annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 7303:a4f8f33135e7

(x_own_selection): Catch errors around XSetSelectionOwner.
author Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
date Wed, 04 May 1994 00:46:39 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/numbers
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6 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top
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7 @chapter Numbers
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8 @cindex integers
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9 @cindex numbers
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10
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11 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and
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12 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as
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13 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point
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14 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or
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15 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation:
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16 1.5e2 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the
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17 second power, and is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not
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18 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision.
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19
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20 Support for floating point numbers is a new feature in Emacs 19, and it
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21 is controlled by a separate compilation option, so you may encounter a site
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22 where Emacs does not support them.
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23
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24 @menu
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25 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers.
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26 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point.
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27 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers.
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28 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates.
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29 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa.
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30 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide.
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31 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers.
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32 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting.
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33 * Transcendental Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions.
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34 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not.
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35 @end menu
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36
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37 @node Integer Basics
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38 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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39 @section Integer Basics
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40
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41 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The
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42 range is @minus{}8388608 to 8388607 (24 bits; i.e.,
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43 @ifinfo
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44 -2**23
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45 @end ifinfo
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46 @tex
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47 $-2^{23}$
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48 @end tex
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49 to
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50 @ifinfo
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51 2**23 - 1)
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52 @end ifinfo
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53 @tex
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54 $2^{23}-1$)
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55 @end tex
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56 on most machines, but on others it is @minus{}16777216 to 16777215 (25
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57 bits), or @minus{}33554432 to 33554431 (26 bits). Many examples in this
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58 chapter assume an integer has 24 bits.
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59 @cindex overflow
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60
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61 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional
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62 initial sign and optional final period.
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63
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64 @example
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65 1 ; @r{The integer 1.}
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66 1. ; @r{The integer 1.}
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67 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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68 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.}
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69 16777217 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.}
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70 0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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71 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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72 @end example
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73
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74 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the
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75 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to
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76 view the numbers in their binary form.
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77
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78 In 24-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this:
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79
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80 @example
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81 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101
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82 @end example
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83
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84 @noindent
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85 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces
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86 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.)
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87
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88 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this:
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89
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90 @example
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91 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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92 @end example
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93
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94 @noindent
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95 @cindex two's complement
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96 @minus{}1 is represented as 24 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's
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97 complement} notation.)
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98
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99 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from
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100 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently,
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101 @minus{}5 looks like this:
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102
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103 @example
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104 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011
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105 @end example
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106
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107 In this implementation, the largest 24-bit binary integer is the
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108 decimal integer 8,388,607. In binary, it looks like this:
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109
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110 @example
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111 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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112 @end example
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113
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114 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go
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115 outside their range, when you add 1 to 8,388,607, the value is the
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116 negative integer @minus{}8,388,608:
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117
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118 @example
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119 (+ 1 8388607)
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120 @result{} -8388608
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121 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
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122 @end example
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123
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124 Many of the following functions accept markers for arguments as well
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125 as integers. (@xref{Markers}.) More precisely, the actual arguments to
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126 such functions may be either integers or markers, which is why we often
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127 give these arguments the name @var{int-or-marker}. When the argument
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128 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored.
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129
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130 @ignore
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131 In version 19, except where @emph{integer} is specified as an
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132 argument, all of the functions for markers and integers also work for
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133 floating point numbers.
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134 @end ignore
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135
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136 @node Float Basics
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137 @section Floating Point Basics
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138
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139 @cindex @code{LISP_FLOAT_TYPE} configuration macro
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140 Emacs version 19 supports floating point numbers, if compiled with the
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141 macro @code{LISP_FLOAT_TYPE} defined. The precise range of floating
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142 point numbers is machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C
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143 data type @code{double} on the machine in question.
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144
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145 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either
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146 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or
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147 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2},
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148 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point
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149 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use
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150 a minus sign to write negative floating point numbers, as in
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151 @samp{-1.0}.
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152
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153 @cindex IEEE floating point
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154 @cindex positive infinity
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155 @cindex negative infinity
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156 @cindex infinity
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157 @cindex NaN
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158 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which
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159 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point
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160 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or
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161 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where
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162 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a
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163 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between
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164 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely
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165 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so this manual
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166 doesn't try to distinguish them. Emacs Lisp has no read syntax for NaNs
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167 or infinities; perhaps we should create a syntax in the future.
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168
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169 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating
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170 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer):
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171
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172 @defun logb number
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173 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More
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174 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded
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175 down to an integer.
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176 @end defun
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177
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178 @node Predicates on Numbers
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179 @section Type Predicates for Numbers
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180
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181 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or
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182 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp}
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183 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the
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184 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop}
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185 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also
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186 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in
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187 @ref{Predicates on Markers}.
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188
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189 @defun floatp object
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190 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point
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191 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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192
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193 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier.
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194 @end defun
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195
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196 @defun integerp object
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197 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns
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198 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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199 @end defun
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200
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201 @defun numberp object
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202 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or
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203 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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204 @end defun
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205
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206 @defun wholenump object
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207 @cindex natural numbers
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208 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase
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209 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative
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210 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is
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211 considered non-negative.
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212
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213 @findex natnump
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214 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}.
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215 @end defun
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216
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217 @defun zerop number
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218 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t}
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219 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number.
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220
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221 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}.
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222 @end defun
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223
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224 @node Comparison of Numbers
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225 @section Comparison of Numbers
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226 @cindex number equality
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227
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228 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use
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229 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point
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230 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to
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231 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same
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232 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values
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233 of the objects.
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234
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235 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp.
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236 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent @code{=} where integers are
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237 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an
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238 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an
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239 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any
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240 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not
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241 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you
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242 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the
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243 representation of integers in a future Emacs version.
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244
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245 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not
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246 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating
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247 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality.
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248 Here's a function to do this:
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249
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250 @example
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251 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6)
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252 (defun approx-equal (x y)
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253 (< (/ (abs (- x y))
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254 (max (abs x) (abs y)))
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255 fuzz-factor))
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256 @end example
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257
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258 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq}
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259 @quotation
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260 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires
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261 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two
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262 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp
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263 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a
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264 limited range of integer values.
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265 @end quotation
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266
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267 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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268 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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269 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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270 @end defun
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271
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272 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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273 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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274 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are.
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275 @end defun
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276
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277 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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278 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than
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279 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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280 @end defun
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281
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282 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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283 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal
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284 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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285 otherwise.
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286 @end defun
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287
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288 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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289 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater
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290 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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291 otherwise.
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292 @end defun
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293
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294 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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295 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or
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296 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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297 otherwise.
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298 @end defun
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299
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300 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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301 This function returns the largest of its arguments.
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302
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303 @example
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304 (max 20)
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305 @result{} 20
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306 (max 1 2.5)
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307 @result{} 2.5
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308 (max 1 3 2.5)
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309 @result{} 3
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310 @end example
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311 @end defun
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312
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313 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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314 This function returns the smallest of its arguments.
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315
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316 @example
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317 (min -4 1)
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318 @result{} -4
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319 @end example
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320 @end defun
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321
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322 @node Numeric Conversions
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323 @section Numeric Conversions
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324 @cindex rounding in conversions
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325
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326 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}.
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327
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328 @defun float number
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329 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point.
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330 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns
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331 it unchanged.
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332 @end defun
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333
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334 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers;
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335 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments
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336 also, and return such arguments unchanged.
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337
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338 @defun truncate number
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339 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards
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340 zero.
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341 @end defun
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342
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343 @defun floor number &optional divisor
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344 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward
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345 (towards negative infinity).
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346
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347 If @var{divisor} is specified, @var{number} is divided by @var{divisor}
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348 before the floor is taken; this is the division operation that
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349 corresponds to @code{mod}. An @code{arith-error} results if
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350 @var{divisor} is 0.
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351 @end defun
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352
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353 @defun ceiling number
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354 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward
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355 (towards positive infinity).
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356 @end defun
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357
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358 @defun round number
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359 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the
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360 nearest integer.
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361 @end defun
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362
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363 @node Arithmetic Operations
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364 @section Arithmetic Operations
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365
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366 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations:
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367 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus
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368 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to
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369 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and
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370 commonly used.
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371
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372 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value
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373 if any argument is floating.
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374
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375 It is important to note that in GNU Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions
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376 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 8388607)} may evaluate to
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377 @minus{}8388608, depending on your hardware.
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378
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379 @defun 1+ number-or-marker
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380 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1.
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381 For example,
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382
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383 @example
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384 (setq foo 4)
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385 @result{} 4
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386 (1+ foo)
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387 @result{} 5
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388 @end example
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389
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390 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does
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391 not increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus,
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392
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393 @example
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394 foo
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395 @result{} 4
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396 @end example
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397
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398 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq},
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399 like this:
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400
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401 @example
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402 (setq foo (1+ foo))
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403 @result{} 5
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404 @end example
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405 @end defun
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406
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407 @defun 1- number-or-marker
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408 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1.
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409 @end defun
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410
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411 @defun abs number
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412 This returns the absolute value of @var{number}.
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413 @end defun
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414
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415 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers
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416 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments,
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417 @code{+} returns 0. It does not check for overflow.
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418
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419 @example
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420 (+)
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421 @result{} 0
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422 (+ 1)
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423 @result{} 1
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424 (+ 1 2 3 4)
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425 @result{} 10
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426 @end example
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427 @end defun
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428
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429 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest other-numbers-or-markers
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430 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction.
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431 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the
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432 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of
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433 the @var{other-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker},
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434 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. This
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435 function does not check for overflow.
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436
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437 @example
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438 (- 10 1 2 3 4)
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439 @result{} 0
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440 (- 10)
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441 @result{} -10
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442 (-)
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443 @result{} 0
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444 @end example
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445 @end defun
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446
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447 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers
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448 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the
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449 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. It does
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450 not check for overflow.
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451
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452 @example
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453 (*)
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454 @result{} 1
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455 (* 1)
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456 @result{} 1
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457 (* 1 2 3 4)
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458 @result{} 24
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459 @end example
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460 @end defun
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461
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462 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
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463 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the
6510
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464 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it
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465 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a
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466 number or a marker.
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467
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468 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too.
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469 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result
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470 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round
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471 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function
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472 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also
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473 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known
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474 machines round in the standard fashion.
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475
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476 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division
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477 If you divide by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled.
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478 (@xref{Errors}.)
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479
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480 @example
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481 (/ 6 2)
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482 @result{} 3
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483 (/ 5 2)
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484 @result{} 2
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485 (/ 25 3 2)
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486 @result{} 4
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487 (/ -17 6)
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488 @result{} -2
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489 @end example
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490
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491 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some
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492 machines.
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493 @end defun
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494
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495 @defun % dividend divisor
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496 @cindex remainder
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497 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend}
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498 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers.
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499
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500 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent
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501 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike.
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502
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503 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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504
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505 @example
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506 (% 9 4)
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507 @result{} 1
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508 (% -9 4)
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509 @result{} -1
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510 (% 9 -4)
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511 @result{} 1
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512 (% -9 -4)
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513 @result{} -1
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514 @end example
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515
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516 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
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517
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518 @example
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519 @group
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520 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
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521 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
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522 @end group
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523 @end example
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524
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525 @noindent
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526 always equals @var{dividend}.
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527 @end defun
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528
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529 @defun mod dividend divisor
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530 @cindex modulus
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531 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor};
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532 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend}
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533 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}.
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534 The arguments must be numbers or markers.
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535
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536 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative
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537 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the
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538 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that
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539 quotient to compute the remainder.
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540
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541 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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542
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543 @example
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544 (mod 9 4)
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545 @result{} 1
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546 (mod -9 4)
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547 @result{} 3
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548 (mod 9 -4)
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549 @result{} -3
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550 (mod -9 -4)
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551 @result{} -1
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552 (mod 5.5 2.5)
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553 @result{} .5
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554 @end example
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555
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556 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
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557
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558 @example
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559 @group
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560 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
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561 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
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562 @end group
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563 @end example
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564
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565 @noindent
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566 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if
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567 either argument is floating point.
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568 @end defun
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569
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570 @node Rounding Operations
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571 @section Rounding Operations
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572 @cindex rounding without conversion
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573
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574 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceil}, @code{fround} and
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575 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating
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576 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the
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577 nearest integer below; @code{fceil}, the nearest integer above;
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578 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero;
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579 @code{fround}, the nearest integer.
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580
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581 @defun ffloor float
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582 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and
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583 returns that value as a floating point number.
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584 @end defun
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585
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586 @defun fceil float
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587 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and
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588 returns that value as a floating point number.
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589 @end defun
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590
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591 @defun ftruncate float
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592 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and
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593 returns that value as a floating point number.
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594 @end defun
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595
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diff changeset
596 @defun fround float
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597 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value,
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598 and returns that value as a floating point number.
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599 @end defun
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600
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601 @node Bitwise Operations
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602 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers
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603
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diff changeset
604 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a
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diff changeset
605 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise
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606 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example,
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diff changeset
607 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places,
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diff changeset
608 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''.
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diff changeset
609
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diff changeset
610 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers.
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parents:
diff changeset
611
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diff changeset
612 @defun lsh integer1 count
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diff changeset
613 @cindex logical shift
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diff changeset
614 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the
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diff changeset
615 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right
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diff changeset
616 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If
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diff changeset
617 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost
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diff changeset
618 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if
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diff changeset
619 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below.
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diff changeset
620
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diff changeset
621 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one
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diff changeset
622 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary
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diff changeset
623 pattern; the rest are all zero.
6510
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624
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625 @example
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diff changeset
626 @group
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diff changeset
627 (lsh 5 1)
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628 @result{} 10
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diff changeset
629 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.}
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630 00000101 @result{} 00001010
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parents:
diff changeset
631
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diff changeset
632 (lsh 7 1)
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diff changeset
633 @result{} 14
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diff changeset
634 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.}
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diff changeset
635 00000111 @result{} 00001110
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636 @end group
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637 @end example
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638
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diff changeset
639 @noindent
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diff changeset
640 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to
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diff changeset
641 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous
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diff changeset
642 number.
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diff changeset
643
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diff changeset
644 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does
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diff changeset
645 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits
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diff changeset
646 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting 8,388,607
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diff changeset
647 produces @minus{}2 on a 24-bit machine:
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648
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diff changeset
649 @example
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diff changeset
650 (lsh 8388607 1) ; @r{left shift}
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651 @result{} -2
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652 @end example
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diff changeset
653
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diff changeset
654 In binary, in the 24-bit implementation, the argument looks like this:
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655
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diff changeset
656 @example
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diff changeset
657 @group
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diff changeset
658 ;; @r{Decimal 8,388,607}
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659 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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diff changeset
660 @end group
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diff changeset
661 @end example
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662
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diff changeset
663 @noindent
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diff changeset
664 which becomes the following when left shifted:
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665
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diff changeset
666 @example
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diff changeset
667 @group
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diff changeset
668 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2}
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diff changeset
669 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110
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diff changeset
670 @end group
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diff changeset
671 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
672
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diff changeset
673 Shifting the pattern of bits two places to the left produces results
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diff changeset
674 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers):
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675
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diff changeset
676 @example
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677 @group
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diff changeset
678 (lsh 3 2)
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diff changeset
679 @result{} 12
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diff changeset
680 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.}
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diff changeset
681 00000011 @result{} 00001100
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682 @end group
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diff changeset
683 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
684
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diff changeset
685 On the other hand, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right
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diff changeset
686 looks like this:
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diff changeset
687
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diff changeset
688 @example
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diff changeset
689 @group
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diff changeset
690 (lsh 6 -1)
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diff changeset
691 @result{} 3
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diff changeset
692 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.}
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parents:
diff changeset
693 00000110 @result{} 00000011
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diff changeset
694 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
695
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parents:
diff changeset
696 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
697 (lsh 5 -1)
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parents:
diff changeset
698 @result{} 2
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diff changeset
699 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.}
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parents:
diff changeset
700 00000101 @result{} 00000010
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
701 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
702 @end example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
703
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
704 @noindent
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
705 As the example illustrates, shifting the pattern of bits one place to
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
706 the right divides the value of the binary number by two, rounding downward.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
707 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
708
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
709 @defun ash integer1 count
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
710 @cindex arithmetic shift
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
711 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
712 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
713 is negative.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
714
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
715 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
716 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case,
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
717 @code{ash} puts a one in the leftmost position, while @code{lsh} puts
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
718 a zero in the leftmost position.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
719
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
720 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
721 looks like this:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
722
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
723 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
724 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
725 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
726 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
727 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
728 @result{}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
729 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
730 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
731 @end example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
732
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
733 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
734 @code{lsh} looks like this:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
735
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
736 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
737 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
738 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 8388605
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
739 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 8,388,605.}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
740 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
741 @result{}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
742 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
743 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
744 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
745
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
746 Here are other examples:
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
747
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
748 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
749 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
750 @smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
751 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
752 ; @r{ 24-bit binary values}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
753
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
754 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
755 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
756 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
757 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
758 (ash 5 2)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
759 @result{} 20
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
760 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
761 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
762 (ash -5 2)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
763 @result{} -20
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
764 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
765 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
766 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
767 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
768 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
769 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
770 (ash 5 -2)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
771 @result{} 1
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
772 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
773 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
774 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
775 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
776 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
777 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
778 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
779 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
780 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
781 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
782 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
783
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
784 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
785 @cindex logical and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
786 @cindex bitwise and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
787 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
788 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
789 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
790 rather than 0.)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
791
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
792 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
793 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
794 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
795 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
796 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
797 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
798
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
799 @noindent
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
800 Therefore,
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
801
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
802 @example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
803 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
804 (logand 13 12)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
805 @result{} 12
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
806 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
807 @end example
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
808
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
809 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
810 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
811 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
812 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
813
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
814 @smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
815 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
816 ; @r{ 24-bit binary values}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
817
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
818 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
819 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
820 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
821 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
822
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
823 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
824 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
825 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
826 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
827 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
828 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
829
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
830 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
831 (logand)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
832 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
833 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
834 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
835 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
836
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
837 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
838 @cindex logical inclusive or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
839 @cindex bitwise or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
840 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
841 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
842 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero,
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
843 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
844 passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
845
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
846 @smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
847 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848 ; @r{ 24-bit binary values}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
849
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
850 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
851 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
852 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
853 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
854
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
855 @group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
856 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
857 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
858 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
859 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
860 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
861 @end smallexample
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
862 @end defun
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
863
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
864 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
865 @cindex bitwise exclusive or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
866 @cindex logical exclusive or
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
867 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
868 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
869 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
870 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
871 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
872
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
873 @smallexample
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
875 ; @r{ 24-bit binary values}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
878 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
879 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
880 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
881
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
882 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
884 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
885 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
886 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
887 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
888 @end smallexample
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
889 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
890
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
891 @defun lognot integer
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
892 @cindex logical not
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
893 @cindex bitwise not
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
894 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
895 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
896 @var{integer}, and vice-versa.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
897
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
898 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
899 (lognot 5)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
900 @result{} -6
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
901 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
902 ;; @r{becomes}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
903 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010}
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parents:
diff changeset
904 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
905 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
906
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parents:
diff changeset
907 @node Transcendental Functions
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
908 @section Transcendental Functions
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
909 @cindex transcendental functions
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
910 @cindex mathematical functions
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parents:
diff changeset
911
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parents:
diff changeset
912 These mathematical functions are available if floating point is
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
913 supported. They allow integers as well as floating point numbers
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
914 as arguments.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
915
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
916 @defun sin arg
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
917 @defunx cos arg
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
918 @defunx tan arg
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
919 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
920 in radians.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
921 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
922
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parents:
diff changeset
923 @defun asin arg
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
924 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
925 and pi/2 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg}
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
926 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
927 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
928
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
929 @defun acos arg
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
930 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and pi
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
931 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
932 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
933 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
934
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
935 @defun atan arg
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
936 The value of @code{(atan @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
937 and pi/2 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{arg}.
6510
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
938 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
939
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
940 @defun exp arg
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
941 This is the exponential function; it returns @i{e} to the power
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
942 @var{arg}. @i{e} is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
943 base of natural logarithms.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
944 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
945
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
946 @defun log arg &optional base
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
947 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
948 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base @var{e} is used. If @var{arg}
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
949 is negative, the result is a NaN.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
950 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
951
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
952 @ignore
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
953 @defun expm1 arg
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
954 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
955 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
956 is close to 1.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
957 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
958
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
959 @defun log1p arg
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
960 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
961 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
962 lose accuracy.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
963 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
964 @end ignore
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
965
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
966 @defun log10 arg
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
967 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If
7115
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
968 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})}
9a9e88e65617 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6510
diff changeset
969 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately.
6510
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
970 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
971
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
972 @defun expt x y
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
973 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
974 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
975
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
976 @defun sqrt arg
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
977 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative,
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
978 the value is a NaN.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
979 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
980
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
981 @node Random Numbers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
982 @section Random Numbers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
983 @cindex random numbers
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
984
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
985 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
986 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
987 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
988 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
989 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
990 often in a pseudo-random series.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
991
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
992 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
993 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
994 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
995 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
996 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
997 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
998 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
999 repeatability is helpful for debugging.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1000
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1001 If you want truly unpredictable random numbers, execute @code{(random
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1002 t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of day and on
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1003 Emacs's process @sc{id} number.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1004
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1005 @defun random &optional limit
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1006 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1007 series of pseudo-random integers.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1008
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1009 If @var{limit} is @code{nil}, then the value may in principle be any
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1010 integer. If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1011 be nonnegative and less than @var{limit} (only in Emacs 19).
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1012
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1013 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1014 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1015 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage!
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1016
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1017 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1018 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1019 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1020 @end defun