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author | Kenichi Handa <handa@m17n.org> |
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date | Mon, 12 Apr 2004 23:17:27 +0000 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
27189 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 8 @chapter Numbers |
9 @cindex integers | |
10 @cindex numbers | |
11 | |
12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2 |
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second |
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
6510 | 19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. |
20 | |
21 @menu | |
22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
32 @end menu | |
33 | |
34 @node Integer Basics | |
35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
36 @section Integer Basics | |
37 | |
38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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39 minimum range is @minus{}134217728 to 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., |
27193 | 40 @ifnottex |
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41 -2**27 |
27193 | 42 @end ifnottex |
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43 @tex |
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44 @math{-2^{27}} |
6510 | 45 @end tex |
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46 to |
27193 | 47 @ifnottex |
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48 2**27 - 1), |
27193 | 49 @end ifnottex |
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50 @tex |
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51 @math{2^{27}-1}), |
6510 | 52 @end tex |
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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54 chapter assume an integer has 28 bits. |
6510 | 55 @cindex overflow |
56 | |
57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
58 initial sign and optional final period. | |
59 | |
60 @example | |
61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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65 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
68 @end example | |
69 | |
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70 @cindex integers in specific radix |
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71 @cindex radix for reading an integer |
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72 @cindex base for reading an integer |
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73 In addition, the Lisp reader recognizes a syntax for integers in |
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74 bases other than 10: @samp{#B@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in |
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75 binary (radix 2), @samp{#O@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in octal |
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76 (radix 8), @samp{#X@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in hexadecimal |
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77 (radix 16), and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} |
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78 in radix @var{radix} (where @var{radix} is between 2 and 36, |
48700 | 79 inclusively). Case is not significant for the letter after @samp{#} |
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80 (@samp{B}, @samp{O}, etc.) that denotes the radix. |
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81 |
6510 | 82 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the |
83 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
84 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
85 | |
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86 In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 87 |
88 @example | |
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89 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 90 @end example |
91 | |
92 @noindent | |
93 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
94 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
95 | |
96 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
97 | |
98 @example | |
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99 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 100 @end example |
101 | |
102 @noindent | |
103 @cindex two's complement | |
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104 @minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 105 complement} notation.) |
106 | |
107 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
108 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
109 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
110 | |
111 @example | |
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112 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 113 @end example |
114 | |
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115 In this implementation, the largest 28-bit binary integer value is |
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116 134,217,727 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 117 |
118 @example | |
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119 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 120 @end example |
121 | |
122 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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123 outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the |
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124 negative integer @minus{}134,217,728: |
6510 | 125 |
126 @example | |
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127 (+ 1 134217727) |
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128 @result{} -134217728 |
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129 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 130 @end example |
131 | |
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132 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for |
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133 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual |
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134 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often |
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135 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument |
6510 | 136 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. |
137 | |
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138 @defvar most-positive-fixnum |
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139 The value of this variable is the largest integer that Emacs Lisp |
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140 can handle. |
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141 @end defvar |
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142 |
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143 @defvar most-negative-fixnum |
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144 The value of this variable is the smallest integer that Emacs Lisp can |
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145 handle. It is negative. |
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146 @end defvar |
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147 |
6510 | 148 @node Float Basics |
149 @section Floating Point Basics | |
150 | |
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151 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are |
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152 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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153 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type |
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154 @code{double} on the machine you are using. |
6510 | 155 |
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156 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal |
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157 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For |
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158 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and |
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159 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose |
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160 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign |
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161 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}. |
6510 | 162 |
163 @cindex IEEE floating point | |
164 @cindex positive infinity | |
165 @cindex negative infinity | |
166 @cindex infinity | |
167 @cindex NaN | |
168 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which | |
169 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point | |
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170 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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171 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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172 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a |
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173 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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174 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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175 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp |
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176 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for |
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177 these special floating point values: |
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178 |
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179 @table @asis |
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180 @item positive infinity |
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181 @samp{1.0e+INF} |
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182 @item negative infinity |
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183 @samp{-1.0e+INF} |
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184 @item Not-a-number |
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185 @samp{0.0e+NaN}. |
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186 @end table |
6510 | 187 |
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188 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary |
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189 zero in IEEE floating point (although @code{equal} and @code{=} consider |
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190 them equal values). |
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191 |
6510 | 192 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating |
193 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
194 | |
195 @defun logb number | |
196 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
197 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
198 down to an integer. | |
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199 |
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200 @example |
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201 (logb 10) |
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202 @result{} 3 |
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203 (logb 10.0e20) |
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204 @result{} 69 |
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205 @end example |
6510 | 206 @end defun |
207 | |
208 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
209 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
210 | |
211 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or | |
212 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp} | |
213 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the | |
214 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop} | |
215 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also | |
216 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in | |
217 @ref{Predicates on Markers}. | |
218 | |
219 @defun floatp object | |
220 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
221 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
222 | |
223 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
224 @end defun | |
225 | |
226 @defun integerp object | |
227 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
228 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
229 @end defun | |
230 | |
231 @defun numberp object | |
232 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
233 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
234 @end defun | |
235 | |
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236 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 237 @cindex natural numbers |
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238 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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239 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 240 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
241 considered non-negative. | |
242 | |
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243 @findex natnump |
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244 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 245 @end defun |
246 | |
247 @defun zerop number | |
248 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
249 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
250 | |
251 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}. | |
252 @end defun | |
253 | |
254 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
255 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
256 @cindex number equality | |
257 | |
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258 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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259 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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260 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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261 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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262 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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263 of the objects. |
6510 | 264 |
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265 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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266 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are |
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267 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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268 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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269 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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270 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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271 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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272 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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273 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 274 |
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275 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it treats |
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276 two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both integers, or |
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277 both floating point) and the same value. By contrast, @code{=} can |
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278 treat an integer and a floating point number as equal. |
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279 |
6510 | 280 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not |
281 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
282 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
283 Here's a function to do this: | |
284 | |
285 @example | |
286 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
287 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 288 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
289 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
290 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
291 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 292 @end example |
293 | |
294 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
295 @quotation | |
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296 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 297 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
298 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
299 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
300 limited range of integer values. | |
301 @end quotation | |
302 | |
303 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
304 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
305 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
306 @end defun | |
307 | |
308 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
309 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
310 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
311 @end defun | |
312 | |
313 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
314 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
315 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
316 @end defun | |
317 | |
318 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
319 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
320 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
321 otherwise. | |
322 @end defun | |
323 | |
324 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
325 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
326 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
327 otherwise. | |
328 @end defun | |
329 | |
330 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
331 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
332 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
333 otherwise. | |
334 @end defun | |
335 | |
336 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
337 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
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338 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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339 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 340 |
341 @example | |
342 (max 20) | |
343 @result{} 20 | |
344 (max 1 2.5) | |
345 @result{} 2.5 | |
346 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
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347 @result{} 3.0 |
6510 | 348 @end example |
349 @end defun | |
350 | |
351 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
352 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
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353 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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354 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 355 |
356 @example | |
357 (min -4 1) | |
358 @result{} -4 | |
359 @end example | |
360 @end defun | |
361 | |
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362 @defun abs number |
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363 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}. |
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364 @end defun |
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365 |
6510 | 366 @node Numeric Conversions |
367 @section Numeric Conversions | |
368 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
369 | |
370 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
371 | |
372 @defun float number | |
373 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
374 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
375 it unchanged. | |
376 @end defun | |
377 | |
378 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
379 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments | |
380 also, and return such arguments unchanged. | |
381 | |
382 @defun truncate number | |
383 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards | |
384 zero. | |
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385 |
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386 @example |
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387 (truncate 1.2) |
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388 @result{} 1 |
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389 (truncate 1.7) |
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390 @result{} 1 |
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391 (truncate -1.2) |
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392 @result{} -1 |
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393 (truncate -1.7) |
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394 @result{} -1 |
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395 @end example |
6510 | 396 @end defun |
397 | |
398 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
399 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
400 (towards negative infinity). | |
401 | |
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402 If @var{divisor} is specified, @code{floor} divides @var{number} by |
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403 @var{divisor} and then converts to an integer; this uses the kind of |
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404 division operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward. |
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405 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. |
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406 |
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407 @example |
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408 (floor 1.2) |
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409 @result{} 1 |
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410 (floor 1.7) |
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411 @result{} 1 |
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412 (floor -1.2) |
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413 @result{} -2 |
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414 (floor -1.7) |
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415 @result{} -2 |
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416 (floor 5.99 3) |
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417 @result{} 1 |
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418 @end example |
6510 | 419 @end defun |
420 | |
421 @defun ceiling number | |
422 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward | |
423 (towards positive infinity). | |
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424 |
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425 @example |
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426 (ceiling 1.2) |
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427 @result{} 2 |
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428 (ceiling 1.7) |
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429 @result{} 2 |
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430 (ceiling -1.2) |
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431 @result{} -1 |
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432 (ceiling -1.7) |
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433 @result{} -1 |
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434 @end example |
6510 | 435 @end defun |
436 | |
437 @defun round number | |
438 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the | |
12098 | 439 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
440 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
441 depending on your machine. | |
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442 |
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443 @example |
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444 (round 1.2) |
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445 @result{} 1 |
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446 (round 1.7) |
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447 @result{} 2 |
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448 (round -1.2) |
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449 @result{} -1 |
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450 (round -1.7) |
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451 @result{} -2 |
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452 @end example |
6510 | 453 @end defun |
454 | |
455 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
456 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
457 | |
458 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
459 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
460 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
461 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
462 commonly used. | |
463 | |
464 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
465 if any argument is floating. | |
466 | |
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467 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions |
12067 | 468 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} may evaluate to |
469 @minus{}134217728, depending on your hardware. | |
6510 | 470 |
471 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
472 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
473 For example, | |
474 | |
475 @example | |
476 (setq foo 4) | |
477 @result{} 4 | |
478 (1+ foo) | |
479 @result{} 5 | |
480 @end example | |
481 | |
12098 | 482 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
483 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 484 |
485 @example | |
486 foo | |
487 @result{} 4 | |
488 @end example | |
489 | |
490 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
491 like this: | |
492 | |
493 @example | |
494 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
495 @result{} 5 | |
496 @end example | |
497 @end defun | |
498 | |
499 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
500 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
501 @end defun | |
502 | |
503 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
504 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 505 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 506 |
507 @example | |
508 (+) | |
509 @result{} 0 | |
510 (+ 1) | |
511 @result{} 1 | |
512 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
513 @result{} 10 | |
514 @end example | |
515 @end defun | |
516 | |
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517 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers |
6510 | 518 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. |
519 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
520 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
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521 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, |
12098 | 522 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 523 |
524 @example | |
525 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
526 @result{} 0 | |
527 (- 10) | |
528 @result{} -10 | |
529 (-) | |
530 @result{} 0 | |
531 @end example | |
532 @end defun | |
533 | |
534 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
535 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 536 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 537 |
538 @example | |
539 (*) | |
540 @result{} 1 | |
541 (* 1) | |
542 @result{} 1 | |
543 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
544 @result{} 24 | |
545 @end example | |
546 @end defun | |
547 | |
548 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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549 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 550 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
551 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
552 number or a marker. | |
553 | |
554 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
555 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
556 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
557 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
558 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
559 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
560 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
561 | |
562 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
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563 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. |
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564 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either |
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565 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports IEEE floating point; |
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566 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error. |
6510 | 567 |
568 @example | |
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569 @group |
6510 | 570 (/ 6 2) |
571 @result{} 3 | |
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572 @end group |
6510 | 573 (/ 5 2) |
574 @result{} 2 | |
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575 (/ 5.0 2) |
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576 @result{} 2.5 |
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577 (/ 5 2.0) |
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578 @result{} 2.5 |
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579 (/ 5.0 2.0) |
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580 @result{} 2.5 |
6510 | 581 (/ 25 3 2) |
582 @result{} 4 | |
583 (/ -17 6) | |
584 @result{} -2 | |
585 @end example | |
586 | |
587 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
588 machines. | |
589 @end defun | |
590 | |
591 @defun % dividend divisor | |
592 @cindex remainder | |
593 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
594 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
595 | |
596 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
597 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
598 | |
599 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
600 | |
601 @example | |
602 (% 9 4) | |
603 @result{} 1 | |
604 (% -9 4) | |
605 @result{} -1 | |
606 (% 9 -4) | |
607 @result{} 1 | |
608 (% -9 -4) | |
609 @result{} -1 | |
610 @end example | |
611 | |
612 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
613 | |
614 @example | |
615 @group | |
616 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
617 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
618 @end group | |
619 @end example | |
620 | |
621 @noindent | |
622 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
623 @end defun | |
624 | |
625 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
626 @cindex modulus | |
627 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
628 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
629 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
630 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
631 | |
632 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
633 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
634 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
635 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
636 | |
637 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
638 | |
639 @example | |
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640 @group |
6510 | 641 (mod 9 4) |
642 @result{} 1 | |
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643 @end group |
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644 @group |
6510 | 645 (mod -9 4) |
646 @result{} 3 | |
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647 @end group |
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648 @group |
6510 | 649 (mod 9 -4) |
650 @result{} -3 | |
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651 @end group |
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652 @group |
6510 | 653 (mod -9 -4) |
654 @result{} -1 | |
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655 @end group |
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656 @group |
6510 | 657 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
658 @result{} .5 | |
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659 @end group |
6510 | 660 @end example |
661 | |
662 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
663 | |
664 @example | |
665 @group | |
666 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
667 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
668 @end group | |
669 @end example | |
670 | |
671 @noindent | |
12098 | 672 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
673 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
674 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 675 @end defun |
676 | |
677 @node Rounding Operations | |
678 @section Rounding Operations | |
679 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
680 | |
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681 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and |
6510 | 682 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
683 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 684 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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685 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 686 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
687 | |
688 @defun ffloor float | |
689 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
690 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
691 @end defun | |
692 | |
8017 | 693 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 694 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
695 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
696 @end defun | |
697 | |
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698 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 699 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
700 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
701 @end defun | |
702 | |
703 @defun fround float | |
704 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
705 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
706 @end defun | |
707 | |
708 @node Bitwise Operations | |
709 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
710 | |
711 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
712 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
713 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
714 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
715 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
716 | |
717 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
718 | |
719 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
720 @cindex logical shift | |
721 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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722 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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723 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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724 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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725 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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726 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 727 |
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728 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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729 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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730 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 731 |
732 @example | |
733 @group | |
734 (lsh 5 1) | |
735 @result{} 10 | |
736 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
737 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
738 | |
739 (lsh 7 1) | |
740 @result{} 14 | |
741 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
742 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
743 @end group | |
744 @end example | |
745 | |
746 @noindent | |
747 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
748 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
749 number. | |
750 | |
12098 | 751 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
752 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
753 | |
754 @example | |
755 @group | |
756 (lsh 3 2) | |
757 @result{} 12 | |
758 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
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759 00000011 @result{} 00001100 |
12098 | 760 @end group |
761 @end example | |
762 | |
763 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
764 | |
765 @example | |
766 @group | |
767 (lsh 6 -1) | |
768 @result{} 3 | |
769 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
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770 00000110 @result{} 00000011 |
12098 | 771 @end group |
772 | |
773 @group | |
774 (lsh 5 -1) | |
775 @result{} 2 | |
776 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
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777 00000101 @result{} 00000010 |
12098 | 778 @end group |
779 @end example | |
780 | |
781 @noindent | |
782 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
783 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
784 | |
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785 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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786 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 787 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
788 134,217,727 produces @minus{}2 on a 28-bit machine: | |
6510 | 789 |
790 @example | |
12067 | 791 (lsh 134217727 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 792 @result{} -2 |
793 @end example | |
794 | |
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795 In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 796 |
797 @example | |
798 @group | |
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799 ;; @r{Decimal 134,217,727} |
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800 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 801 @end group |
802 @end example | |
803 | |
804 @noindent | |
805 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
806 | |
807 @example | |
808 @group | |
809 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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810 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 811 @end group |
812 @end example | |
813 @end defun | |
814 | |
815 @defun ash integer1 count | |
816 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
817 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
818 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
819 is negative. | |
820 | |
821 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
822 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 823 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
824 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 825 |
826 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
827 looks like this: | |
828 | |
829 @example | |
830 @group | |
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831 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 |
6510 | 832 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} |
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833 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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834 @result{} |
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835 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 836 @end group |
837 @end example | |
838 | |
839 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
840 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
841 | |
842 @example | |
843 @group | |
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844 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725 |
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845 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.} |
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846 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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847 @result{} |
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848 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 849 @end group |
850 @end example | |
851 | |
852 Here are other examples: | |
853 | |
854 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
855 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
856 @smallexample | |
857 @group | |
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858 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 859 |
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860 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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861 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 862 @end group |
863 @group | |
864 (ash 5 2) | |
865 @result{} 20 | |
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866 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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867 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 868 (ash -5 2) |
869 @result{} -20 | |
870 @end group | |
871 @group | |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
872 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
873 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 874 @end group |
875 @group | |
876 (ash 5 -2) | |
877 @result{} 1 | |
878 @end group | |
879 @group | |
10306
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
880 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
881 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 882 @end group |
883 @group | |
10306
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
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|
884 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
885 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 886 @end group |
887 @end smallexample | |
888 @end defun | |
889 | |
890 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
891 @cindex logical and | |
892 @cindex bitwise and | |
893 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
894 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
895 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
896 rather than 0.) | |
897 | |
898 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
899 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
900 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
901 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
902 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
903 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
904 | |
905 @noindent | |
906 Therefore, | |
907 | |
908 @example | |
909 @group | |
910 (logand 13 12) | |
911 @result{} 12 | |
912 @end group | |
913 @end example | |
914 | |
915 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
916 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
917 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
918 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
919 | |
920 @smallexample | |
921 @group | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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diff
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|
922 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 923 |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
changeset
|
924 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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changeset
|
925 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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|
926 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 927 @end group |
928 | |
929 @group | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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parents:
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diff
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|
930 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
931 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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|
932 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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|
933 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 934 @end group |
935 | |
936 @group | |
937 (logand) | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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|
938 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 939 @end group |
940 @end smallexample | |
941 @end defun | |
942 | |
943 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
944 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
945 @cindex bitwise or | |
946 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
947 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
948 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
949 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
950 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
951 | |
952 @smallexample | |
953 @group | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
954 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 955 |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
changeset
|
956 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
changeset
|
957 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
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|
958 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 959 @end group |
960 | |
961 @group | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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|
962 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
963 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
changeset
|
964 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
965 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 966 @end group |
967 @end smallexample | |
968 @end defun | |
969 | |
970 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
971 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
972 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
973 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
7115
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|
974 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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|
975 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
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|
976 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
9a9e88e65617
*** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
6510
diff
changeset
|
977 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 978 |
979 @smallexample | |
980 @group | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
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|
981 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 982 |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
983 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
984 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
985 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 986 @end group |
987 | |
988 @group | |
10306
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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diff
changeset
|
989 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
990 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
991 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
992 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 993 @end group |
994 @end smallexample | |
995 @end defun | |
996 | |
997 @defun lognot integer | |
998 @cindex logical not | |
999 @cindex bitwise not | |
1000 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
1001 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
1002 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
1003 | |
1004 @example | |
49600
23a1cea22d13
Trailing whitespace deleted.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
48700
diff
changeset
|
1005 (lognot 5) |
6510 | 1006 @result{} -6 |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
1007 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 1008 ;; @r{becomes} |
10306
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
8017
diff
changeset
|
1009 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 1010 @end example |
1011 @end defun | |
1012 | |
11230
c6b70cdf844e
Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
10558
diff
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|
1013 @node Math Functions |
c6b70cdf844e
Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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|
1014 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 1015 @cindex transcendental functions |
1016 @cindex mathematical functions | |
1017 | |
21682
90da2489c498
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|
1018 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point |
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|
1019 numbers as arguments. |
6510 | 1020 |
1021 @defun sin arg | |
1022 @defunx cos arg | |
1023 @defunx tan arg | |
1024 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
1025 in radians. | |
1026 @end defun | |
1027 | |
1028 @defun asin arg | |
25454 | 1029 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between |
27193 | 1030 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1031 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1032 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1033 @tex |
25751
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|
1034 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1035 @end tex |
1036 and | |
27193 | 1037 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1038 pi/2 |
27193 | 1039 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1040 @tex |
25751
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*** empty log message ***
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|
1041 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1042 @end tex |
1043 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} | |
6510 | 1044 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. |
1045 @end defun | |
1046 | |
1047 @defun acos arg | |
25454 | 1048 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and |
27193 | 1049 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1050 pi |
27193 | 1051 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1052 @tex |
25751
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|
1053 @math{\pi} |
25454 | 1054 @end tex |
6510 | 1055 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} |
1056 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. | |
1057 @end defun | |
1058 | |
43414
90f3a1f6ee84
(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
39198
diff
changeset
|
1059 @defun atan y &optional x |
90f3a1f6ee84
(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1060 The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between |
27193 | 1061 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1062 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1063 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1064 @tex |
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changeset
|
1065 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1066 @end tex |
1067 and | |
27193 | 1068 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1069 pi/2 |
27193 | 1070 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1071 @tex |
25751
467b88fab665
*** empty log message ***
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|
1072 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1073 @end tex |
43414
90f3a1f6ee84
(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1074 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{y}. If the optional second |
90f3a1f6ee84
(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
39198
diff
changeset
|
1075 argument @var{x} is given, the value of @code{(atan y x)} is the |
90f3a1f6ee84
(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
39198
diff
changeset
|
1076 angle in radians between the vector @code{[@var{x}, @var{y}]} and the |
90f3a1f6ee84
(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
39198
diff
changeset
|
1077 @code{X} axis. |
6510 | 1078 @end defun |
1079 | |
1080 @defun exp arg | |
22138
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1081 This is the exponential function; it returns |
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1082 @tex |
25751
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|
1083 @math{e} |
22138
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|
1084 @end tex |
27193 | 1085 @ifnottex |
22138
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|
1086 @i{e} |
27193 | 1087 @end ifnottex |
22138
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1088 to the power @var{arg}. |
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1089 @tex |
25751
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1090 @math{e} |
22138
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1091 @end tex |
27193 | 1092 @ifnottex |
22138
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1093 @i{e} |
27193 | 1094 @end ifnottex |
22138
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1095 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural |
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|
1096 logarithms. |
6510 | 1097 @end defun |
1098 | |
1099 @defun log arg &optional base | |
1100 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
22138
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1101 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base |
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1102 @tex |
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1103 @math{e} |
22138
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|
1104 @end tex |
27193 | 1105 @ifnottex |
22138
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1106 @i{e} |
27193 | 1107 @end ifnottex |
22138
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1108 is used. If @var{arg} |
6510 | 1109 is negative, the result is a NaN. |
1110 @end defun | |
1111 | |
1112 @ignore | |
1113 @defun expm1 arg | |
1114 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1115 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
1116 is close to 1. | |
1117 @end defun | |
1118 | |
1119 @defun log1p arg | |
1120 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1121 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
1122 lose accuracy. | |
1123 @end defun | |
1124 @end ignore | |
1125 | |
1126 @defun log10 arg | |
1127 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
7115
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1128 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})} |
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1129 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately. |
6510 | 1130 @end defun |
1131 | |
1132 @defun expt x y | |
10306
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1133 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
89f8d7f3bd73
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1134 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
89f8d7f3bd73
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1135 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible |
89f8d7f3bd73
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|
1136 integer values. |
6510 | 1137 @end defun |
1138 | |
1139 @defun sqrt arg | |
1140 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
1141 the value is a NaN. | |
1142 @end defun | |
1143 | |
1144 @node Random Numbers | |
1145 @section Random Numbers | |
1146 @cindex random numbers | |
1147 | |
1148 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1149 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1150 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1151 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1152 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1153 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1154 | |
1155 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1156 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1157 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1158 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1159 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1160 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1161 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1162 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1163 | |
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1164 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute |
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1165 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of |
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1166 day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. |
6510 | 1167 |
1168 @defun random &optional limit | |
1169 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1170 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1171 | |
12067 | 1172 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1173 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1174 |
1175 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
1176 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1177 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! | |
1178 | |
1179 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1180 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1181 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1182 @end defun |