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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Sat, 20 Sep 1997 04:48:29 +0000 |
parents | 981e116b4ac6 |
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6447 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/objects | |
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6 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
6447 | 7 @chapter Lisp Data Types |
8 @cindex object | |
9 @cindex Lisp object | |
10 @cindex type | |
11 @cindex data type | |
12 | |
13 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
14 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
15 possible objects. | |
16 | |
17 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
18 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
19 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
20 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
21 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
22 | |
23 @cindex primitive type | |
24 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
25 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive | |
26 types}. Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These | |
27 types include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
28 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{subr}, @dfn{byte-code function}, and | |
29 several special types, such as @dfn{buffer}, that are related to | |
30 editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
31 | |
32 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
33 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
34 | |
35 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are | |
36 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the | |
37 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat | |
38 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. | |
39 | |
40 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
41 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
42 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
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43 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value |
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44 you store in it, type and all. |
6447 | 45 |
46 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
47 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
48 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
49 | |
50 @menu | |
51 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
52 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
53 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
54 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
55 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. | |
56 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
57 @end menu | |
58 | |
59 @node Printed Representation | |
60 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
61 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
62 @cindex printed representation | |
63 @cindex read syntax | |
64 | |
65 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
66 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
67 that object. The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the | |
68 input accepted by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that | |
69 object. Most objects have more than one possible read syntax. Some | |
70 types of object have no read syntax; except for these cases, the printed | |
71 representation of an object is also a read syntax for it. | |
72 | |
73 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
74 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
75 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
76 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
77 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
78 | |
79 @cindex hash notation | |
80 Every type has a printed representation. Some types have no read | |
81 syntax, since it may not make sense to enter objects of these types | |
82 directly in a Lisp program. For example, the buffer type does not have | |
83 a read syntax. Objects of these types are printed in @dfn{hash | |
84 notation}: the characters @samp{#<} followed by a descriptive string | |
85 (typically the type name followed by the name of the object), and closed | |
86 with a matching @samp{>}. Hash notation cannot be read at all, so the | |
87 Lisp reader signals the error @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it | |
88 encounters @samp{#<}. | |
89 @kindex invalid-read-syntax | |
90 | |
91 @example | |
92 (current-buffer) | |
93 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
94 @end example | |
95 | |
96 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
97 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
98 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
99 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
100 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
101 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
102 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
103 | |
104 @node Comments | |
105 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
106 @section Comments | |
107 @cindex comments | |
108 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
109 | |
110 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
111 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
112 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
113 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
114 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
115 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
116 system. | |
117 | |
12098 | 118 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} |
119 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
120 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
121 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
122 | |
6447 | 123 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. |
124 | |
125 @node Programming Types | |
126 @section Programming Types | |
127 @cindex programming types | |
128 | |
129 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
130 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
131 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
132 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
133 | |
134 @menu | |
135 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
136 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
137 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
138 control characters. | |
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139 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, |
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140 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. |
6447 | 141 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. |
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142 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). |
6447 | 143 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. |
144 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
145 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
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146 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. |
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147 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another |
6447 | 148 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. |
149 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
150 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
151 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
152 functions. | |
153 @end menu | |
154 | |
155 @node Integer Type | |
156 @subsection Integer Type | |
157 | |
10559 | 158 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}134217728 to |
159 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., | |
6447 | 160 @ifinfo |
10559 | 161 -2**27 |
6447 | 162 @end ifinfo |
163 @tex | |
10559 | 164 $-2^{27}$ |
6447 | 165 @end tex |
166 to | |
167 @ifinfo | |
10559 | 168 2**27 - 1) |
6447 | 169 @end ifinfo |
170 @tex | |
10559 | 171 $2^{28}-1$) |
6447 | 172 @end tex |
10559 | 173 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is |
174 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
175 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} is @minus{}134217728 on most | |
176 machines. | |
6447 | 177 |
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178 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an |
6447 | 179 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The |
180 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
181 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
182 | |
183 @example | |
184 @group | |
185 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
186 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
187 1. ; @r{Also The integer 1.} | |
188 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
10559 | 189 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1!} |
190 ; @r{ (on a 28-bit implementation)} | |
6447 | 191 @end group |
192 @end example | |
193 | |
194 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
195 | |
196 @node Floating Point Type | |
197 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
198 | |
199 Emacs version 19 supports floating point numbers (though there is a | |
200 compilation option to disable them). The precise range of floating | |
201 point numbers is machine-specific. | |
202 | |
203 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
204 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
205 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
206 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
207 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
208 | |
209 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
210 | |
211 @node Character Type | |
212 @subsection Character Type | |
213 @cindex @sc{ASCII} character codes | |
214 | |
215 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
216 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
217 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
218 | |
219 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more | |
220 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of | |
221 characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
222 | |
223 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to the | |
224 range of 0 to 255---eight bits. If you store a larger integer into a | |
225 string, buffer or file, it is truncated to that range. Characters that | |
226 represent keyboard input have a much wider range. | |
227 | |
228 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
229 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
230 @cindex syntax for characters | |
231 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a | |
232 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for | |
233 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very | |
234 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats | |
235 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start | |
236 with a question mark. | |
237 | |
238 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
239 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
240 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
241 character @kbd{a}. | |
242 | |
243 For example: | |
244 | |
245 @example | |
246 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
247 @end example | |
248 | |
249 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
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250 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for |
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251 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\ } is the |
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252 way to write the space character. If the character is @samp{\}, you |
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253 @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. |
6447 | 254 |
255 @cindex whitespace | |
256 @cindex bell character | |
257 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
258 @cindex backspace | |
259 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
260 @cindex tab | |
261 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
262 @cindex vertical tab | |
263 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
264 @cindex formfeed | |
265 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
266 @cindex newline | |
267 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
268 @cindex return | |
269 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
270 @cindex escape | |
271 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
272 You can express the characters Control-g, backspace, tab, newline, | |
273 vertical tab, formfeed, return, and escape as @samp{?\a}, @samp{?\b}, | |
274 @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\e}, | |
275 respectively. Those values are 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 27 in | |
276 decimal. Thus, | |
277 | |
278 @example | |
279 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{@kbd{C-g}} | |
280 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} | |
281 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
282 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @key{LFD}, @kbd{C-j}} | |
283 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} | |
284 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
285 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
286 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
287 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} | |
288 @end example | |
289 | |
290 @cindex escape sequence | |
291 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
292 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an escape | |
293 character; this usage has nothing to do with the character @key{ESC}. | |
294 | |
295 @cindex control characters | |
296 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
297 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
298 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
299 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
300 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
301 | |
302 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
303 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
304 | |
305 @example | |
306 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
307 @end example | |
308 | |
309 For use in strings and buffers, you are limited to the control | |
310 characters that exist in @sc{ASCII}, but for keyboard input purposes, | |
311 you can turn any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The | |
312 character codes for these non-@sc{ASCII} control characters include the | |
12098 | 313 @iftex |
314 $2^{26}$ | |
315 @end iftex | |
316 @ifinfo | |
317 2**26 | |
318 @end ifinfo | |
319 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control | |
6447 | 320 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ASCII} |
321 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using an | |
322 X terminal. | |
323 | |
12098 | 324 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as |
325 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
6447 | 326 |
327 @example | |
328 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
329 @end example | |
330 | |
12098 | 331 @noindent |
332 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
333 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X. It is | |
334 not easy to change this as various Lisp files refer to @key{DEL} in this | |
335 way. | |
336 | |
6447 | 337 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, |
338 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
339 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. This does not affect the meaning | |
340 of the program, but may guide the understanding of people who read it. | |
341 | |
342 @cindex meta characters | |
343 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
344 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
12098 | 345 @iftex |
346 $2^{27}$ | |
347 @end iftex | |
348 @ifinfo | |
349 2**27 | |
350 @end ifinfo | |
351 bit set (which on most machines makes it a negative number). We | |
6447 | 352 use high bits for this and other modifiers to make possible a wide range |
353 of basic character codes. | |
354 | |
12098 | 355 In a string, the |
356 @iftex | |
357 $2^{7}$ | |
358 @end iftex | |
359 @ifinfo | |
360 2**7 | |
361 @end ifinfo | |
362 bit indicates a meta character, so the meta | |
6447 | 363 characters that can fit in a string have codes in the range from 128 to |
364 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ASCII} characters. | |
365 (In Emacs versions 18 and older, this convention was used for characters | |
366 outside of strings as well.) | |
367 | |
368 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
369 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
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370 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other |
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371 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, |
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372 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as |
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373 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. |
6447 | 374 |
375 The case of an ordinary letter is indicated by its character code as | |
376 part of @sc{ASCII}, but @sc{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a | |
12098 | 377 control character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the |
378 @iftex | |
379 $2^{25}$ | |
380 @end iftex | |
381 @ifinfo | |
382 2**25 | |
383 @end ifinfo | |
384 bit to indicate that the shift key was used for typing a control | |
385 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals | |
386 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not indicate the | |
387 distinction to the computer in any way. | |
6447 | 388 |
389 @cindex hyper characters | |
390 @cindex super characters | |
391 @cindex alt characters | |
392 The X Window System defines three other modifier bits that can be set | |
393 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes | |
394 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. Thus, | |
12098 | 395 @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. |
396 @iftex | |
397 Numerically, the | |
398 bit values are $2^{22}$ for alt, $2^{23}$ for super and $2^{24}$ for hyper. | |
399 @end iftex | |
400 @ifinfo | |
401 Numerically, the | |
402 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
403 @end ifinfo | |
6447 | 404 |
405 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant | |
406 @cindex question mark in character constant | |
407 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
408 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
409 @cindex octal character code | |
410 Finally, the most general read syntax consists of a question mark | |
411 followed by a backslash and the character code in octal (up to three | |
412 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, | |
413 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
414 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ASCII} | |
415 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more | |
416 important than the @sc{ASCII} representation. | |
417 | |
418 @example | |
419 @group | |
420 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
421 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
422 @end group | |
423 @end example | |
424 | |
425 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without | |
426 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
427 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
428 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
429 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
430 Lisp code. Also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as | |
431 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of | |
432 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t}, instead of an | |
433 actual whitespace character such as a tab. | |
434 | |
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435 @node Symbol Type |
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436 @subsection Symbol Type |
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437 |
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438 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The symbol |
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439 name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In ordinary |
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440 use, the name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
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441 |
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442 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a |
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443 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp |
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444 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized |
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445 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is |
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446 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, |
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447 independently. |
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448 |
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449 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols |
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450 @cindex backslash in symbols |
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451 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names |
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452 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters |
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453 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters |
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454 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. |
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455 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force |
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456 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}} are |
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457 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other |
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458 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a |
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459 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in |
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460 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the |
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461 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab |
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462 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the |
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463 letter @kbd{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you |
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464 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to |
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465 do such a thing. |
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466 |
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467 @cindex CL note---case of letters |
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468 @quotation |
7734 | 469 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always |
12098 | 470 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs |
471 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
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472 @end quotation |
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473 |
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474 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in |
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475 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. |
12098 | 476 This is not necessary in the sixth example because the rest of the name |
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477 makes it invalid as a number. |
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478 |
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479 @example |
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480 @group |
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481 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} |
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482 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} |
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483 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} |
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484 @end group |
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485 @group |
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486 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} |
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487 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} |
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488 @end group |
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489 @group |
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490 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} |
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491 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} |
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492 @end group |
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493 @group |
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494 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} |
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495 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the |
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496 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. |
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497 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} |
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498 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} |
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499 @end group |
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500 @end example |
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501 |
6447 | 502 @node Sequence Type |
503 @subsection Sequence Types | |
504 | |
505 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
506 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
507 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
508 considered a sequence. | |
509 | |
510 Arrays are further subdivided into strings and vectors. Vectors can | |
511 hold elements of any type, but string elements must be characters in the | |
512 range from 0 to 255. However, the characters in a string can have text | |
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513 properties like characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}); |
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514 vectors do not support text properties even when their elements happen |
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515 to be characters. |
6447 | 516 |
517 Lists, strings and vectors are different, but they have important | |
518 similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all have | |
519 elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. Also, | |
520 several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of | |
521 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract | |
522 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
523 Vectors}. | |
524 | |
525 It is impossible to read the same sequence twice, since sequences are | |
526 always created anew upon reading. If you read the read syntax for a | |
527 sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. There is one | |
528 exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the same object, | |
529 @code{nil}. | |
530 | |
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531 @node Cons Cell Type |
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532 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types |
6447 | 533 @cindex address field of register |
534 @cindex decrement field of register | |
535 | |
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536 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object comprising two pointers named the |
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537 @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr}. Each of them can point to any Lisp object. |
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538 |
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539 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the |
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540 @sc{cdr} of each cons cell points either to another cons cell or to the |
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541 empty list. @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because |
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542 most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list |
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543 structure} has come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. |
6447 | 544 |
545 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} have only historical meaning now. The | |
546 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which | |
547 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
548 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
549 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
550 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
551 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn is named | |
552 for its purpose, the construction of cells. | |
553 | |
554 @cindex atom | |
555 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
556 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called | |
557 @dfn{atoms}. | |
558 | |
559 @cindex parenthesis | |
560 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and | |
561 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
562 right parenthesis. | |
563 | |
564 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
565 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
566 @sc{car} of the cons cell points to the element, and its @sc{cdr} points | |
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567 to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next element in the |
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568 list. The @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is set to point to @code{nil}. |
6447 | 569 |
570 @cindex box diagrams, for lists | |
571 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
572 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are | |
573 shown as pairs of boxes. (The Lisp reader cannot read such an | |
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574 illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be understood by |
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575 both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be understood only |
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576 by humans.) The following represents the three-element list @code{(rose |
6447 | 577 violet buttercup)}: |
578 | |
579 @example | |
580 @group | |
581 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
582 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
583 | | | | |
584 | | | | |
585 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
586 @end group | |
587 @end example | |
588 | |
589 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can refer to any Lisp | |
590 object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow is a | |
591 reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons cell. | |
592 | |
593 In this example, the first box, the @sc{car} of the first cons cell, | |
594 refers to or ``contains'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second box, the | |
595 @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next pair of boxes, the | |
596 second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons cell refers to | |
597 @code{violet} and the @sc{cdr} refers to the third cons cell. The | |
598 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell refers to @code{nil}. | |
599 | |
600 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet | |
601 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: | |
602 | |
603 @smallexample | |
604 @group | |
605 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
606 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
607 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
608 | | | | | | | | | | |
609 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
610 @end group | |
611 @end smallexample | |
612 | |
613 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
614 @cindex @code{nil} in lists | |
615 @cindex empty list | |
616 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
617 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
618 and a list. | |
619 | |
620 Here are examples of lists written in Lisp syntax: | |
621 | |
622 @example | |
623 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
624 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
625 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
626 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
627 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
628 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
629 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
630 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
631 @end example | |
632 | |
633 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
634 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
635 | |
636 @example | |
637 @group | |
638 ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
639 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
640 | | | |
641 | | | |
642 --> A --> nil | |
643 @end group | |
644 @end example | |
645 | |
646 @menu | |
647 * Dotted Pair Notation:: An alternative syntax for lists. | |
648 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
649 @end menu | |
650 | |
651 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
652 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
653 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
654 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
655 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
656 | |
657 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is an alternative syntax for cons cells | |
658 that represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
659 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is | |
660 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
661 pair notation is therefore more general than list syntax. In the dotted | |
662 pair notation, the list @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 | |
663 . nil)))}. For @code{nil}-terminated lists, the two notations produce | |
664 the same result, but list notation is usually clearer and more | |
665 convenient when it is applicable. When printing a list, the dotted pair | |
666 notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cell is not a list. | |
667 | |
668 Here's how box notation can illustrate dotted pairs. This example | |
669 shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: | |
670 | |
671 @example | |
672 @group | |
673 ___ ___ | |
674 |___|___|--> violet | |
675 | | |
676 | | |
677 --> rose | |
678 @end group | |
679 @end example | |
680 | |
681 Dotted pair notation can be combined with list notation to represent a | |
682 chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. For example, | |
683 @code{(rose violet . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet | |
684 . buttercup))}. The object looks like this: | |
685 | |
686 @example | |
687 @group | |
688 ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
689 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> buttercup | |
690 | | | |
691 | | | |
692 --> rose --> violet | |
693 @end group | |
694 @end example | |
695 | |
696 These diagrams make it evident why @w{@code{(rose .@: violet .@: | |
697 buttercup)}} is invalid syntax; it would require a cons cell that has | |
698 three parts rather than two. | |
699 | |
700 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))} | |
701 and looks like this: | |
702 | |
703 @example | |
704 @group | |
705 ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
706 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
707 | | | |
708 | | | |
709 --> rose --> violet | |
710 @end group | |
711 @end example | |
712 | |
713 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
714 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
715 @ifinfo | |
716 It looks like this: | |
717 | |
718 @example | |
719 @group | |
720 ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ | |
721 |___|___|--> |___|___|--> |___|___|--> nil | |
722 | | | | |
723 | | | | |
724 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
725 @end group | |
726 @end example | |
727 @end ifinfo | |
728 | |
729 @node Association List Type | |
730 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
731 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
732 | |
733 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
734 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
735 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
736 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
737 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
738 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
739 the list. | |
740 | |
741 For example, | |
742 | |
743 @example | |
744 (setq alist-of-colors | |
745 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) | |
746 @end example | |
747 | |
748 @noindent | |
749 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
750 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
751 | |
752 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
753 functions that work on alists. | |
754 | |
755 @node Array Type | |
756 @subsection Array Type | |
757 | |
758 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
759 referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of | |
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760 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes the same amount of |
6447 | 761 time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires time |
762 proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements at | |
763 the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the beginning | |
764 of a list.) | |
765 | |
766 Emacs defines two types of array, strings and vectors. A string is an | |
767 array of characters and a vector is an array of arbitrary objects. Both | |
768 are one-dimensional. (Most other programming languages support | |
769 multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; you can get the | |
770 same effect with an array of arrays.) Each type of array has its own | |
771 read syntax; see @ref{String Type}, and @ref{Vector Type}. | |
772 | |
773 An array may have any length up to the largest integer; but once | |
774 created, it has a fixed size. The first element of an array has index | |
775 zero, the second element has index 1, and so on. This is called | |
776 @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For example, an array of four elements has | |
777 indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. | |
778 | |
779 The array type is contained in the sequence type and contains both the | |
780 string type and the vector type. | |
781 | |
782 @node String Type | |
783 @subsection String Type | |
784 | |
785 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
786 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
787 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
788 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
789 of a string returns the same string. | |
790 | |
791 @cindex @samp{"} in strings | |
792 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
793 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
794 @cindex backslash in strings | |
795 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of | |
796 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. The Lisp | |
797 reader accepts the same formats for reading the characters of a string | |
798 as it does for reading single characters (without the question mark that | |
799 begins a character literal). You can enter a nonprinting character such | |
800 as tab, @kbd{C-a} or @kbd{M-C-A} using the convenient escape sequences, | |
801 like this: @code{"\t, \C-a, \M-\C-a"}. You can include a double-quote | |
802 in a string by preceding it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} is a | |
803 string containing just a single double-quote character. | |
804 (@xref{Character Type}, for a description of the read syntax for | |
805 characters.) | |
806 | |
807 If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate a meta character in a | |
12098 | 808 string constant, this sets the |
809 @iftex | |
810 $2^{7}$ | |
811 @end iftex | |
812 @ifinfo | |
813 2**7 | |
814 @end ifinfo | |
815 bit of the character in the string. | |
6447 | 816 This is not the same representation that the meta modifier has in a |
817 character on its own (not inside a string). @xref{Character Type}. | |
818 | |
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819 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt |
6447 | 820 modifiers; they can hold @sc{ASCII} control characters, but no others. |
821 They do not distinguish case in @sc{ASCII} control characters. | |
822 | |
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823 The printed representation of a string consists of a double-quote, the |
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824 characters it contains, and another double-quote. However, you must |
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825 escape any backslash or double-quote characters in the string with a |
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826 backslash, like this: @code{"this \" is an embedded quote"}. |
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827 |
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828 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; |
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829 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a |
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830 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded |
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831 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader |
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832 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. |
6447 | 833 @cindex newline in strings |
834 | |
835 @example | |
836 "It is useful to include newlines | |
837 in documentation strings, | |
838 but the newline is \ | |
839 ignored if escaped." | |
840 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines | |
841 in documentation strings, | |
842 but the newline is ignored if escaped." | |
843 @end example | |
844 | |
845 A string can hold properties of the text it contains, in addition to | |
846 the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy text between | |
847 strings and buffers to preserve the properties with no special effort. | |
848 @xref{Text Properties}. Strings with text properties have a special | |
849 read and print syntax: | |
850 | |
851 @example | |
852 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
853 @end example | |
854 | |
855 @noindent | |
856 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
857 of three as follows: | |
858 | |
859 @example | |
860 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
861 @end example | |
862 | |
863 @noindent | |
864 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
865 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
866 that range. | |
867 | |
868 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that work on strings. | |
869 | |
870 @node Vector Type | |
871 @subsection Vector Type | |
872 | |
873 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
874 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
875 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
876 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
877 | |
878 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
879 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
880 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
881 for evaluation. | |
882 | |
883 @example | |
884 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
885 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
886 @end example | |
887 | |
888 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
889 | |
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890 @node Function Type |
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891 @subsection Function Type |
6447 | 892 |
893 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable, | |
894 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However, | |
895 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the | |
896 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions: | |
897 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda | |
898 Expressions}). | |
899 | |
900 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
901 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
902 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous | |
903 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid | |
904 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}). | |
905 | |
906 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
907 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
908 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
909 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
910 | |
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911 @node Macro Type |
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912 @subsection Macro Type |
6447 | 913 |
914 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
915 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
916 different parameter-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a | |
917 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} | |
918 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
919 | |
920 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
921 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
922 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
923 of how to write a macro. | |
924 | |
925 @node Primitive Function Type | |
926 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
927 @cindex special forms | |
928 | |
929 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
930 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
931 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
932 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
933 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
934 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
935 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
936 | |
937 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
938 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to substitute a | |
939 function written in Lisp for a primitive of the same name. The reason | |
940 is that the primitive function may be called directly from C code. | |
941 Calls to the redefined function from Lisp will use the new definition, | |
942 but calls from C code may still use the built-in definition. | |
943 | |
944 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
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945 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the |
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946 functions written in Lisp. |
6447 | 947 |
948 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
949 with the name of the subroutine. | |
950 | |
951 @example | |
952 @group | |
953 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
954 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
955 @result{} #<subr car> | |
956 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
957 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
958 @end group | |
959 @end example | |
960 | |
961 @node Byte-Code Type | |
962 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
963 | |
964 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
965 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
966 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
967 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
968 the byte compiler. | |
969 | |
12098 | 970 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function |
971 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
972 opening @samp{[}. | |
6447 | 973 |
974 @node Autoload Type | |
975 @subsection Autoload Type | |
976 | |
977 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
978 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol as | |
979 a placeholder for the real definition; it says that the real definition | |
980 is found in a file of Lisp code that should be loaded when necessary. | |
981 The autoload object contains the name of the file, plus some other | |
982 information about the real definition. | |
983 | |
984 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
985 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
986 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
987 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
988 in the loaded file. | |
989 | |
990 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
991 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
992 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
993 | |
994 @node Editing Types | |
995 @section Editing Types | |
996 @cindex editing types | |
997 | |
998 The types in the previous section are common to many Lisp dialects. | |
999 Emacs Lisp provides several additional data types for purposes connected | |
1000 with editing. | |
1001 | |
1002 @menu | |
1003 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1004 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1005 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
1006 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. | |
1007 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. | |
1008 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. | |
1009 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. | |
1010 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
1011 * Syntax Table Type:: What a character means. | |
1012 * Display Table Type:: How display tables are represented. | |
1013 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
1014 @end menu | |
1015 | |
1016 @node Buffer Type | |
1017 @subsection Buffer Type | |
1018 | |
1019 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1020 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1021 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1022 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
1023 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a | |
1024 buffer need not be displayed in any window. | |
1025 | |
1026 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1027 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
1028 different. For example, insertion of text into a buffer is very | |
1029 efficient, whereas ``inserting'' text into a string requires | |
1030 concatenating substrings, and the result is an entirely new string | |
1031 object. | |
1032 | |
1033 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} | |
1034 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current | |
1035 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current | |
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1036 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs |
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1037 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a |
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1038 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions |
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1039 (@pxref{Text}). |
6447 | 1040 |
1041 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1042 | |
1043 @itemize @bullet | |
1044 @item | |
1045 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1046 | |
1047 @item | |
1048 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1049 | |
1050 @item | |
1051 a local variable binding list (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). | |
12098 | 1052 |
1053 @item | |
1054 a list of overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). | |
1055 | |
1056 @item | |
1057 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
6447 | 1058 @end itemize |
1059 | |
1060 @noindent | |
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1061 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually |
6447 | 1062 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the |
1063 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1064 programs. | |
1065 | |
12098 | 1066 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text |
1067 of another buffer. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. | |
1068 | |
1069 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
6447 | 1070 buffer name. |
1071 | |
1072 @example | |
1073 @group | |
1074 (current-buffer) | |
1075 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1076 @end group | |
1077 @end example | |
1078 | |
1079 @node Marker Type | |
1080 @subsection Marker Type | |
1081 | |
1082 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1083 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1084 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1085 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1086 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1087 | |
1088 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1089 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1090 | |
1091 @example | |
1092 @group | |
1093 (point-marker) | |
1094 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1095 @end group | |
1096 @end example | |
1097 | |
1098 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1099 markers. | |
1100 | |
1101 @node Window Type | |
1102 @subsection Window Type | |
1103 | |
1104 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1105 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1106 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1107 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1108 | |
1109 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1110 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1111 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1112 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1113 necessarily the case. | |
1114 | |
1115 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1116 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1117 | |
1118 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1119 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1120 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1121 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1122 | |
1123 @example | |
1124 @group | |
1125 (selected-window) | |
1126 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1127 @end group | |
1128 @end example | |
1129 | |
1130 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1131 | |
1132 @node Frame Type | |
1133 @subsection Frame Type | |
1134 | |
1135 A @var{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more | |
1136 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus | |
1137 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or | |
1138 horizontally into smaller windows. | |
1139 | |
1140 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1141 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1142 uniquely). | |
1143 | |
1144 @example | |
1145 @group | |
1146 (selected-frame) | |
1147 @result{} #<frame xemacs@@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu 0xdac80> | |
1148 @end group | |
1149 @end example | |
1150 | |
1151 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1152 | |
1153 @node Window Configuration Type | |
1154 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1155 @cindex screen layout | |
1156 | |
1157 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1158 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1159 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1160 | |
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1161 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax |
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1162 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window |
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1163 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to |
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1164 window configurations. |
6447 | 1165 |
1166 @node Process Type | |
1167 @subsection Process Type | |
1168 | |
1169 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1170 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1171 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1172 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1173 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1174 | |
1175 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1176 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1177 to the subprocess. | |
1178 | |
1179 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1180 giving the name of the process: | |
1181 | |
1182 @example | |
1183 @group | |
1184 (process-list) | |
1185 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1186 @end group | |
1187 @end example | |
1188 | |
1189 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1190 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1191 from processes. | |
1192 | |
1193 @node Stream Type | |
1194 @subsection Stream Type | |
1195 | |
1196 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1197 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1198 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1199 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1200 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1201 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1202 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1203 | |
1204 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1205 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1206 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1207 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1208 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1209 Area}). | |
1210 | |
1211 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1212 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1213 | |
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1214 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions |
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1215 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. |
6447 | 1216 |
1217 @node Keymap Type | |
1218 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1219 | |
1220 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1221 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1222 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1223 | |
1224 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1225 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1226 | |
1227 @node Syntax Table Type | |
1228 @subsection Syntax Table Type | |
1229 | |
1230 A @dfn{syntax table} is a vector of 256 integers. Each element of the | |
1231 vector defines how one character is interpreted when it appears in a | |
1232 buffer. For example, in C mode (@pxref{Major Modes}), the @samp{+} | |
1233 character is punctuation, but in Lisp mode it is a valid character in a | |
1234 symbol. These modes specify different interpretations by changing the | |
1235 syntax table entry for @samp{+}, at index 43 in the syntax table. | |
1236 | |
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1237 Syntax tables are used only for scanning text in buffers, not for |
6447 | 1238 reading Lisp expressions. The table the Lisp interpreter uses to read |
1239 expressions is built into the Emacs source code and cannot be changed; | |
1240 thus, to change the list delimiters to be @samp{@{} and @samp{@}} | |
1241 instead of @samp{(} and @samp{)} would be impossible. | |
1242 | |
1243 @xref{Syntax Tables}, for details about syntax classes and how to make | |
1244 and modify syntax tables. | |
1245 | |
1246 @node Display Table Type | |
1247 @subsection Display Table Type | |
1248 | |
1249 A @dfn{display table} specifies how to display each character code. | |
1250 Each buffer and each window can have its own display table. A display | |
12098 | 1251 table is actually a vector of length 262. @xref{Display Tables}. |
6447 | 1252 |
1253 @node Overlay Type | |
1254 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1255 | |
1256 An @dfn{overlay} specifies temporary alteration of the display | |
1257 appearance of a part of a buffer. It contains markers delimiting a | |
1258 range of the buffer, plus a property list (a list whose elements are | |
1259 alternating property names and values). Overlays are used to present | |
12098 | 1260 parts of the buffer temporarily in a different display style. They have |
1261 no read syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and | |
1262 range of positions. | |
6447 | 1263 |
12098 | 1264 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. |
6447 | 1265 |
1266 @node Type Predicates | |
1267 @section Type Predicates | |
1268 @cindex predicates | |
1269 @cindex type checking | |
1270 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1271 | |
1272 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1273 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1274 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1275 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1276 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1277 a type that the function can use. | |
1278 | |
1279 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1280 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1281 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
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1282 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: |
6447 | 1283 |
1284 @example | |
1285 @group | |
1286 (+ 2 'a) | |
1287 @error{} Wrong type argument: integer-or-marker-p, a | |
1288 @end group | |
1289 @end example | |
1290 | |
1291 @cindex type predicates | |
1292 @cindex testing types | |
12067 | 1293 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you |
1294 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1295 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1296 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1297 combinations of types. | |
1298 | |
1299 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if | |
1300 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1301 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1302 predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1303 | |
1304 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1305 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
6447 | 1306 |
12067 | 1307 @example |
1308 (defun add-on (x) | |
1309 (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1310 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1311 (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1312 ((listp x) | |
1313 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1314 (setq list (append x list))) | |
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1315 @need 3000 |
12067 | 1316 (t |
1317 ;; We only handle symbols and lists. | |
1318 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) | |
1319 @end example | |
1320 | |
1321 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
6447 | 1322 with references to further information. |
1323 | |
1324 @table @code | |
1325 @item atom | |
1326 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1327 | |
1328 @item arrayp | |
1329 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1330 | |
1331 @item bufferp | |
1332 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1333 | |
1334 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1335 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1336 | |
1337 @item case-table-p | |
1338 @xref{Case Table, case-table-p}. | |
1339 | |
1340 @item char-or-string-p | |
1341 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1342 | |
1343 @item commandp | |
1344 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1345 | |
1346 @item consp | |
1347 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1348 | |
1349 @item floatp | |
1350 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1351 | |
1352 @item frame-live-p | |
1353 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1354 | |
1355 @item framep | |
1356 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1357 | |
1358 @item integer-or-marker-p | |
1359 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1360 | |
1361 @item integerp | |
1362 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1363 | |
1364 @item keymapp | |
1365 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1366 | |
1367 @item listp | |
1368 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1369 | |
1370 @item markerp | |
1371 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1372 | |
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1373 @item wholenump |
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1374 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. |
6447 | 1375 |
1376 @item nlistp | |
1377 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1378 | |
1379 @item numberp | |
1380 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1381 | |
1382 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1383 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1384 | |
1385 @item overlayp | |
1386 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1387 | |
1388 @item processp | |
1389 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1390 | |
1391 @item sequencep | |
1392 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1393 | |
1394 @item stringp | |
1395 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1396 | |
1397 @item subrp | |
1398 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1399 | |
1400 @item symbolp | |
1401 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1402 | |
1403 @item syntax-table-p | |
1404 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1405 | |
1406 @item user-variable-p | |
1407 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1408 | |
1409 @item vectorp | |
1410 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1411 | |
1412 @item window-configuration-p | |
1413 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1414 | |
1415 @item window-live-p | |
1416 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1417 | |
1418 @item windowp | |
1419 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1420 @end table | |
1421 | |
12067 | 1422 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the |
1423 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1424 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1425 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1426 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1427 @code{type-of}. | |
1428 | |
1429 @defun type-of object | |
1430 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
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1431 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, |
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1432 @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, |
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1433 @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, @code{buffer}, |
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1434 @code{subr}, @code{compiled-function}, @code{process}, or |
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1435 @code{window-configuration}. |
12067 | 1436 |
1437 @example | |
1438 (type-of 1) | |
1439 @result{} integer | |
1440 (type-of 'nil) | |
1441 @result{} symbol | |
1442 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1443 @result{} symbol | |
1444 (type-of '(x)) | |
1445 @result{} cons | |
1446 @end example | |
1447 @end defun | |
1448 | |
6447 | 1449 @node Equality Predicates |
1450 @section Equality Predicates | |
1451 @cindex equality | |
1452 | |
1453 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two | |
1454 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific | |
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1455 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
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1456 describing the data type. |
6447 | 1457 |
1458 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1459 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1460 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a | |
1461 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other. | |
1462 | |
1463 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1464 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1465 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1466 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1467 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1468 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1469 object. | |
1470 | |
1471 (The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol that is | |
1472 not interned in the standard @code{obarray}. When uninterned symbols | |
1473 are in use, symbol names are no longer unique. Distinct symbols with | |
1474 the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating Symbols}.) | |
1475 | |
1476 @example | |
1477 @group | |
1478 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1479 @result{} t | |
1480 @end group | |
1481 | |
1482 @group | |
1483 (eq 456 456) | |
1484 @result{} t | |
1485 @end group | |
1486 | |
1487 @group | |
1488 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1489 @result{} nil | |
1490 @end group | |
1491 | |
1492 @group | |
1493 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1494 @result{} nil | |
1495 @end group | |
1496 | |
1497 @group | |
1498 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1499 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1500 (eq foo foo) | |
1501 @result{} t | |
1502 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1503 @result{} nil | |
1504 @end group | |
1505 | |
1506 @group | |
1507 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1508 @result{} nil | |
1509 @end group | |
1510 | |
1511 @group | |
1512 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1513 @result{} nil | |
1514 @end group | |
1515 @end example | |
1516 | |
1517 @end defun | |
1518 | |
1519 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1520 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1521 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1522 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
1523 arguments to see if their elements are the same. So, if two objects are | |
1524 @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not always true. | |
1525 | |
1526 @example | |
1527 @group | |
1528 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
1529 @result{} t | |
1530 @end group | |
1531 | |
1532 @group | |
1533 (equal 456 456) | |
1534 @result{} t | |
1535 @end group | |
1536 | |
1537 @group | |
1538 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
1539 @result{} t | |
1540 @end group | |
1541 @group | |
1542 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1543 @result{} nil | |
1544 @end group | |
1545 | |
1546 @group | |
1547 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1548 @result{} t | |
1549 @end group | |
1550 @group | |
1551 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1552 @result{} nil | |
1553 @end group | |
1554 | |
1555 @group | |
1556 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1557 @result{} t | |
1558 @end group | |
1559 @group | |
1560 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1561 @result{} nil | |
1562 @end group | |
1563 | |
1564 @group | |
1565 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1566 @result{} t | |
1567 @end group | |
1568 | |
1569 @group | |
1570 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1571 @result{} nil | |
1572 @end group | |
1573 @end example | |
1574 | |
12067 | 1575 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive and takes account of text |
1576 properties as well as the characters in the strings. To compare | |
1577 two strings' characters without comparing their text properties, | |
1578 use @code{string=} (@pxref{Text Comparison}). | |
6447 | 1579 |
1580 @example | |
1581 @group | |
1582 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
1583 @result{} nil | |
1584 @end group | |
1585 @end example | |
12098 | 1586 |
1587 Two distinct buffers are never @code{equal}, even if their contents | |
1588 are the same. | |
6447 | 1589 @end defun |
1590 | |
1591 The test for equality is implemented recursively, and circular lists may | |
1592 therefore cause infinite recursion (leading to an error). |