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annotate lispref/strings.texi @ 89892:a2109a2c25d5
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author | Kenichi Handa <handa@m17n.org> |
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date | Mon, 12 Apr 2004 23:17:27 +0000 |
parents | 375f2633d815 |
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6550 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6550 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/strings | |
7 @node Strings and Characters, Lists, Numbers, Top | |
8 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
9 @chapter Strings and Characters | |
10 @cindex strings | |
11 @cindex character arrays | |
12 @cindex characters | |
13 @cindex bytes | |
14 | |
15 A string in Emacs Lisp is an array that contains an ordered sequence | |
16 of characters. Strings are used as names of symbols, buffers, and | |
24862 | 17 files; to send messages to users; to hold text being copied between |
18 buffers; and for many other purposes. Because strings are so important, | |
6550 | 19 Emacs Lisp has many functions expressly for manipulating them. Emacs |
20 Lisp programs use strings more often than individual characters. | |
21 | |
22 @xref{Strings of Events}, for special considerations for strings of | |
23 keyboard character events. | |
24 | |
25 @menu | |
26 * Basics: String Basics. Basic properties of strings and characters. | |
27 * Predicates for Strings:: Testing whether an object is a string or char. | |
28 * Creating Strings:: Functions to allocate new strings. | |
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29 * Modifying Strings:: Altering the contents of an existing string. |
6550 | 30 * Text Comparison:: Comparing characters or strings. |
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31 * String Conversion:: Converting to and from characters and strings. |
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32 * Formatting Strings:: @code{format}: Emacs's analogue of @code{printf}. |
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33 * Case Conversion:: Case conversion functions. |
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34 * Case Tables:: Customizing case conversion. |
6550 | 35 @end menu |
36 | |
37 @node String Basics | |
38 @section String and Character Basics | |
39 | |
24862 | 40 Characters are represented in Emacs Lisp as integers; |
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41 whether an integer is a character or not is determined only by how it is |
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42 used. Thus, strings really contain integers. |
6550 | 43 |
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44 The length of a string (like any array) is fixed, and cannot be |
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45 altered once the string exists. Strings in Lisp are @emph{not} |
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46 terminated by a distinguished character code. (By contrast, strings in |
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47 C are terminated by a character with @sc{ascii} code 0.) |
6550 | 48 |
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49 Since strings are arrays, and therefore sequences as well, you can |
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50 operate on them with the general array and sequence functions. |
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51 (@xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.) For example, you can access or |
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52 change individual characters in a string using the functions @code{aref} |
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53 and @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). |
6550 | 54 |
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55 There are two text representations for non-@sc{ascii} characters in |
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56 Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte (@pxref{Text |
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57 Representations}). An @sc{ascii} character always occupies one byte in a |
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58 string; in fact, when a string is all @sc{ascii}, there is no real |
24862 | 59 difference between the unibyte and multibyte representations. |
60 For most Lisp programming, you don't need to be concerned with these two | |
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61 representations. |
6550 | 62 |
63 Sometimes key sequences are represented as strings. When a string is | |
64 a key sequence, string elements in the range 128 to 255 represent meta | |
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65 characters (which are large integers) rather than character |
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66 codes in the range 128 to 255. |
6550 | 67 |
68 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super or alt | |
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69 modifiers; they can hold @sc{ascii} control characters, but no other |
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70 control characters. They do not distinguish case in @sc{ascii} control |
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71 characters. If you want to store such characters in a sequence, such as |
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72 a key sequence, you must use a vector instead of a string. |
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73 @xref{Character Type}, for more information about the representation of meta |
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74 and other modifiers for keyboard input characters. |
6550 | 75 |
12098 | 76 Strings are useful for holding regular expressions. You can also |
77 match regular expressions against strings (@pxref{Regexp Search}). The | |
78 functions @code{match-string} (@pxref{Simple Match Data}) and | |
79 @code{replace-match} (@pxref{Replacing Match}) are useful for | |
80 decomposing and modifying strings based on regular expression matching. | |
81 | |
6550 | 82 Like a buffer, a string can contain text properties for the characters |
83 in it, as well as the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
12098 | 84 All the Lisp primitives that copy text from strings to buffers or other |
85 strings also copy the properties of the characters being copied. | |
6550 | 86 |
87 @xref{Text}, for information about functions that display strings or | |
88 copy them into buffers. @xref{Character Type}, and @ref{String Type}, | |
89 for information about the syntax of characters and strings. | |
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90 @xref{Non-ASCII Characters}, for functions to convert between text |
24862 | 91 representations and to encode and decode character codes. |
6550 | 92 |
93 @node Predicates for Strings | |
94 @section The Predicates for Strings | |
95 | |
96 For more information about general sequence and array predicates, | |
97 see @ref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}, and @ref{Arrays}. | |
98 | |
99 @defun stringp object | |
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100 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string, @code{nil} |
6550 | 101 otherwise. |
102 @end defun | |
103 | |
104 @defun char-or-string-p object | |
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105 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or a |
6550 | 106 character (i.e., an integer), @code{nil} otherwise. |
107 @end defun | |
108 | |
109 @node Creating Strings | |
110 @section Creating Strings | |
111 | |
112 The following functions create strings, either from scratch, or by | |
113 putting strings together, or by taking them apart. | |
114 | |
115 @defun make-string count character | |
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116 This function returns a string made up of @var{count} repetitions of |
6550 | 117 @var{character}. If @var{count} is negative, an error is signaled. |
118 | |
119 @example | |
120 (make-string 5 ?x) | |
121 @result{} "xxxxx" | |
122 (make-string 0 ?x) | |
123 @result{} "" | |
124 @end example | |
125 | |
126 Other functions to compare with this one include @code{char-to-string} | |
127 (@pxref{String Conversion}), @code{make-vector} (@pxref{Vectors}), and | |
128 @code{make-list} (@pxref{Building Lists}). | |
129 @end defun | |
130 | |
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131 @defun string &rest characters |
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132 This returns a string containing the characters @var{characters}. |
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133 |
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134 @example |
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135 (string ?a ?b ?c) |
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136 @result{} "abc" |
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137 @end example |
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138 @end defun |
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139 |
6550 | 140 @defun substring string start &optional end |
12098 | 141 This function returns a new string which consists of those characters |
6550 | 142 from @var{string} in the range from (and including) the character at the |
143 index @var{start} up to (but excluding) the character at the index | |
144 @var{end}. The first character is at index zero. | |
145 | |
146 @example | |
147 @group | |
148 (substring "abcdefg" 0 3) | |
149 @result{} "abc" | |
150 @end group | |
151 @end example | |
152 | |
153 @noindent | |
154 Here the index for @samp{a} is 0, the index for @samp{b} is 1, and the | |
155 index for @samp{c} is 2. Thus, three letters, @samp{abc}, are copied | |
156 from the string @code{"abcdefg"}. The index 3 marks the character | |
157 position up to which the substring is copied. The character whose index | |
158 is 3 is actually the fourth character in the string. | |
159 | |
160 A negative number counts from the end of the string, so that @minus{}1 | |
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161 signifies the index of the last character of the string. For example: |
6550 | 162 |
163 @example | |
164 @group | |
165 (substring "abcdefg" -3 -1) | |
166 @result{} "ef" | |
167 @end group | |
168 @end example | |
169 | |
170 @noindent | |
171 In this example, the index for @samp{e} is @minus{}3, the index for | |
172 @samp{f} is @minus{}2, and the index for @samp{g} is @minus{}1. | |
173 Therefore, @samp{e} and @samp{f} are included, and @samp{g} is excluded. | |
174 | |
175 When @code{nil} is used as an index, it stands for the length of the | |
176 string. Thus, | |
177 | |
178 @example | |
179 @group | |
180 (substring "abcdefg" -3 nil) | |
181 @result{} "efg" | |
182 @end group | |
183 @end example | |
184 | |
185 Omitting the argument @var{end} is equivalent to specifying @code{nil}. | |
186 It follows that @code{(substring @var{string} 0)} returns a copy of all | |
187 of @var{string}. | |
188 | |
189 @example | |
190 @group | |
191 (substring "abcdefg" 0) | |
192 @result{} "abcdefg" | |
193 @end group | |
194 @end example | |
195 | |
196 @noindent | |
197 But we recommend @code{copy-sequence} for this purpose (@pxref{Sequence | |
198 Functions}). | |
199 | |
12098 | 200 If the characters copied from @var{string} have text properties, the |
201 properties are copied into the new string also. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
202 | |
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203 @code{substring} also accepts a vector for the first argument. |
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204 For example: |
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205 |
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206 @example |
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207 (substring [a b (c) "d"] 1 3) |
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208 @result{} [b (c)] |
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209 @end example |
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210 |
6550 | 211 A @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled if either @var{start} or |
212 @var{end} is not an integer or @code{nil}. An @code{args-out-of-range} | |
213 error is signaled if @var{start} indicates a character following | |
214 @var{end}, or if either integer is out of range for @var{string}. | |
215 | |
216 Contrast this function with @code{buffer-substring} (@pxref{Buffer | |
217 Contents}), which returns a string containing a portion of the text in | |
218 the current buffer. The beginning of a string is at index 0, but the | |
219 beginning of a buffer is at index 1. | |
220 @end defun | |
221 | |
222 @defun concat &rest sequences | |
223 @cindex copying strings | |
224 @cindex concatenating strings | |
225 This function returns a new string consisting of the characters in the | |
12098 | 226 arguments passed to it (along with their text properties, if any). The |
227 arguments may be strings, lists of numbers, or vectors of numbers; they | |
228 are not themselves changed. If @code{concat} receives no arguments, it | |
229 returns an empty string. | |
6550 | 230 |
231 @example | |
232 (concat "abc" "-def") | |
233 @result{} "abc-def" | |
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234 (concat "abc" (list 120 121) [122]) |
6550 | 235 @result{} "abcxyz" |
236 ;; @r{@code{nil} is an empty sequence.} | |
237 (concat "abc" nil "-def") | |
238 @result{} "abc-def" | |
239 (concat "The " "quick brown " "fox.") | |
240 @result{} "The quick brown fox." | |
241 (concat) | |
242 @result{} "" | |
243 @end example | |
244 | |
245 @noindent | |
246 The @code{concat} function always constructs a new string that is | |
247 not @code{eq} to any existing string. | |
248 | |
30498 | 249 In Emacs versions before 21, when an argument was an integer (not a |
250 sequence of integers), it was converted to a string of digits making up | |
251 the decimal printed representation of the integer. This obsolete usage | |
252 no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to its decimal | |
253 printed form is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or | |
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254 @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
6550 | 255 |
256 For information about other concatenation functions, see the | |
257 description of @code{mapconcat} in @ref{Mapping Functions}, | |
88123 | 258 @code{vconcat} in @ref{Vectors}, and @code{append} in @ref{Building |
6550 | 259 Lists}. |
260 @end defun | |
261 | |
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262 @defun split-string string separators omit-nulls |
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263 This function splits @var{string} into substrings at matches for the |
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264 regular expression @var{separators}. Each match for @var{separators} |
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265 defines a splitting point; the substrings between the splitting points |
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266 are made into a list, which is the value returned by |
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267 @code{split-string}. |
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268 |
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269 If @var{omit-nulls} is @code{nil}, the result contains null strings |
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270 whenever there are two consecutive matches for @var{separators}, or a |
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271 match is adjacent to the beginning or end of @var{string}. If |
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272 @var{omit-nulls} is @code{t}, these null strings are omitted from the |
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273 result list. |
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274 |
24862 | 275 If @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), |
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276 the default is the value of @code{split-string-default-separators}. |
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277 |
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278 As a special case, when @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), |
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279 null strings are always omitted from the result. Thus: |
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280 |
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281 @example |
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282 (split-string " two words ") |
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283 @result{} ("two" "words") |
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284 @end example |
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285 |
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286 The result is not @samp{("" "two" "words" "")}, which would rarely be |
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287 useful. If you need such a result, use an explict value for |
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288 @var{separators}: |
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289 |
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290 @example |
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291 (split-string " two words " split-string-default-separators) |
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292 @result{} ("" "two" "words" "") |
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293 @end example |
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294 |
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295 More examples: |
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296 |
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297 @example |
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298 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o") |
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299 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "" "d f" "" "d") |
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300 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o" t) |
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301 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") |
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302 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o+") |
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303 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") |
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304 @end example |
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305 |
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306 Empty matches do count, when not adjacent to another match: |
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307 |
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308 @example |
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309 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o*") |
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310 @result{}("S" "u" "p" " " "i" "s" " " "g" "d" " " "f" "d") |
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311 (split-string "Nice doggy!" "") |
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312 @result{}("N" "i" "c" "e" " " "d" "o" "g" "g" "y" "!") |
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313 @end example |
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314 @end defun |
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315 |
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316 @defvar split-string-default-separators |
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317 The default value of @var{separators} for @code{split-string}, initially |
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318 @samp{"[ \f\t\n\r\v]+"}. |
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319 @end defvar |
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320 |
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321 @node Modifying Strings |
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322 @section Modifying Strings |
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323 |
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324 The most basic way to alter the contents of an existing string is with |
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325 @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). @code{(aset @var{string} |
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326 @var{idx} @var{char})} stores @var{char} into @var{string} at index |
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327 @var{idx}. Each character occupies one or more bytes, and if @var{char} |
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328 needs a different number of bytes from the character already present at |
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329 that index, @code{aset} signals an error. |
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330 |
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331 A more powerful function is @code{store-substring}: |
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332 |
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333 @defun store-substring string idx obj |
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334 This function alters part of the contents of the string @var{string}, by |
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335 storing @var{obj} starting at index @var{idx}. The argument @var{obj} |
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336 may be either a character or a (smaller) string. |
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337 |
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338 Since it is impossible to change the length of an existing string, it is |
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339 an error if @var{obj} doesn't fit within @var{string}'s actual length, |
24862 | 340 or if any new character requires a different number of bytes from the |
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341 character currently present at that point in @var{string}. |
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342 @end defun |
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343 |
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344 @need 2000 |
6550 | 345 @node Text Comparison |
346 @section Comparison of Characters and Strings | |
347 @cindex string equality | |
348 | |
349 @defun char-equal character1 character2 | |
350 This function returns @code{t} if the arguments represent the same | |
351 character, @code{nil} otherwise. This function ignores differences | |
352 in case if @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}. | |
353 | |
354 @example | |
355 (char-equal ?x ?x) | |
356 @result{} t | |
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357 (let ((case-fold-search nil)) |
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358 (char-equal ?x ?X)) |
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359 @result{} nil |
6550 | 360 @end example |
361 @end defun | |
362 | |
363 @defun string= string1 string2 | |
364 This function returns @code{t} if the characters of the two strings | |
24862 | 365 match exactly. |
366 Case is always significant, regardless of @code{case-fold-search}. | |
6550 | 367 |
368 @example | |
369 (string= "abc" "abc") | |
370 @result{} t | |
371 (string= "abc" "ABC") | |
372 @result{} nil | |
373 (string= "ab" "ABC") | |
374 @result{} nil | |
375 @end example | |
12067 | 376 |
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377 The function @code{string=} ignores the text properties of the two |
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378 strings. When @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}) compares two |
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379 strings, it uses @code{string=}. |
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380 |
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381 If the strings contain non-@sc{ascii} characters, and one is unibyte |
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382 while the other is multibyte, then they cannot be equal. @xref{Text |
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383 Representations}. |
6550 | 384 @end defun |
385 | |
386 @defun string-equal string1 string2 | |
387 @code{string-equal} is another name for @code{string=}. | |
388 @end defun | |
389 | |
390 @cindex lexical comparison | |
391 @defun string< string1 string2 | |
392 @c (findex string< causes problems for permuted index!!) | |
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393 This function compares two strings a character at a time. It |
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394 scans both the strings at the same time to find the first pair of corresponding |
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395 characters that do not match. If the lesser character of these two is |
6550 | 396 the character from @var{string1}, then @var{string1} is less, and this |
397 function returns @code{t}. If the lesser character is the one from | |
398 @var{string2}, then @var{string1} is greater, and this function returns | |
399 @code{nil}. If the two strings match entirely, the value is @code{nil}. | |
400 | |
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401 Pairs of characters are compared according to their character codes. |
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402 Keep in mind that lower case letters have higher numeric values in the |
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403 @sc{ascii} character set than their upper case counterparts; digits and |
6550 | 404 many punctuation characters have a lower numeric value than upper case |
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405 letters. An @sc{ascii} character is less than any non-@sc{ascii} |
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406 character; a unibyte non-@sc{ascii} character is always less than any |
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407 multibyte non-@sc{ascii} character (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6550 | 408 |
409 @example | |
410 @group | |
411 (string< "abc" "abd") | |
412 @result{} t | |
413 (string< "abd" "abc") | |
414 @result{} nil | |
415 (string< "123" "abc") | |
416 @result{} t | |
417 @end group | |
418 @end example | |
419 | |
420 When the strings have different lengths, and they match up to the | |
421 length of @var{string1}, then the result is @code{t}. If they match up | |
422 to the length of @var{string2}, the result is @code{nil}. A string of | |
423 no characters is less than any other string. | |
424 | |
425 @example | |
426 @group | |
427 (string< "" "abc") | |
428 @result{} t | |
429 (string< "ab" "abc") | |
430 @result{} t | |
431 (string< "abc" "") | |
432 @result{} nil | |
433 (string< "abc" "ab") | |
434 @result{} nil | |
435 (string< "" "") | |
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436 @result{} nil |
6550 | 437 @end group |
438 @end example | |
439 @end defun | |
440 | |
441 @defun string-lessp string1 string2 | |
442 @code{string-lessp} is another name for @code{string<}. | |
443 @end defun | |
444 | |
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445 @defun compare-strings string1 start1 end1 string2 start2 end2 &optional ignore-case |
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446 This function compares the specified part of @var{string1} with the |
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447 specified part of @var{string2}. The specified part of @var{string1} |
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448 runs from index @var{start1} up to index @var{end1} (@code{nil} means |
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449 the end of the string). The specified part of @var{string2} runs from |
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450 index @var{start2} up to index @var{end2} (@code{nil} means the end of |
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451 the string). |
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452 |
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453 The strings are both converted to multibyte for the comparison |
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454 (@pxref{Text Representations}) so that a unibyte string can be equal to |
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455 a multibyte string. If @var{ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, then case |
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456 is ignored, so that upper case letters can be equal to lower case letters. |
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457 |
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458 If the specified portions of the two strings match, the value is |
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459 @code{t}. Otherwise, the value is an integer which indicates how many |
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460 leading characters agree, and which string is less. Its absolute value |
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461 is one plus the number of characters that agree at the beginning of the |
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462 two strings. The sign is negative if @var{string1} (or its specified |
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463 portion) is less. |
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464 @end defun |
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465 |
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466 @defun assoc-ignore-case key alist |
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467 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a |
38790 | 468 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}, ignoring |
469 case differences. @xref{Association Lists}. | |
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470 @end defun |
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471 |
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472 @defun assoc-ignore-representation key alist |
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473 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a |
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474 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}. |
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475 Case differences are significant. |
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476 @end defun |
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477 |
6550 | 478 See also @code{compare-buffer-substrings} in @ref{Comparing Text}, for |
479 a way to compare text in buffers. The function @code{string-match}, | |
480 which matches a regular expression against a string, can be used | |
481 for a kind of string comparison; see @ref{Regexp Search}. | |
482 | |
483 @node String Conversion | |
484 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
485 @section Conversion of Characters and Strings | |
486 @cindex conversion of strings | |
487 | |
488 This section describes functions for conversions between characters, | |
489 strings and integers. @code{format} and @code{prin1-to-string} | |
490 (@pxref{Output Functions}) can also convert Lisp objects into strings. | |
491 @code{read-from-string} (@pxref{Input Functions}) can ``convert'' a | |
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492 string representation of a Lisp object into an object. The functions |
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493 @code{string-make-multibyte} and @code{string-make-unibyte} convert the |
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494 text representation of a string (@pxref{Converting Representations}). |
6550 | 495 |
496 @xref{Documentation}, for functions that produce textual descriptions | |
497 of text characters and general input events | |
498 (@code{single-key-description} and @code{text-char-description}). These | |
499 functions are used primarily for making help messages. | |
500 | |
501 @defun char-to-string character | |
502 @cindex character to string | |
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503 This function returns a new string containing one character, |
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504 @var{character}. This function is semi-obsolete because the function |
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505 @code{string} is more general. @xref{Creating Strings}. |
6550 | 506 @end defun |
507 | |
508 @defun string-to-char string | |
509 @cindex string to character | |
510 This function returns the first character in @var{string}. If the | |
511 string is empty, the function returns 0. The value is also 0 when the | |
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512 first character of @var{string} is the null character, @sc{ascii} code |
6550 | 513 0. |
514 | |
515 @example | |
516 (string-to-char "ABC") | |
517 @result{} 65 | |
518 (string-to-char "xyz") | |
519 @result{} 120 | |
520 (string-to-char "") | |
521 @result{} 0 | |
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522 @group |
6550 | 523 (string-to-char "\000") |
524 @result{} 0 | |
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525 @end group |
6550 | 526 @end example |
527 | |
528 This function may be eliminated in the future if it does not seem useful | |
529 enough to retain. | |
530 @end defun | |
531 | |
532 @defun number-to-string number | |
533 @cindex integer to string | |
534 @cindex integer to decimal | |
24862 | 535 This function returns a string consisting of the printed base-ten |
6550 | 536 representation of @var{number}, which may be an integer or a floating |
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537 point number. The returned value starts with a minus sign if the argument is |
6550 | 538 negative. |
539 | |
540 @example | |
541 (number-to-string 256) | |
542 @result{} "256" | |
543 (number-to-string -23) | |
544 @result{} "-23" | |
545 (number-to-string -23.5) | |
546 @result{} "-23.5" | |
547 @end example | |
548 | |
549 @cindex int-to-string | |
550 @code{int-to-string} is a semi-obsolete alias for this function. | |
551 | |
552 See also the function @code{format} in @ref{Formatting Strings}. | |
553 @end defun | |
554 | |
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555 @defun string-to-number string &optional base |
6550 | 556 @cindex string to number |
557 This function returns the numeric value of the characters in | |
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558 @var{string}. If @var{base} is non-@code{nil}, integers are converted |
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559 in that base. If @var{base} is @code{nil}, then base ten is used. |
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560 Floating point conversion always uses base ten; we have not implemented |
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561 other radices for floating point numbers, because that would be much |
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562 more work and does not seem useful. If @var{string} looks like an |
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563 integer but its value is too large to fit into a Lisp integer, |
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564 @code{string-to-number} returns a floating point result. |
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565 |
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566 The parsing skips spaces and tabs at the beginning of @var{string}, then |
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567 reads as much of @var{string} as it can interpret as a number. (On some |
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568 systems it ignores other whitespace at the beginning, not just spaces |
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569 and tabs.) If the first character after the ignored whitespace is |
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570 neither a digit, nor a plus or minus sign, nor the leading dot of a |
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571 floating point number, this function returns 0. |
6550 | 572 |
573 @example | |
574 (string-to-number "256") | |
575 @result{} 256 | |
576 (string-to-number "25 is a perfect square.") | |
577 @result{} 25 | |
578 (string-to-number "X256") | |
579 @result{} 0 | |
580 (string-to-number "-4.5") | |
581 @result{} -4.5 | |
38790 | 582 (string-to-number "1e5") |
583 @result{} 100000.0 | |
6550 | 584 @end example |
585 | |
586 @findex string-to-int | |
587 @code{string-to-int} is an obsolete alias for this function. | |
588 @end defun | |
589 | |
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590 Here are some other functions that can convert to or from a string: |
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591 |
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592 @table @code |
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593 @item concat |
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594 @code{concat} can convert a vector or a list into a string. |
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595 @xref{Creating Strings}. |
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596 |
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597 @item vconcat |
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598 @code{vconcat} can convert a string into a vector. @xref{Vector |
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599 Functions}. |
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600 |
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601 @item append |
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602 @code{append} can convert a string into a list. @xref{Building Lists}. |
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603 @end table |
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604 |
6550 | 605 @node Formatting Strings |
606 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
607 @section Formatting Strings | |
608 @cindex formatting strings | |
609 @cindex strings, formatting them | |
610 | |
611 @dfn{Formatting} means constructing a string by substitution of | |
24862 | 612 computed values at various places in a constant string. This constant string |
613 controls how the other values are printed, as well as where they appear; | |
6550 | 614 it is called a @dfn{format string}. |
615 | |
616 Formatting is often useful for computing messages to be displayed. In | |
617 fact, the functions @code{message} and @code{error} provide the same | |
618 formatting feature described here; they differ from @code{format} only | |
619 in how they use the result of formatting. | |
620 | |
621 @defun format string &rest objects | |
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622 This function returns a new string that is made by copying |
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623 @var{string} and then replacing any format specification |
6550 | 624 in the copy with encodings of the corresponding @var{objects}. The |
625 arguments @var{objects} are the computed values to be formatted. | |
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626 |
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627 The characters in @var{string}, other than the format specifications, |
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628 are copied directly into the output; starting in Emacs 21, if they have |
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629 text properties, these are copied into the output also. |
6550 | 630 @end defun |
631 | |
632 @cindex @samp{%} in format | |
633 @cindex format specification | |
634 A format specification is a sequence of characters beginning with a | |
635 @samp{%}. Thus, if there is a @samp{%d} in @var{string}, the | |
636 @code{format} function replaces it with the printed representation of | |
637 one of the values to be formatted (one of the arguments @var{objects}). | |
638 For example: | |
639 | |
640 @example | |
641 @group | |
642 (format "The value of fill-column is %d." fill-column) | |
643 @result{} "The value of fill-column is 72." | |
644 @end group | |
645 @end example | |
646 | |
647 If @var{string} contains more than one format specification, the | |
24862 | 648 format specifications correspond to successive values from |
6550 | 649 @var{objects}. Thus, the first format specification in @var{string} |
650 uses the first such value, the second format specification uses the | |
651 second such value, and so on. Any extra format specifications (those | |
652 for which there are no corresponding values) cause unpredictable | |
653 behavior. Any extra values to be formatted are ignored. | |
654 | |
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655 Certain format specifications require values of particular types. If |
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656 you supply a value that doesn't fit the requirements, an error is |
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657 signaled. |
6550 | 658 |
659 Here is a table of valid format specifications: | |
660 | |
661 @table @samp | |
662 @item %s | |
663 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
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664 made without quoting (that is, using @code{princ}, not |
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665 @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output Functions}). Thus, strings are represented |
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666 by their contents alone, with no @samp{"} characters, and symbols appear |
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667 without @samp{\} characters. |
6550 | 668 |
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669 Starting in Emacs 21, if the object is a string, its text properties are |
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670 copied into the output. The text properties of the @samp{%s} itself |
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671 are also copied, but those of the object take priority. |
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672 |
6550 | 673 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used. |
674 | |
675 @item %S | |
676 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
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677 made with quoting (that is, using @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output |
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678 Functions}). Thus, strings are enclosed in @samp{"} characters, and |
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679 @samp{\} characters appear where necessary before special characters. |
6550 | 680 |
681 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used. | |
682 | |
683 @item %o | |
684 @cindex integer to octal | |
685 Replace the specification with the base-eight representation of an | |
686 integer. | |
687 | |
688 @item %d | |
689 Replace the specification with the base-ten representation of an | |
690 integer. | |
691 | |
692 @item %x | |
35036 | 693 @itemx %X |
6550 | 694 @cindex integer to hexadecimal |
695 Replace the specification with the base-sixteen representation of an | |
35036 | 696 integer. @samp{%x} uses lower case and @samp{%X} uses upper case. |
6550 | 697 |
698 @item %c | |
699 Replace the specification with the character which is the value given. | |
700 | |
701 @item %e | |
702 Replace the specification with the exponential notation for a floating | |
35071 | 703 point number. |
6550 | 704 |
705 @item %f | |
706 Replace the specification with the decimal-point notation for a floating | |
707 point number. | |
708 | |
709 @item %g | |
710 Replace the specification with notation for a floating point number, | |
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711 using either exponential notation or decimal-point notation, whichever |
35071 | 712 is shorter. |
6550 | 713 |
714 @item %% | |
35036 | 715 Replace the specification with a single @samp{%}. This format |
716 specification is unusual in that it does not use a value. For example, | |
717 @code{(format "%% %d" 30)} returns @code{"% 30"}. | |
6550 | 718 @end table |
719 | |
720 Any other format character results in an @samp{Invalid format | |
721 operation} error. | |
722 | |
723 Here are several examples: | |
724 | |
725 @example | |
726 @group | |
727 (format "The name of this buffer is %s." (buffer-name)) | |
728 @result{} "The name of this buffer is strings.texi." | |
729 | |
730 (format "The buffer object prints as %s." (current-buffer)) | |
13228 | 731 @result{} "The buffer object prints as strings.texi." |
6550 | 732 |
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733 (format "The octal value of %d is %o, |
6550 | 734 and the hex value is %x." 18 18 18) |
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735 @result{} "The octal value of 18 is 22, |
6550 | 736 and the hex value is 12." |
737 @end group | |
738 @end example | |
739 | |
740 @cindex numeric prefix | |
741 @cindex field width | |
742 @cindex padding | |
743 All the specification characters allow an optional numeric prefix | |
744 between the @samp{%} and the character. The optional numeric prefix | |
745 defines the minimum width for the object. If the printed representation | |
746 of the object contains fewer characters than this, then it is padded. | |
747 The padding is on the left if the prefix is positive (or starts with | |
748 zero) and on the right if the prefix is negative. The padding character | |
749 is normally a space, but if the numeric prefix starts with a zero, zeros | |
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750 are used for padding. Here are some examples of padding: |
6550 | 751 |
752 @example | |
753 (format "%06d is padded on the left with zeros" 123) | |
754 @result{} "000123 is padded on the left with zeros" | |
755 | |
756 (format "%-6d is padded on the right" 123) | |
757 @result{} "123 is padded on the right" | |
758 @end example | |
759 | |
760 @code{format} never truncates an object's printed representation, no | |
761 matter what width you specify. Thus, you can use a numeric prefix to | |
762 specify a minimum spacing between columns with no risk of losing | |
763 information. | |
764 | |
765 In the following three examples, @samp{%7s} specifies a minimum width | |
766 of 7. In the first case, the string inserted in place of @samp{%7s} has | |
767 only 3 letters, so 4 blank spaces are inserted for padding. In the | |
768 second case, the string @code{"specification"} is 13 letters wide but is | |
769 not truncated. In the third case, the padding is on the right. | |
770 | |
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771 @smallexample |
6550 | 772 @group |
773 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
774 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
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775 @result{} "The word ` foo' actually has 3 letters in it." |
6550 | 776 @end group |
777 | |
778 @group | |
779 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
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780 "specification" (length "specification")) |
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781 @result{} "The word `specification' actually has 13 letters in it." |
6550 | 782 @end group |
783 | |
784 @group | |
785 (format "The word `%-7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
786 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
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787 @result{} "The word `foo ' actually has 3 letters in it." |
6550 | 788 @end group |
789 @end smallexample | |
790 | |
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791 @node Case Conversion |
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792 @comment node-name, next, previous, up |
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793 @section Case Conversion in Lisp |
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794 @cindex upper case |
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795 @cindex lower case |
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796 @cindex character case |
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797 @cindex case conversion in Lisp |
6550 | 798 |
799 The character case functions change the case of single characters or | |
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800 of the contents of strings. The functions normally convert only |
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801 alphabetic characters (the letters @samp{A} through @samp{Z} and |
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802 @samp{a} through @samp{z}, as well as non-@sc{ascii} letters); other |
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803 characters are not altered. You can specify a different case |
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804 conversion mapping by specifying a case table (@pxref{Case Tables}). |
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805 |
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806 These functions do not modify the strings that are passed to them as |
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807 arguments. |
6550 | 808 |
809 The examples below use the characters @samp{X} and @samp{x} which have | |
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810 @sc{ascii} codes 88 and 120 respectively. |
6550 | 811 |
812 @defun downcase string-or-char | |
813 This function converts a character or a string to lower case. | |
814 | |
815 When the argument to @code{downcase} is a string, the function creates | |
816 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
817 upper case is converted to lower case. When the argument to | |
818 @code{downcase} is a character, @code{downcase} returns the | |
819 corresponding lower case character. This value is an integer. If the | |
820 original character is lower case, or is not a letter, then the value | |
821 equals the original character. | |
822 | |
823 @example | |
824 (downcase "The cat in the hat") | |
825 @result{} "the cat in the hat" | |
826 | |
827 (downcase ?X) | |
828 @result{} 120 | |
829 @end example | |
830 @end defun | |
831 | |
832 @defun upcase string-or-char | |
833 This function converts a character or a string to upper case. | |
834 | |
835 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a string, the function creates | |
836 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
837 lower case is converted to upper case. | |
838 | |
839 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a character, @code{upcase} | |
840 returns the corresponding upper case character. This value is an integer. | |
841 If the original character is upper case, or is not a letter, then the | |
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842 value returned equals the original character. |
6550 | 843 |
844 @example | |
845 (upcase "The cat in the hat") | |
846 @result{} "THE CAT IN THE HAT" | |
847 | |
848 (upcase ?x) | |
849 @result{} 88 | |
850 @end example | |
851 @end defun | |
852 | |
853 @defun capitalize string-or-char | |
854 @cindex capitalization | |
855 This function capitalizes strings or characters. If | |
856 @var{string-or-char} is a string, the function creates and returns a new | |
857 string, whose contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char} in which each | |
858 word has been capitalized. This means that the first character of each | |
859 word is converted to upper case, and the rest are converted to lower | |
860 case. | |
861 | |
862 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that | |
863 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax | |
25454 | 864 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). |
6550 | 865 |
866 When the argument to @code{capitalize} is a character, @code{capitalize} | |
867 has the same result as @code{upcase}. | |
868 | |
869 @example | |
870 (capitalize "The cat in the hat") | |
871 @result{} "The Cat In The Hat" | |
872 | |
873 (capitalize "THE 77TH-HATTED CAT") | |
874 @result{} "The 77th-Hatted Cat" | |
875 | |
876 @group | |
877 (capitalize ?x) | |
878 @result{} 88 | |
879 @end group | |
880 @end example | |
881 @end defun | |
882 | |
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883 @defun upcase-initials string |
24862 | 884 This function capitalizes the initials of the words in @var{string}, |
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885 without altering any letters other than the initials. It returns a new |
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886 string whose contents are a copy of @var{string}, in which each word has |
24862 | 887 had its initial letter converted to upper case. |
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888 |
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889 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that |
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890 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax |
25454 | 891 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). |
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892 |
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893 @example |
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894 @group |
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895 (upcase-initials "The CAT in the hAt") |
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896 @result{} "The CAT In The HAt" |
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897 @end group |
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898 @end example |
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899 @end defun |
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900 |
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901 @xref{Text Comparison}, for functions that compare strings; some of |
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902 them ignore case differences, or can optionally ignore case differences. |
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903 |
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904 @node Case Tables |
6550 | 905 @section The Case Table |
906 | |
907 You can customize case conversion by installing a special @dfn{case | |
908 table}. A case table specifies the mapping between upper case and lower | |
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909 case letters. It affects both the case conversion functions for Lisp |
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910 objects (see the previous section) and those that apply to text in the |
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911 buffer (@pxref{Case Changes}). Each buffer has a case table; there is |
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912 also a standard case table which is used to initialize the case table |
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913 of new buffers. |
6550 | 914 |
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915 A case table is a char-table (@pxref{Char-Tables}) whose subtype is |
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916 @code{case-table}. This char-table maps each character into the |
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917 corresponding lower case character. It has three extra slots, which |
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918 hold related tables: |
6550 | 919 |
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920 @table @var |
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921 @item upcase |
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922 The upcase table maps each character into the corresponding upper |
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923 case character. |
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924 @item canonicalize |
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925 The canonicalize table maps all of a set of case-related characters |
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926 into a particular member of that set. |
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927 @item equivalences |
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928 The equivalences table maps each one of a set of case-related characters |
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929 into the next character in that set. |
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930 @end table |
6550 | 931 |
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932 In simple cases, all you need to specify is the mapping to lower-case; |
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933 the three related tables will be calculated automatically from that one. |
6550 | 934 |
935 For some languages, upper and lower case letters are not in one-to-one | |
936 correspondence. There may be two different lower case letters with the | |
937 same upper case equivalent. In these cases, you need to specify the | |
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938 maps for both lower case and upper case. |
6550 | 939 |
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940 The extra table @var{canonicalize} maps each character to a canonical |
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941 equivalent; any two characters that are related by case-conversion have |
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942 the same canonical equivalent character. For example, since @samp{a} |
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943 and @samp{A} are related by case-conversion, they should have the same |
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944 canonical equivalent character (which should be either @samp{a} for both |
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945 of them, or @samp{A} for both of them). |
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946 |
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947 The extra table @var{equivalences} is a map that cyclicly permutes |
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948 each equivalence class (of characters with the same canonical |
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949 equivalent). (For ordinary @sc{ascii}, this would map @samp{a} into |
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950 @samp{A} and @samp{A} into @samp{a}, and likewise for each set of |
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951 equivalent characters.) |
6550 | 952 |
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953 When you construct a case table, you can provide @code{nil} for |
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954 @var{canonicalize}; then Emacs fills in this slot from the lower case |
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955 and upper case mappings. You can also provide @code{nil} for |
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956 @var{equivalences}; then Emacs fills in this slot from |
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957 @var{canonicalize}. In a case table that is actually in use, those |
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958 components are non-@code{nil}. Do not try to specify @var{equivalences} |
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959 without also specifying @var{canonicalize}. |
6550 | 960 |
961 Here are the functions for working with case tables: | |
962 | |
963 @defun case-table-p object | |
964 This predicate returns non-@code{nil} if @var{object} is a valid case | |
965 table. | |
966 @end defun | |
967 | |
968 @defun set-standard-case-table table | |
969 This function makes @var{table} the standard case table, so that it will | |
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970 be used in any buffers created subsequently. |
6550 | 971 @end defun |
972 | |
973 @defun standard-case-table | |
974 This returns the standard case table. | |
975 @end defun | |
976 | |
977 @defun current-case-table | |
978 This function returns the current buffer's case table. | |
979 @end defun | |
980 | |
981 @defun set-case-table table | |
982 This sets the current buffer's case table to @var{table}. | |
983 @end defun | |
984 | |
985 The following three functions are convenient subroutines for packages | |
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986 that define non-@sc{ascii} character sets. They modify the specified |
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987 case table @var{case-table}; they also modify the standard syntax table. |
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988 @xref{Syntax Tables}. Normally you would use these functions to change |
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989 the standard case table. |
6550 | 990 |
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991 @defun set-case-syntax-pair uc lc case-table |
6550 | 992 This function specifies a pair of corresponding letters, one upper case |
993 and one lower case. | |
994 @end defun | |
995 | |
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996 @defun set-case-syntax-delims l r case-table |
6550 | 997 This function makes characters @var{l} and @var{r} a matching pair of |
998 case-invariant delimiters. | |
999 @end defun | |
1000 | |
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1001 @defun set-case-syntax char syntax case-table |
6550 | 1002 This function makes @var{char} case-invariant, with syntax |
1003 @var{syntax}. | |
1004 @end defun | |
1005 | |
1006 @deffn Command describe-buffer-case-table | |
1007 This command displays a description of the contents of the current | |
1008 buffer's case table. | |
1009 @end deffn |