897 ordinarily prevents the debugger from being run, even if |
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898 @code{debug-on-error} says this error should invoke the debugger. |
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899 @xref{Error Debugging}. If you want to be able to debug errors that are |
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900 caught by a @code{condition-case}, set the variable |
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901 @code{debug-on-signal} to a non-@code{nil} value. |
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902 |
6453 | 903 When an error is handled, control returns to the handler. Before this |
904 happens, Emacs unbinds all variable bindings made by binding constructs | |
905 that are being exited and executes the cleanups of all | |
906 @code{unwind-protect} forms that are exited. Once control arrives at | |
907 the handler, the body of the handler is executed. | |
908 | |
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909 After execution of the handler body, execution returns from the |
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910 @code{condition-case} form. Because the protected form is exited |
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911 completely before execution of the handler, the handler cannot resume |
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912 execution at the point of the error, nor can it examine variable |
6453 | 913 bindings that were made within the protected form. All it can do is |
914 clean up and proceed. | |
915 | |
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916 The @code{condition-case} construct is often used to trap errors that |
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917 are predictable, such as failure to open a file in a call to |
6453 | 918 @code{insert-file-contents}. It is also used to trap errors that are |
919 totally unpredictable, such as when the program evaluates an expression | |
920 read from the user. | |
921 | |
922 Error signaling and handling have some resemblance to @code{throw} and | |
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923 @code{catch} (@pxref{Catch and Throw}), but they are entirely separate |
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924 facilities. An error cannot be caught by a @code{catch}, and a |
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925 @code{throw} cannot be handled by an error handler (though using |
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926 @code{throw} when there is no suitable @code{catch} signals an error |
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927 that can be handled). |
6453 | 928 |
929 @defspec condition-case var protected-form handlers@dots{} | |
930 This special form establishes the error handlers @var{handlers} around | |
931 the execution of @var{protected-form}. If @var{protected-form} executes | |
932 without error, the value it returns becomes the value of the | |
933 @code{condition-case} form; in this case, the @code{condition-case} has | |
934 no effect. The @code{condition-case} form makes a difference when an | |
935 error occurs during @var{protected-form}. | |
936 | |
937 Each of the @var{handlers} is a list of the form @code{(@var{conditions} | |
938 @var{body}@dots{})}. Here @var{conditions} is an error condition name | |
939 to be handled, or a list of condition names; @var{body} is one or more | |
940 Lisp expressions to be executed when this handler handles an error. | |
941 Here are examples of handlers: | |
942 | |
943 @smallexample | |
944 @group | |
945 (error nil) | |
946 | |
947 (arith-error (message "Division by zero")) | |
948 | |
949 ((arith-error file-error) | |
950 (message | |
951 "Either division by zero or failure to open a file")) | |
952 @end group | |
953 @end smallexample | |
954 | |
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955 Each error that occurs has an @dfn{error symbol} that describes what |
6453 | 956 kind of error it is. The @code{error-conditions} property of this |
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957 symbol is a list of condition names (@pxref{Error Symbols}). Emacs |
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958 searches all the active @code{condition-case} forms for a handler that |
6453 | 959 specifies one or more of these condition names; the innermost matching |
960 @code{condition-case} handles the error. Within this | |
961 @code{condition-case}, the first applicable handler handles the error. | |
962 | |
963 After executing the body of the handler, the @code{condition-case} | |
964 returns normally, using the value of the last form in the handler body | |
965 as the overall value. | |
966 | |
15725 | 967 @cindex error description |
6453 | 968 The argument @var{var} is a variable. @code{condition-case} does not |
969 bind this variable when executing the @var{protected-form}, only when it | |
15725 | 970 handles an error. At that time, it binds @var{var} locally to an |
971 @dfn{error description}, which is a list giving the particulars of the | |
972 error. The error description has the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} | |
973 . @var{data})}. The handler can refer to this list to decide what to | |
974 do. For example, if the error is for failure opening a file, the file | |
975 name is the second element of @var{data}---the third element of the | |
976 error description. | |
6453 | 977 |
978 If @var{var} is @code{nil}, that means no variable is bound. Then the | |
979 error symbol and associated data are not available to the handler. | |
980 @end defspec | |
981 | |
15725 | 982 @defun error-message-string error-description |
983 This function returns the error message string for a given error | |
984 descriptor. It is useful if you want to handle an error by printing the | |
985 usual error message for that error. | |
986 @end defun | |
987 | |
6453 | 988 @cindex @code{arith-error} example |
989 Here is an example of using @code{condition-case} to handle the error | |
15725 | 990 that results from dividing by zero. The handler displays the error |
991 message (but without a beep), then returns a very large number. | |
6453 | 992 |
993 @smallexample | |
994 @group | |
995 (defun safe-divide (dividend divisor) | |
996 (condition-case err | |
997 ;; @r{Protected form.} | |
998 (/ dividend divisor) | |
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999 @end group |
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1000 @group |
6453 | 1001 ;; @r{The handler.} |
1002 (arith-error ; @r{Condition.} | |
15725 | 1003 ;; @r{Display the usual message for this error.} |
1004 (message "%s" (error-message-string err)) | |
6453 | 1005 1000000))) |
1006 @result{} safe-divide | |
1007 @end group | |
1008 | |
1009 @group | |
1010 (safe-divide 5 0) | |
1011 @print{} Arithmetic error: (arith-error) | |
1012 @result{} 1000000 | |
1013 @end group | |
1014 @end smallexample | |
1015 | |
1016 @noindent | |
1017 The handler specifies condition name @code{arith-error} so that it will handle only division-by-zero errors. Other kinds of errors will not be handled, at least not by this @code{condition-case}. Thus, | |
1018 | |
1019 @smallexample | |
1020 @group | |
1021 (safe-divide nil 3) | |
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1022 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, nil |
6453 | 1023 @end group |
1024 @end smallexample | |
1025 | |
1026 Here is a @code{condition-case} that catches all kinds of errors, | |
1027 including those signaled with @code{error}: | |
1028 | |
1029 @smallexample | |
1030 @group | |
1031 (setq baz 34) | |
1032 @result{} 34 | |
1033 @end group | |
1034 | |
1035 @group | |
1036 (condition-case err | |
1037 (if (eq baz 35) | |
1038 t | |
1039 ;; @r{This is a call to the function @code{error}.} | |
12098 | 1040 (error "Rats! The variable %s was %s, not 35" 'baz baz)) |
6453 | 1041 ;; @r{This is the handler; it is not a form.} |
1042 (error (princ (format "The error was: %s" err)) | |
1043 2)) | |
12098 | 1044 @print{} The error was: (error "Rats! The variable baz was 34, not 35") |
6453 | 1045 @result{} 2 |
1046 @end group | |
1047 @end smallexample | |
1048 | |
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1049 @node Error Symbols |
6453 | 1050 @subsubsection Error Symbols and Condition Names |
1051 @cindex error symbol | |
1052 @cindex error name | |
1053 @cindex condition name | |
1054 @cindex user-defined error | |
1055 @kindex error-conditions | |
1056 | |
1057 When you signal an error, you specify an @dfn{error symbol} to specify | |
1058 the kind of error you have in mind. Each error has one and only one | |
1059 error symbol to categorize it. This is the finest classification of | |
1060 errors defined by the Emacs Lisp language. | |
1061 | |
1062 These narrow classifications are grouped into a hierarchy of wider | |
1063 classes called @dfn{error conditions}, identified by @dfn{condition | |
1064 names}. The narrowest such classes belong to the error symbols | |
1065 themselves: each error symbol is also a condition name. There are also | |
1066 condition names for more extensive classes, up to the condition name | |
1067 @code{error} which takes in all kinds of errors. Thus, each error has | |
1068 one or more condition names: @code{error}, the error symbol if that | |
1069 is distinct from @code{error}, and perhaps some intermediate | |
1070 classifications. | |
1071 | |
1072 In order for a symbol to be an error symbol, it must have an | |
1073 @code{error-conditions} property which gives a list of condition names. | |
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1074 This list defines the conditions that this kind of error belongs to. |
6453 | 1075 (The error symbol itself, and the symbol @code{error}, should always be |
1076 members of this list.) Thus, the hierarchy of condition names is | |
1077 defined by the @code{error-conditions} properties of the error symbols. | |
1078 | |
1079 In addition to the @code{error-conditions} list, the error symbol | |
1080 should have an @code{error-message} property whose value is a string to | |
1081 be printed when that error is signaled but not handled. If the | |
1082 @code{error-message} property exists, but is not a string, the error | |
1083 message @samp{peculiar error} is used. | |
1084 @cindex peculiar error | |
1085 | |
1086 Here is how we define a new error symbol, @code{new-error}: | |
1087 | |
1088 @example | |
1089 @group | |
1090 (put 'new-error | |
1091 'error-conditions | |
1092 '(error my-own-errors new-error)) | |
1093 @result{} (error my-own-errors new-error) | |
1094 @end group | |
1095 @group | |
1096 (put 'new-error 'error-message "A new error") | |
1097 @result{} "A new error" | |
1098 @end group | |
1099 @end example | |
1100 | |
1101 @noindent | |
1102 This error has three condition names: @code{new-error}, the narrowest | |
1103 classification; @code{my-own-errors}, which we imagine is a wider | |
1104 classification; and @code{error}, which is the widest of all. | |
12098 | 1105 |
1106 The error string should start with a capital letter but it should | |
1107 not end with a period. This is for consistency with the rest of Emacs. | |
6453 | 1108 |
1109 Naturally, Emacs will never signal @code{new-error} on its own; only | |
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1110 an explicit call to @code{signal} (@pxref{Signaling Errors}) in your |
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1111 code can do this: |
6453 | 1112 |
1113 @example | |
1114 @group | |
1115 (signal 'new-error '(x y)) | |
1116 @error{} A new error: x, y | |
1117 @end group | |
1118 @end example | |
1119 | |
1120 This error can be handled through any of the three condition names. | |
1121 This example handles @code{new-error} and any other errors in the class | |
1122 @code{my-own-errors}: | |
1123 | |
1124 @example | |
1125 @group | |
1126 (condition-case foo | |
1127 (bar nil t) | |
1128 (my-own-errors nil)) | |
1129 @end group | |
1130 @end example | |
1131 | |
1132 The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition | |
1133 names---the names used to match errors with handlers. An error symbol | |
1134 serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message | |
1135 and list of condition names. It would be cumbersome to give | |
1136 @code{signal} a list of condition names rather than one error symbol. | |
1137 | |
1138 By contrast, using only error symbols without condition names would | |
1139 seriously decrease the power of @code{condition-case}. Condition names | |
1140 make it possible to categorize errors at various levels of generality | |
1141 when you write an error handler. Using error symbols alone would | |
1142 eliminate all but the narrowest level of classification. | |
1143 | |
1144 @xref{Standard Errors}, for a list of all the standard error symbols | |
1145 and their conditions. | |
1146 | |
1147 @node Cleanups | |
1148 @subsection Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits | |
1149 | |
1150 The @code{unwind-protect} construct is essential whenever you | |
1151 temporarily put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits | |
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1152 you to make the data consistent again in the event of an error or throw. |
6453 | 1153 |
1154 @defspec unwind-protect body cleanup-forms@dots{} | |
1155 @cindex cleanup forms | |
1156 @cindex protected forms | |
1157 @cindex error cleanup | |
1158 @cindex unwinding | |
1159 @code{unwind-protect} executes the @var{body} with a guarantee that the | |
1160 @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated if control leaves @var{body}, no | |
1161 matter how that happens. The @var{body} may complete normally, or | |
1162 execute a @code{throw} out of the @code{unwind-protect}, or cause an | |
1163 error; in all cases, the @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated. | |
1164 | |
1165 If the @var{body} forms finish normally, @code{unwind-protect} returns | |
1166 the value of the last @var{body} form, after it evaluates the | |
1167 @var{cleanup-forms}. If the @var{body} forms do not finish, | |
1168 @code{unwind-protect} does not return any value in the normal sense. | |
1169 | |
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1170 Only the @var{body} is protected by the @code{unwind-protect}. If any |
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1171 of the @var{cleanup-forms} themselves exits nonlocally (via a |
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1172 @code{throw} or an error), @code{unwind-protect} is @emph{not} |
6453 | 1173 guaranteed to evaluate the rest of them. If the failure of one of the |
1174 @var{cleanup-forms} has the potential to cause trouble, then protect it | |
1175 with another @code{unwind-protect} around that form. | |
1176 | |
1177 The number of currently active @code{unwind-protect} forms counts, | |
1178 together with the number of local variable bindings, against the limit | |
1179 @code{max-specpdl-size} (@pxref{Local Variables}). | |
1180 @end defspec | |
1181 | |
1182 For example, here we make an invisible buffer for temporary use, and | |
1183 make sure to kill it before finishing: | |
1184 | |
1185 @smallexample | |
1186 @group | |
1187 (save-excursion | |
1188 (let ((buffer (get-buffer-create " *temp*"))) | |
1189 (set-buffer buffer) | |
1190 (unwind-protect | |
1191 @var{body} | |
1192 (kill-buffer buffer)))) | |
1193 @end group | |
1194 @end smallexample | |
1195 | |
1196 @noindent | |
1197 You might think that we could just as well write @code{(kill-buffer | |
1198 (current-buffer))} and dispense with the variable @code{buffer}. | |
1199 However, the way shown above is safer, if @var{body} happens to get an | |
1200 error after switching to a different buffer! (Alternatively, you could | |
1201 write another @code{save-excursion} around the body, to ensure that the | |
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1202 temporary buffer becomes current again in time to kill it.) |
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1203 |
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1204 Emacs includes a standard macro called @code{with-temp-buffer} which |
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1205 expands into more or less the code shown above (@pxref{Current Buffer}). |
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1206 Several of the macros defined in this manual use @code{unwind-protect} |
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1207 in this way. |
6453 | 1208 |
1209 @findex ftp-login | |
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1210 Here is an actual example derived from an FTP package. It creates a |
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1211 process (@pxref{Processes}) to try to establish a connection to a remote |
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1212 machine. As the function @code{ftp-login} is highly susceptible to |
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1213 numerous problems that the writer of the function cannot anticipate, it |
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1214 is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the process in the |
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1215 event of failure. Otherwise, Emacs might fill up with useless |
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1216 subprocesses. |
6453 | 1217 |
1218 @smallexample | |
1219 @group | |
1220 (let ((win nil)) | |
1221 (unwind-protect | |
1222 (progn | |
1223 (setq process (ftp-setup-buffer host file)) | |
1224 (if (setq win (ftp-login process host user password)) | |
1225 (message "Logged in") | |
1226 (error "Ftp login failed"))) | |
1227 (or win (and process (delete-process process))))) | |
1228 @end group | |
1229 @end smallexample | |
1230 | |
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1231 This example has a small bug: if the user types @kbd{C-g} to |
6453 | 1232 quit, and the quit happens immediately after the function |
1233 @code{ftp-setup-buffer} returns but before the variable @code{process} is | |
1234 set, the process will not be killed. There is no easy way to fix this bug, | |
1235 but at least it is very unlikely. |