annotate doc/lispref/numbers.texi @ 99535:aa3735d1a6b8 small-dump-base

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author Katsumi Yamaoka <yamaoka@jpl.org>
date Fri, 14 Nov 2008 00:17:11 +0000
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children ce90a3ecf576
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001,
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4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../../info/numbers
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top
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8 @chapter Numbers
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9 @cindex integers
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10 @cindex numbers
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11
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12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and
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13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as
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14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point
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15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not
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19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision.
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20
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21 @menu
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22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers.
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23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point.
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24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers.
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25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates.
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26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa.
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27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide.
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28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers.
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29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting.
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions.
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31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not.
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32 @end menu
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33
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34 @node Integer Basics
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35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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36 @section Integer Basics
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37
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38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The
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39 minimum range is @minus{}268435456 to 268435455 (29 bits; i.e.,
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40 @ifnottex
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41 -2**28
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42 @end ifnottex
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43 @tex
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44 @math{-2^{28}}
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45 @end tex
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46 to
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47 @ifnottex
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48 2**28 - 1),
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49 @end ifnottex
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50 @tex
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51 @math{2^{28}-1}),
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52 @end tex
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this
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54 chapter assume an integer has 29 bits.
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55 @cindex overflow
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56
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57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional
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58 initial sign and optional final period.
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59
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60 @example
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61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.}
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62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.}
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63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
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64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.}
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65 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.}
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66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.}
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68 @end example
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69
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70 @cindex integers in specific radix
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71 @cindex radix for reading an integer
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72 @cindex base for reading an integer
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73 @cindex hex numbers
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74 @cindex octal numbers
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75 @cindex reading numbers in hex, octal, and binary
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76 The syntax for integers in bases other than 10 uses @samp{#}
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77 followed by a letter that specifies the radix: @samp{b} for binary,
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78 @samp{o} for octal, @samp{x} for hex, or @samp{@var{radix}r} to
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79 specify radix @var{radix}. Case is not significant for the letter
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80 that specifies the radix. Thus, @samp{#b@var{integer}} reads
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81 @var{integer} in binary, and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads
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82 @var{integer} in radix @var{radix}. Allowed values of @var{radix} run
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83 from 2 to 36. For example:
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84
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85 @example
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86 #b101100 @result{} 44
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87 #o54 @result{} 44
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88 #x2c @result{} 44
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89 #24r1k @result{} 44
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90 @end example
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91
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92 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the
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93 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to
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94 view the numbers in their binary form.
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95
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96 In 29-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this:
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97
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98 @example
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99 0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101
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100 @end example
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101
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102 @noindent
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103 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces
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104 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.)
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105
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106 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this:
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107
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108 @example
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109 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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110 @end example
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111
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112 @noindent
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113 @cindex two's complement
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114 @minus{}1 is represented as 29 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's
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115 complement} notation.)
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116
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117 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from
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118 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently,
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119 @minus{}5 looks like this:
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120
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121 @example
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122 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011
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123 @end example
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124
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125 In this implementation, the largest 29-bit binary integer value is
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126 268,435,455 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this:
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127
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128 @example
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129 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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130 @end example
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131
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132 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go
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133 outside their range, when you add 1 to 268,435,455, the value is the
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134 negative integer @minus{}268,435,456:
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135
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136 @example
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137 (+ 1 268435455)
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138 @result{} -268435456
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139 @result{} 1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000
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140 @end example
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141
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142 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for
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143 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual
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144 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often
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145 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument
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146 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored.
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147
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148 @defvar most-positive-fixnum
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149 The value of this variable is the largest integer that Emacs Lisp
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150 can handle.
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151 @end defvar
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152
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153 @defvar most-negative-fixnum
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154 The value of this variable is the smallest integer that Emacs Lisp can
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155 handle. It is negative.
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156 @end defvar
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157
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158 @node Float Basics
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159 @section Floating Point Basics
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160
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161 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are
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162 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is
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163 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type
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164 @code{double} on the machine you are using.
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165
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166 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal
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167 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For
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168 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and
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169 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose
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170 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign
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171 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}.
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172
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173 @cindex @acronym{IEEE} floating point
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174 @cindex positive infinity
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175 @cindex negative infinity
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176 @cindex infinity
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177 @cindex NaN
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178 Most modern computers support the @acronym{IEEE} floating point standard,
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179 which provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point
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180 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or
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181 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where
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182 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(/ 0.0 0.0)} returns a
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183 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between
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184 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely
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185 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp
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186 doesn't try to distinguish them (but it does report the sign, if you
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187 print it). Here are the read syntaxes for these special floating
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188 point values:
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189
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190 @table @asis
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191 @item positive infinity
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192 @samp{1.0e+INF}
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193 @item negative infinity
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194 @samp{-1.0e+INF}
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195 @item Not-a-number
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196 @samp{0.0e+NaN} or @samp{-0.0e+NaN}.
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197 @end table
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198
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199 To test whether a floating point value is a NaN, compare it with
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200 itself using @code{=}. That returns @code{nil} for a NaN, and
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201 @code{t} for any other floating point value.
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202
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203 The value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary zero in
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204 @acronym{IEEE} floating point, but Emacs Lisp @code{equal} and
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205 @code{=} consider them equal values.
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206
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207 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating
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208 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer):
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209
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210 @defun logb number
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211 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More
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212 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded
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213 down to an integer.
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214
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215 @example
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216 (logb 10)
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217 @result{} 3
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218 (logb 10.0e20)
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219 @result{} 69
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220 @end example
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221 @end defun
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222
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223 @node Predicates on Numbers
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224 @section Type Predicates for Numbers
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225 @cindex predicates for numbers
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226
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227 The functions in this section test for numbers, or for a specific
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228 type of number. The functions @code{integerp} and @code{floatp} can
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229 take any type of Lisp object as argument (they would not be of much
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230 use otherwise), but the @code{zerop} predicate requires a number as
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231 its argument. See also @code{integer-or-marker-p} and
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232 @code{number-or-marker-p}, in @ref{Predicates on Markers}.
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233
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234 @defun floatp object
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235 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point
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236 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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237
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238 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier.
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239 @end defun
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240
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241 @defun integerp object
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242 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns
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243 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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244 @end defun
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245
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246 @defun numberp object
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247 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or
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248 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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249 @end defun
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250
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251 @defun wholenump object
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252 @cindex natural numbers
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253 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase
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254 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative
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255 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is
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256 considered non-negative.
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257
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258 @findex natnump
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259 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}.
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260 @end defun
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261
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262 @defun zerop number
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263 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t}
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264 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number.
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265
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266 @code{(zerop x)} is equivalent to @code{(= x 0)}.
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267 @end defun
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268
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269 @node Comparison of Numbers
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270 @section Comparison of Numbers
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271 @cindex number comparison
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272 @cindex comparing numbers
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273
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274 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use
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275 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point
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276 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to
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277 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same
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278 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values
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279 of the objects.
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280
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281 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp.
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282 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are
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283 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an
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284 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an
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285 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any
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286 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not
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287 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you
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288 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the
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289 representation of integers in a future Emacs version.
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290
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291 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it
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292 treats two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both
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293 integers, or both floating point) and the same value. By contrast,
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294 @code{=} can treat an integer and a floating point number as equal.
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295 @xref{Equality Predicates}.
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296
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297 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not
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298 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating
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299 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality.
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300 Here's a function to do this:
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301
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302 @example
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303 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6)
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304 (defun approx-equal (x y)
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305 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0))
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306 (< (/ (abs (- x y))
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307 (max (abs x) (abs y)))
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308 fuzz-factor)))
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309 @end example
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310
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311 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq}
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312 @quotation
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313 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires
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314 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two
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315 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp
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316 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a
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317 limited range of integer values.
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318 @end quotation
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319
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320 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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321 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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322 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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323 @end defun
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324
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325 @defun eql value1 value2
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326 This function acts like @code{eq} except when both arguments are
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327 numbers. It compares numbers by type and numeric value, so that
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328 @code{(eql 1.0 1)} returns @code{nil}, but @code{(eql 1.0 1.0)} and
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329 @code{(eql 1 1)} both return @code{t}.
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330 @end defun
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331
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332 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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333 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
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334 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are.
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335 @end defun
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336
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337 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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338 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than
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339 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
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340 @end defun
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341
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342 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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343 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal
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344 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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345 otherwise.
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346 @end defun
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347
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348 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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349 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater
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350 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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351 otherwise.
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352 @end defun
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353
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354 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
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355 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or
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356 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil}
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357 otherwise.
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358 @end defun
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359
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360 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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361 This function returns the largest of its arguments.
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362 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned
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363 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.
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364
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365 @example
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366 (max 20)
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367 @result{} 20
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368 (max 1 2.5)
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369 @result{} 2.5
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370 (max 1 3 2.5)
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371 @result{} 3.0
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372 @end example
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373 @end defun
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374
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375 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
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376 This function returns the smallest of its arguments.
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377 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned
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378 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.
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379
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380 @example
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381 (min -4 1)
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382 @result{} -4
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383 @end example
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384 @end defun
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385
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386 @defun abs number
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387 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}.
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388 @end defun
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389
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390 @node Numeric Conversions
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391 @section Numeric Conversions
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392 @cindex rounding in conversions
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393 @cindex number conversions
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394 @cindex converting numbers
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395
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396 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}.
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397
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398 @defun float number
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399 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point.
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400 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns
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401 it unchanged.
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402 @end defun
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403
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404 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers;
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405 they differ in how they round. All accept an argument @var{number}
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406 and an optional argument @var{divisor}. Both arguments may be
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407 integers or floating point numbers. @var{divisor} may also be
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408 @code{nil}. If @var{divisor} is @code{nil} or omitted, these
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409 functions convert @var{number} to an integer, or return it unchanged
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410 if it already is an integer. If @var{divisor} is non-@code{nil}, they
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411 divide @var{number} by @var{divisor} and convert the result to an
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412 integer. An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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413
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414 @defun truncate number &optional divisor
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415 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards
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416 zero.
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417
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418 @example
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419 (truncate 1.2)
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420 @result{} 1
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421 (truncate 1.7)
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422 @result{} 1
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423 (truncate -1.2)
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424 @result{} -1
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425 (truncate -1.7)
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426 @result{} -1
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427 @end example
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428 @end defun
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429
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430 @defun floor number &optional divisor
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431 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward
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432 (towards negative infinity).
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433
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434 If @var{divisor} is specified, this uses the kind of division
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435 operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward.
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436
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437 @example
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438 (floor 1.2)
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439 @result{} 1
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440 (floor 1.7)
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441 @result{} 1
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442 (floor -1.2)
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443 @result{} -2
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444 (floor -1.7)
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445 @result{} -2
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446 (floor 5.99 3)
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447 @result{} 1
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448 @end example
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449 @end defun
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450
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451 @defun ceiling number &optional divisor
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452 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward
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453 (towards positive infinity).
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454
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455 @example
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456 (ceiling 1.2)
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457 @result{} 2
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458 (ceiling 1.7)
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459 @result{} 2
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460 (ceiling -1.2)
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461 @result{} -1
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462 (ceiling -1.7)
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463 @result{} -1
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464 @end example
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465 @end defun
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466
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467 @defun round number &optional divisor
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468 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the
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469 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers
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470 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer,
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471 depending on your machine.
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472
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473 @example
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474 (round 1.2)
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475 @result{} 1
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476 (round 1.7)
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477 @result{} 2
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478 (round -1.2)
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479 @result{} -1
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480 (round -1.7)
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481 @result{} -2
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482 @end example
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483 @end defun
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484
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485 @node Arithmetic Operations
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486 @section Arithmetic Operations
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487 @cindex arithmetic operations
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488
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489 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations:
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490 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus
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491 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to
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492 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and
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493 commonly used.
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494
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495 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value
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496 if any argument is floating.
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497
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498 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions
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499 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} may evaluate to
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500 @minus{}268435456, depending on your hardware.
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501
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502 @defun 1+ number-or-marker
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parents:
diff changeset
503 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1.
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504 For example,
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parents:
diff changeset
505
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diff changeset
506 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
507 (setq foo 4)
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parents:
diff changeset
508 @result{} 4
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parents:
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509 (1+ foo)
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diff changeset
510 @result{} 5
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diff changeset
511 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
512
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diff changeset
513 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not
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diff changeset
514 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue,
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diff changeset
515
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diff changeset
516 @example
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diff changeset
517 foo
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518 @result{} 4
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519 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
520
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diff changeset
521 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq},
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diff changeset
522 like this:
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parents:
diff changeset
523
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diff changeset
524 @example
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diff changeset
525 (setq foo (1+ foo))
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diff changeset
526 @result{} 5
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diff changeset
527 @end example
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diff changeset
528 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
529
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diff changeset
530 @defun 1- number-or-marker
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parents:
diff changeset
531 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1.
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diff changeset
532 @end defun
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diff changeset
533
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diff changeset
534 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers
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diff changeset
535 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments,
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diff changeset
536 @code{+} returns 0.
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parents:
diff changeset
537
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diff changeset
538 @example
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diff changeset
539 (+)
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diff changeset
540 @result{} 0
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parents:
diff changeset
541 (+ 1)
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diff changeset
542 @result{} 1
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diff changeset
543 (+ 1 2 3 4)
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diff changeset
544 @result{} 10
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diff changeset
545 @end example
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diff changeset
546 @end defun
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diff changeset
547
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diff changeset
548 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers
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parents:
diff changeset
549 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction.
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diff changeset
550 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the
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diff changeset
551 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of
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diff changeset
552 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker},
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parents:
diff changeset
553 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0.
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parents:
diff changeset
554
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diff changeset
555 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
556 (- 10 1 2 3 4)
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diff changeset
557 @result{} 0
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diff changeset
558 (- 10)
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diff changeset
559 @result{} -10
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parents:
diff changeset
560 (-)
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diff changeset
561 @result{} 0
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diff changeset
562 @end example
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diff changeset
563 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
564
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diff changeset
565 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers
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parents:
diff changeset
566 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the
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diff changeset
567 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1.
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parents:
diff changeset
568
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parents:
diff changeset
569 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
570 (*)
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parents:
diff changeset
571 @result{} 1
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
572 (* 1)
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diff changeset
573 @result{} 1
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parents:
diff changeset
574 (* 1 2 3 4)
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diff changeset
575 @result{} 24
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diff changeset
576 @end example
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diff changeset
577 @end defun
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diff changeset
578
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parents:
diff changeset
579 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors
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parents:
diff changeset
580 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
581 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
582 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
583 number or a marker.
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parents:
diff changeset
584
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diff changeset
585 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too.
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diff changeset
586 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result
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parents:
diff changeset
587 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
588 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
589 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
590 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known
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parents:
diff changeset
591 machines round in the standard fashion.
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parents:
diff changeset
592
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diff changeset
593 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division
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parents:
diff changeset
594 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
595 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
596 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports @acronym{IEEE} floating point;
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
597 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
598
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diff changeset
599 @example
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diff changeset
600 @group
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diff changeset
601 (/ 6 2)
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parents:
diff changeset
602 @result{} 3
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diff changeset
603 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
604 (/ 5 2)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
605 @result{} 2
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parents:
diff changeset
606 (/ 5.0 2)
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parents:
diff changeset
607 @result{} 2.5
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parents:
diff changeset
608 (/ 5 2.0)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
609 @result{} 2.5
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
610 (/ 5.0 2.0)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
611 @result{} 2.5
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parents:
diff changeset
612 (/ 25 3 2)
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parents:
diff changeset
613 @result{} 4
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
614 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
615 (/ -17 6)
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parents:
diff changeset
616 @result{} -2 @r{(could in theory be @minus{}3 on some machines)}
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diff changeset
617 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
618 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
619 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
620
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parents:
diff changeset
621 @defun % dividend divisor
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
622 @cindex remainder
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
623 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
624 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
625
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parents:
diff changeset
626 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
627 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
628
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
629 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
630
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
631 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
632 (% 9 4)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
633 @result{} 1
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
634 (% -9 4)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
635 @result{} -1
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
636 (% 9 -4)
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
637 @result{} 1
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
638 (% -9 -4)
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parents:
diff changeset
639 @result{} -1
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parents:
diff changeset
640 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
641
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
642 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
643
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
644 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
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diff changeset
645 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
646 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
647 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
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parents:
diff changeset
648 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
649 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
650
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
651 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
652 always equals @var{dividend}.
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diff changeset
653 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
654
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parents:
diff changeset
655 @defun mod dividend divisor
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parents:
diff changeset
656 @cindex modulus
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parents:
diff changeset
657 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor};
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parents:
diff changeset
658 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
659 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
660 The arguments must be numbers or markers.
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parents:
diff changeset
661
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
662 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
663 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
664 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
665 quotient to compute the remainder.
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parents:
diff changeset
666
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
667 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
668
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
669 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
670 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
671 (mod 9 4)
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parents:
diff changeset
672 @result{} 1
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diff changeset
673 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
674 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
675 (mod -9 4)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
676 @result{} 3
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
677 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
678 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
679 (mod 9 -4)
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
680 @result{} -3
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
681 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
682 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
683 (mod -9 -4)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
684 @result{} -1
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
685 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
686 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
687 (mod 5.5 2.5)
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
688 @result{} .5
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
689 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
690 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
691
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
692 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor},
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
693
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
694 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
695 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
696 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor})
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
697 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor}))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
698 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
699 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
700
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
701 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
702 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
703 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
704 Conversions}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
705 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
706
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
707 @node Rounding Operations
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
708 @section Rounding Operations
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
709 @cindex rounding without conversion
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
710
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
711 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
712 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
713 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
714 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above;
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
715 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero;
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
716 @code{fround}, the nearest integer.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
717
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
718 @defun ffloor float
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parents:
diff changeset
719 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
720 returns that value as a floating point number.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
721 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
722
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
723 @defun fceiling float
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
724 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
725 returns that value as a floating point number.
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parents:
diff changeset
726 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
727
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
728 @defun ftruncate float
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
729 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
730 returns that value as a floating point number.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
731 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
732
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
733 @defun fround float
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
734 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value,
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
735 and returns that value as a floating point number.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
736 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
737
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
738 @node Bitwise Operations
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
739 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
740 @cindex bitwise arithmetic
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
741 @cindex logical arithmetic
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
742
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
743 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
744 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
745 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example,
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
746 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
747 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over.''
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
748
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
749 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
750
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
751 @defun lsh integer1 count
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
752 @cindex logical shift
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
753 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
754 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
755 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
756 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
757 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
758 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
759
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
760 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
761 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
762 pattern; the rest are all zero.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
763
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
764 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
765 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
766 (lsh 5 1)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
767 @result{} 10
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
768 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
769 00000101 @result{} 00001010
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
770
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
771 (lsh 7 1)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
772 @result{} 14
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
773 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
774 00000111 @result{} 00001110
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
775 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
776 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
777
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
778 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
779 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
780 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
781 number.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
782
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
783 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
784 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers):
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
785
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
786 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
787 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
788 (lsh 3 2)
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
789 @result{} 12
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
790 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
791 00000011 @result{} 00001100
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
792 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
793 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
794
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
795 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
796
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
797 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
798 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
799 (lsh 6 -1)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
800 @result{} 3
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
801 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
802 00000110 @result{} 00000011
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
803 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
804
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
805 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
806 (lsh 5 -1)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
807 @result{} 2
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
808 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
809 00000101 @result{} 00000010
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
810 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
811 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
812
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
813 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
814 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
815 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
816
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
817 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
818 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
819 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
820 268,435,455 produces @minus{}2 on a 29-bit machine:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
821
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
822 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
823 (lsh 268435455 1) ; @r{left shift}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
824 @result{} -2
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
825 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
826
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
827 In binary, in the 29-bit implementation, the argument looks like this:
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
828
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
829 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
830 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
831 ;; @r{Decimal 268,435,455}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
832 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
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parents:
diff changeset
833 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
834 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
835
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
836 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
837 which becomes the following when left shifted:
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
838
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
839 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
840 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
841 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
842 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
843 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
844 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
845 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
846
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
847 @defun ash integer1 count
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848 @cindex arithmetic shift
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
849 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
850 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
851 is negative.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
852
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
853 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
854 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case,
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
855 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
856 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
857
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
858 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
859 looks like this:
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
860
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
861 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
862 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
863 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
864 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
865 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
866 @result{}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
867 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
868 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
869 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
870
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
871 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
872 @code{lsh} looks like this:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
873
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
875 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 268435453
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 268,435,453.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
878 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
879 @result{}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
880 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
881 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
882 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
884 Here are other examples:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
885
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
886 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
887 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
888 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
889 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
890 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
891
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
892 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
893 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
894 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
895 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
896 (ash 5 2)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
897 @result{} 20
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
898 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
899 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
900 (ash -5 2)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
901 @result{} -20
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parents:
diff changeset
902 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
903 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
904 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
905 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
906 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
907 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
908 (ash 5 -2)
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
909 @result{} 1
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
910 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
911 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
912 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
913 @result{} 134217726 ; = @r{0 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
914 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
915 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
916 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
917 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
918 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
919 @end smallexample
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
920 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
921
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parents:
diff changeset
922 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
923 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
924 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
925 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
926 rather than 0.)
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
927
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
928 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
929 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
930 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
931 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
932 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
933 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
934
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
935 @noindent
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
936 Therefore,
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
937
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
938 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
939 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
940 (logand 13 12)
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
941 @result{} 12
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
942 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
943 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
944
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
945 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
946 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
947 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
948 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
949
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
950 @smallexample
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
951 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
952 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
953
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
954 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
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parents:
diff changeset
955 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
956 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
957 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
958
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parents:
diff changeset
959 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
960 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
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parents:
diff changeset
961 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
962 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
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parents:
diff changeset
963 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100}
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parents:
diff changeset
964 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
965
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parents:
diff changeset
966 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
967 (logand)
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parents:
diff changeset
968 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111}
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diff changeset
969 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
970 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
971 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
972
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parents:
diff changeset
973 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers
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parents:
diff changeset
974 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
975 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
976 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero,
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
977 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
978 passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
979
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parents:
diff changeset
980 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
981 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
982 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
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parents:
diff changeset
983
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parents:
diff changeset
984 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
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parents:
diff changeset
985 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
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parents:
diff changeset
986 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101}
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parents:
diff changeset
987 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
988
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parents:
diff changeset
989 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
990 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
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parents:
diff changeset
991 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
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parents:
diff changeset
992 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
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parents:
diff changeset
993 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111}
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parents:
diff changeset
994 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
995 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
996 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
997
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parents:
diff changeset
998 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers
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parents:
diff changeset
999 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
1000 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
1001 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the
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parents:
diff changeset
1002 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If
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parents:
diff changeset
1003 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
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parents:
diff changeset
1004
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parents:
diff changeset
1005 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
1006 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1007 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1008
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parents:
diff changeset
1009 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
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parents:
diff changeset
1010 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
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parents:
diff changeset
1011 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001}
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parents:
diff changeset
1012 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1013
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1014 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1015 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1016 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1017 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1018 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1019 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1020 @end smallexample
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1021 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1022
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1023 @defun lognot integer
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1024 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1025 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1026 @var{integer}, and vice-versa.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1027
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1028 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1029 (lognot 5)
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1030 @result{} -6
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1031 ;; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1032 ;; @r{becomes}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1033 ;; -6 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1034 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1035 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1036
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1037 @node Math Functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1038 @section Standard Mathematical Functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1039 @cindex transcendental functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1040 @cindex mathematical functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1041 @cindex floating-point functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1042
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1043 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1044 numbers as arguments.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1045
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1046 @defun sin arg
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1047 @defunx cos arg
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1048 @defunx tan arg
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1049 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1050 in radians.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1051 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1052
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1053 @defun asin arg
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1054 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1055 @ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1056 @minus{}pi/2
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1057 @end ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1058 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1059 @math{-\pi/2}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1060 @end tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1061 and
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1062 @ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1063 pi/2
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1064 @end ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1065 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1066 @math{\pi/2}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1067 @end tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1068 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out of
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1069 range (outside [@minus{}1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1070 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1071
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1072 @defun acos arg
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1073 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1074 @ifnottex
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1075 pi
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1076 @end ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1077 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1078 @math{\pi}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1079 @end tex
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1080 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1081 of range (outside [@minus{}1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1082 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1083
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1084 @defun atan y &optional x
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1085 The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1086 @ifnottex
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1087 @minus{}pi/2
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1088 @end ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1089 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1090 @math{-\pi/2}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1091 @end tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1092 and
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1093 @ifnottex
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1094 pi/2
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1095 @end ifnottex
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1096 @tex
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1097 @math{\pi/2}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1098 @end tex
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1099 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{y}. If the optional second
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1100 argument @var{x} is given, the value of @code{(atan y x)} is the
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1101 angle in radians between the vector @code{[@var{x}, @var{y}]} and the
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1102 @code{X} axis.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1103 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1104
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1105 @defun exp arg
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1106 This is the exponential function; it returns
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1107 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1108 @math{e}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1109 @end tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1110 @ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1111 @i{e}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1112 @end ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1113 to the power @var{arg}.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1114 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1115 @math{e}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1116 @end tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1117 @ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1118 @i{e}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1119 @end ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1120 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1121 logarithms.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1122 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1123
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1124 @defun log arg &optional base
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1125 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1126 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1127 @tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1128 @math{e}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1129 @end tex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1130 @ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1131 @i{e}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1132 @end ifnottex
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1133 is used. If @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1134 error.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1135 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1136
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1137 @ignore
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1138 @defun expm1 arg
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1139 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1140 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})}
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1141 is close to 1.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1142 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1143
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1144 @defun log1p arg
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1145 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1146 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1147 lose accuracy.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1148 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1149 @end ignore
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1150
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1151 @defun log10 arg
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1152 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1153 @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1154 @code{(log10 @var{x})} @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1155 approximately.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1156 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1157
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1158 @defun expt x y
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1159 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1160 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1161 integer; in this case, overflow causes truncation, so watch out.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1162 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1163
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1164 @defun sqrt arg
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1165 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative,
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1166 it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1167 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1168
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1169 @node Random Numbers
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1170 @section Random Numbers
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1171 @cindex random numbers
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1172
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1173 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1174 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1175 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1176 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1177 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1178 often in a pseudo-random series.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1179
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1180 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number.
d90005c20551 Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1181 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always
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1182 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the
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1183 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually
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1184 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the
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1185 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns
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1186 @minus{}1457731, and the second one always returns @minus{}7692030. This
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1187 repeatability is helpful for debugging.
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1188
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1189 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute
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1190 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of
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1191 day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number.
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1192
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1193 @defun random &optional limit
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1194 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a
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1195 series of pseudo-random integers.
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1196
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1197 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be
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1198 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}.
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1199
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1200 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the
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1201 current time of day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number.
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1202 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage!
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1203
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1204 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result
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1205 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger
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1206 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum.
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1207 @end defun
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1208
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1209 @ignore
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1210 arch-tag: 574e8dd2-d513-4616-9844-c9a27869782e
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1211 @end ignore