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annotate doc/lispref/functions.texi @ 101327:b0eef2ac5a59
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author | Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca> |
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date | Wed, 21 Jan 2009 21:20:55 +0000 |
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84070 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, | |
100974 | 4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
84070 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
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6 @setfilename ../../info/functions |
84070 | 7 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top |
8 @chapter Functions | |
9 | |
10 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
11 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
12 define them. | |
13 | |
14 @menu | |
15 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
16 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
17 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
18 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
19 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
20 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
21 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. | |
22 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition | |
23 of a symbol. | |
24 * Obsolete Functions:: Declaring functions obsolete. | |
25 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. | |
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26 * Declaring Functions:: Telling the compiler that a function is defined. |
84070 | 27 * Function Safety:: Determining whether a function is safe to call. |
28 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives | |
29 that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
30 @end menu | |
31 | |
32 @node What Is a Function | |
33 @section What Is a Function? | |
34 | |
35 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
36 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
37 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
38 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
39 the contents of data structures. | |
40 | |
41 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
42 function-like objects. | |
43 | |
44 @table @dfn | |
45 @item function | |
46 @cindex function | |
47 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
48 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
49 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
50 macros are not functions. | |
51 | |
52 @item primitive | |
53 @cindex primitive | |
54 @cindex subr | |
55 @cindex built-in function | |
56 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
57 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
58 @dfn{built-in functions}, or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also | |
59 considered primitives.) | |
60 | |
61 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is either | |
62 because it is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface | |
63 to operating system services, or because it needs to run fast. | |
64 Primitives can be modified or added only by changing the C sources and | |
65 recompiling the editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. | |
66 | |
67 @item lambda expression | |
68 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
69 These are described in the following section. | |
70 @ifnottex | |
71 @xref{Lambda Expressions}. | |
72 @end ifnottex | |
73 | |
74 @item special form | |
75 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
76 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
77 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
78 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
79 Structures}. | |
80 | |
81 @item macro | |
82 @cindex macro | |
83 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
84 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
85 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
86 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of | |
87 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and | |
88 use macros. | |
89 | |
90 @item command | |
91 @cindex command | |
92 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
93 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
94 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
95 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
96 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
97 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
98 | |
99 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
100 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
101 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
102 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
103 @xref{Interactive Call}. | |
104 | |
105 @item keystroke command | |
106 @cindex keystroke command | |
107 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
108 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
109 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
110 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
111 | |
112 @item byte-code function | |
113 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
114 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
115 @end table | |
116 | |
117 @defun functionp object | |
118 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of | |
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119 function, i.e.@: can be passed to @code{funcall}. Note that |
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120 @code{functionp} returns @code{nil} for special forms (@pxref{Special |
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121 Forms}). |
84070 | 122 @end defun |
123 | |
124 Unlike @code{functionp}, the next three functions do @emph{not} | |
125 treat a symbol as its function definition. | |
126 | |
127 @defun subrp object | |
128 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
129 (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
130 | |
131 @example | |
132 @group | |
133 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
134 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
135 @end group | |
136 @group | |
137 (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
138 @result{} t | |
139 @end group | |
140 @end example | |
141 @end defun | |
142 | |
143 @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
144 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
145 function. For example: | |
146 | |
147 @example | |
148 @group | |
149 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
150 @result{} t | |
151 @end group | |
152 @end example | |
153 @end defun | |
154 | |
155 @defun subr-arity subr | |
156 This function provides information about the argument list of a | |
157 primitive, @var{subr}. The returned value is a pair | |
158 @code{(@var{min} . @var{max})}. @var{min} is the minimum number of | |
159 args. @var{max} is the maximum number or the symbol @code{many}, for a | |
160 function with @code{&rest} arguments, or the symbol @code{unevalled} if | |
161 @var{subr} is a special form. | |
162 @end defun | |
163 | |
164 @node Lambda Expressions | |
165 @section Lambda Expressions | |
166 @cindex lambda expression | |
167 | |
168 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
169 | |
170 @example | |
171 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
172 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
173 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
174 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
175 @end example | |
176 | |
177 @noindent | |
178 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it | |
179 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some | |
180 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at | |
181 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an | |
182 expression, but to be called as a function. | |
183 | |
184 @menu | |
185 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
186 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
187 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
188 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
189 @end menu | |
190 | |
191 @node Lambda Components | |
192 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
193 | |
194 @ifnottex | |
195 | |
196 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
197 looks like this: | |
198 | |
199 @example | |
200 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
201 [@var{documentation-string}] | |
202 [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
203 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
204 @end example | |
205 @end ifnottex | |
206 | |
207 @cindex lambda list | |
208 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
209 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
210 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
211 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
212 functions. | |
213 | |
214 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names. | |
215 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, | |
216 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
217 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
218 @xref{Local Variables}. | |
219 | |
220 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the | |
221 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help | |
222 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
223 | |
224 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
225 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
226 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
227 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
228 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
229 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
230 declaration. | |
231 | |
232 @cindex body of function | |
233 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
234 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
235 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
236 function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
237 | |
238 @node Simple Lambda | |
239 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
240 | |
241 Consider for example the following function: | |
242 | |
243 @example | |
244 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
245 @end example | |
246 | |
247 @noindent | |
248 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
249 expression, like this: | |
250 | |
251 @example | |
252 @group | |
253 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
254 1 2 3) | |
255 @end group | |
256 @end example | |
257 | |
258 @noindent | |
259 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
260 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
261 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
262 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
263 | |
264 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
265 this example: | |
266 | |
267 @example | |
268 @group | |
269 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
270 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
271 @end group | |
272 @end example | |
273 | |
274 @noindent | |
275 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
276 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the | |
277 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
278 | |
279 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
280 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
281 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
282 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
283 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
284 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
285 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
286 | |
287 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
288 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
289 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
290 variables. | |
291 | |
292 @node Argument List | |
293 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists | |
294 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments | |
295 @cindex argument binding | |
296 @cindex binding arguments | |
297 @cindex argument lists, features | |
298 | |
299 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
300 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
301 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
302 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
303 | |
304 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
305 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
306 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
307 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
308 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
309 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list} | |
310 and @code{+} do. | |
311 | |
312 @cindex optional arguments | |
313 @cindex rest arguments | |
314 @kindex &optional | |
315 @kindex &rest | |
316 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
317 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
318 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
319 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
320 | |
321 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
322 | |
323 @example | |
324 @group | |
325 (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
326 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
327 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
328 @end group | |
329 @end example | |
330 | |
331 @noindent | |
332 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
333 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
334 | |
335 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
336 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
337 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
338 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
339 be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
340 | |
341 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
342 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the | |
343 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and | |
344 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to | |
345 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value. | |
346 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to | |
347 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied. | |
348 | |
349 @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
350 @quotation | |
351 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
352 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
353 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p'' | |
354 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed. | |
355 @end quotation | |
356 | |
357 For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
358 | |
359 @example | |
360 (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
361 @end example | |
362 | |
363 @noindent | |
364 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
365 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
366 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
367 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
368 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
369 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
370 is @code{nil}. | |
371 | |
372 There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
373 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
374 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
375 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the | |
376 third argument be for? Would it be used for the @var{c}, or for | |
377 @var{d}? One can argue for both possibilities. Similarly, it makes | |
378 no sense to have any more arguments (either required or optional) | |
379 after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
380 | |
381 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
382 | |
383 @smallexample | |
384 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
385 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
386 @result{} 2 | |
387 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
388 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
389 1 2) | |
390 @result{} 3 | |
391 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
392 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
393 1 2 3 4 5) | |
394 @result{} 15 | |
395 @end smallexample | |
396 | |
397 @node Function Documentation | |
398 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
399 @cindex documentation of function | |
400 | |
401 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
402 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
403 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
404 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
405 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
406 accessed. | |
407 | |
408 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the | |
409 functions in your program, even those that are called only from within | |
410 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they | |
411 are easier to access. | |
412 | |
413 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
414 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
415 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
416 | |
417 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the | |
418 source file, but since these spaces come before the starting | |
419 double-quote, they are not part of the string. Some people make a | |
420 practice of indenting any additional lines of the string so that the | |
421 text lines up in the program source. @emph{That is a mistake.} The | |
422 indentation of the following lines is inside the string; what looks | |
423 nice in the source code will look ugly when displayed by the help | |
424 commands. | |
425 | |
426 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
427 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
428 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
429 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
430 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
431 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
432 as the return value and as the documentation. | |
433 | |
434 The last line of the documentation string can specify calling | |
435 conventions different from the actual function arguments. Write | |
436 text like this: | |
437 | |
438 @example | |
439 \(fn @var{arglist}) | |
440 @end example | |
441 | |
442 @noindent | |
443 following a blank line, at the beginning of the line, with no newline | |
444 following it inside the documentation string. (The @samp{\} is used | |
445 to avoid confusing the Emacs motion commands.) The calling convention | |
446 specified in this way appears in help messages in place of the one | |
447 derived from the actual arguments of the function. | |
448 | |
449 This feature is particularly useful for macro definitions, since the | |
450 arguments written in a macro definition often do not correspond to the | |
451 way users think of the parts of the macro call. | |
452 | |
453 @node Function Names | |
454 @section Naming a Function | |
455 @cindex function definition | |
456 @cindex named function | |
457 @cindex function name | |
458 | |
459 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
460 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
461 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
462 @code{lambda}, a byte-code function object, or a primitive subr-object. | |
463 | |
464 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
465 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
466 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
467 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
468 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
469 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
470 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
471 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
472 | |
473 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
474 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
475 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
476 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
477 | |
478 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
479 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
480 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
481 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
482 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
483 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
484 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
485 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
486 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
487 practice). | |
488 | |
489 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
490 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car},'' not | |
491 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
492 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, the | |
493 distinction is not important. | |
494 | |
495 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
496 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
497 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
498 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
499 equally well a name for the same function. | |
500 | |
501 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; these | |
502 two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. (Some Lisp | |
503 dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a symbol's value | |
504 and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable is also its | |
505 function definition.) If you have not given a symbol a function | |
506 definition, you cannot use it as a function; whether the symbol has a | |
507 value as a variable makes no difference to this. | |
508 | |
509 @node Defining Functions | |
510 @section Defining Functions | |
511 @cindex defining a function | |
512 | |
513 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
514 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
515 @code{defun} special form. | |
516 | |
517 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
518 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
519 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
520 | |
521 @example | |
522 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
523 @end example | |
524 | |
525 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
526 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
527 value. | |
528 | |
529 As described previously, @var{argument-list} is a list of argument | |
530 names and may include the keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
531 (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}). Also, the first two of the | |
532 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive | |
533 declaration. | |
534 | |
535 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
536 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
537 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
538 | |
539 Here are some examples: | |
540 | |
541 @example | |
542 @group | |
543 (defun foo () 5) | |
544 @result{} foo | |
545 @end group | |
546 @group | |
547 (foo) | |
548 @result{} 5 | |
549 @end group | |
550 | |
551 @group | |
552 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
553 (list a b c)) | |
554 @result{} bar | |
555 @end group | |
556 @group | |
557 (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
558 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
559 @end group | |
560 @group | |
561 (bar 1) | |
562 @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
563 @end group | |
564 @group | |
565 (bar) | |
566 @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
567 @end group | |
568 | |
569 @group | |
570 (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
571 "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
572 (interactive) | |
573 (backward-word 1) | |
574 (forward-word 1) | |
575 (backward-char 1) | |
576 (capitalize-word 1)) | |
577 @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
578 @end group | |
579 @end example | |
580 | |
581 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
582 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
583 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
584 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
585 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
586 @end defspec | |
587 | |
588 @cindex function aliases | |
589 @defun defalias name definition &optional docstring | |
590 @anchor{Definition of defalias} | |
591 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with | |
592 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function). | |
593 It returns @var{definition}. | |
594 | |
595 If @var{docstring} is non-@code{nil}, it becomes the function | |
596 documentation of @var{name}. Otherwise, any documentation provided by | |
597 @var{definition} is used. | |
598 | |
599 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function | |
600 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in | |
601 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records | |
602 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun} | |
603 (@pxref{Unloading}). | |
604 | |
605 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other | |
606 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such | |
607 records. @xref{Function Cells}. | |
608 @end defun | |
609 | |
610 You cannot create a new primitive function with @code{defun} or | |
611 @code{defalias}, but you can use them to change the function definition of | |
612 any symbol, even one such as @code{car} or @code{x-popup-menu} whose | |
613 normal definition is a primitive. However, this is risky: for | |
614 instance, it is next to impossible to redefine @code{car} without | |
615 breaking Lisp completely. Redefining an obscure function such as | |
616 @code{x-popup-menu} is less dangerous, but it still may not work as | |
617 you expect. If there are calls to the primitive from C code, they | |
618 call the primitive's C definition directly, so changing the symbol's | |
619 definition will have no effect on them. | |
620 | |
621 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun} | |
622 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}. | |
623 | |
624 @node Calling Functions | |
625 @section Calling Functions | |
626 @cindex function invocation | |
627 @cindex calling a function | |
628 | |
629 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
630 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
631 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
632 | |
633 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. | |
634 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the | |
635 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}. | |
636 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
637 | |
638 When you write a list as an expression in your program, you specify | |
639 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, in the text | |
640 of the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you | |
641 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use | |
642 the function @code{funcall}. When you also need to determine at run | |
643 time how many arguments to pass, use @code{apply}. | |
644 | |
645 @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
646 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
647 whatever @var{function} returns. | |
648 | |
649 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
650 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
651 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
652 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the | |
653 expressions you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. | |
654 These values are @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of | |
655 calling @var{function}; the operation of @code{funcall} is like the | |
656 normal procedure for calling a function, once its arguments have | |
657 already been evaluated. | |
658 | |
659 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
660 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
661 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
662 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
663 above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
664 | |
665 @example | |
666 @group | |
667 (setq f 'list) | |
668 @result{} list | |
669 @end group | |
670 @group | |
671 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
672 @result{} (x y z) | |
673 @end group | |
674 @group | |
675 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
676 @result{} (x y (z)) | |
677 @end group | |
678 @group | |
679 (funcall 'and t nil) | |
680 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
681 @end group | |
682 @end example | |
683 | |
684 Compare these examples with the examples of @code{apply}. | |
685 @end defun | |
686 | |
687 @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
688 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
689 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
690 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate | |
691 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply} | |
692 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an | |
693 argument. | |
694 | |
695 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
696 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
697 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
698 @code{apply}. | |
699 | |
700 @example | |
701 @group | |
702 (setq f 'list) | |
703 @result{} list | |
704 @end group | |
705 @group | |
706 (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
707 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
708 @end group | |
709 @group | |
710 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
711 @result{} 10 | |
712 @end group | |
713 @group | |
714 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
715 @result{} 10 | |
716 @end group | |
717 | |
718 @group | |
719 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
720 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
721 @end group | |
722 @end example | |
723 | |
724 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see @ref{Definition | |
725 of mapcar}. | |
726 @end defun | |
727 | |
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728 @cindex partial application of functions |
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729 @cindex currying |
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730 Sometimes it is useful to fix some of the function's arguments at |
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731 certain values, and leave the rest of arguments for when the function |
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732 is actually called. The act of fixing some of the function's |
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733 arguments is called @dfn{partial application} of the function@footnote{ |
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734 This is related to, but different from @dfn{currying}, which |
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735 transforms a function that takes multiple arguments in such a way that |
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736 it can be called as a chain of functions, each one with a single |
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737 argument.}. |
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738 The result is a new function that accepts the rest of |
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739 arguments and calls the original function with all the arguments |
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740 combined. |
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741 |
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742 Here's how to do partial application in Emacs Lisp: |
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743 |
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744 @defun apply-partially func &rest args |
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745 This function returns a new function which, when called, will call |
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746 @var{func} with the list of arguments composed from @var{args} and |
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747 additional arguments specified at the time of the call. If @var{func} |
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748 accepts @var{n} arguments, then a call to @code{apply-partially} with |
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749 @w{@code{@var{m} < @var{n}}} arguments will produce a new function of |
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750 @w{@code{@var{n} - @var{m}}} arguments. |
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751 |
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752 Here's how we could define the built-in function @code{1+}, if it |
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753 didn't exist, using @code{apply-partially} and @code{+}, another |
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754 built-in function: |
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755 |
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756 @example |
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757 @group |
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758 (defalias '1+ (apply-partially '+ 1) |
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759 "Increment argument by one.") |
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760 @end group |
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761 @group |
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762 (1+ 10) |
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763 @result{} 11 |
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764 @end group |
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765 @end example |
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766 @end defun |
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767 |
84070 | 768 @cindex functionals |
769 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
770 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
771 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
772 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
773 | |
774 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op | |
775 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
776 function: | |
777 | |
778 @defun identity arg | |
779 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
780 @end defun | |
781 | |
782 @defun ignore &rest args | |
783 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
784 @end defun | |
785 | |
786 @node Mapping Functions | |
787 @section Mapping Functions | |
788 @cindex mapping functions | |
789 | |
790 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function (@emph{not} a | |
791 special form or macro) to each element of a list or other collection. | |
792 Emacs Lisp has several such functions; @code{mapcar} and | |
793 @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described here. | |
794 @xref{Definition of mapatoms}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which | |
795 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Definition of maphash}, | |
796 for the function @code{maphash} which maps over key/value associations | |
797 in a hash table. | |
798 | |
799 These mapping functions do not allow char-tables because a char-table | |
800 is a sparse array whose nominal range of indices is very large. To map | |
801 over a char-table in a way that deals properly with its sparse nature, | |
802 use the function @code{map-char-table} (@pxref{Char-Tables}). | |
803 | |
804 @defun mapcar function sequence | |
805 @anchor{Definition of mapcar} | |
806 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} | |
807 in turn, and returns a list of the results. | |
808 | |
809 The argument @var{sequence} can be any kind of sequence except a | |
810 char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a bool-vector, or a string. The | |
811 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the | |
812 length of @var{sequence}. For example: | |
813 | |
814 @smallexample | |
815 @group | |
816 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
817 @result{} (a c e) | |
818 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
819 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
820 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc") | |
821 @result{} ("a" "b" "c") | |
822 @end group | |
823 | |
824 @group | |
825 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
826 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
827 @end group | |
828 | |
829 @group | |
830 (defun mapcar* (function &rest args) | |
831 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. | |
832 Return the list of results." | |
833 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
834 (if (not (memq nil args)) | |
835 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{car}s.} | |
836 (cons (apply function (mapcar 'car args)) | |
837 (apply 'mapcar* function | |
838 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} | |
839 (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
840 @end group | |
841 | |
842 @group | |
843 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
844 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
845 @end group | |
846 @end smallexample | |
847 @end defun | |
848 | |
849 @defun mapc function sequence | |
850 @code{mapc} is like @code{mapcar} except that @var{function} is used for | |
851 side-effects only---the values it returns are ignored, not collected | |
852 into a list. @code{mapc} always returns @var{sequence}. | |
853 @end defun | |
854 | |
855 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator | |
856 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
857 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
858 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
859 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
860 other suitable punctuation. | |
861 | |
862 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
863 argument and return a string. The argument @var{sequence} can be any | |
864 kind of sequence except a char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a | |
865 bool-vector, or a string. | |
866 | |
867 @smallexample | |
868 @group | |
869 (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
870 '(The cat in the hat) | |
871 " ") | |
872 @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
873 @end group | |
874 | |
875 @group | |
876 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
877 "HAL-8000" | |
878 "") | |
879 @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
880 @end group | |
881 @end smallexample | |
882 @end defun | |
883 | |
884 @node Anonymous Functions | |
885 @section Anonymous Functions | |
886 @cindex anonymous function | |
887 | |
888 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
889 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
890 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra.'' Although usually functions | |
891 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is | |
892 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an | |
893 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. | |
894 | |
895 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
896 | |
897 @smallexample | |
898 @group | |
899 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) | |
900 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) | |
901 @end group | |
902 @end smallexample | |
903 | |
904 @noindent | |
905 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
906 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
907 @code{silly}. | |
908 | |
909 Here is how we might call this function: | |
910 | |
911 @example | |
912 @group | |
913 (funcall silly 1) | |
914 @result{} 13 | |
915 @end group | |
916 @end example | |
917 | |
918 @noindent | |
919 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function | |
920 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given | |
921 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.) | |
922 | |
923 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
924 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to | |
925 the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each | |
926 element of a list. | |
927 | |
928 Here we define a function @code{change-property} which | |
929 uses a function as its third argument: | |
930 | |
931 @example | |
932 @group | |
933 (defun change-property (symbol prop function) | |
934 (let ((value (get symbol prop))) | |
935 (put symbol prop (funcall function value)))) | |
936 @end group | |
937 @end example | |
938 | |
939 @noindent | |
940 Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property}, | |
941 passing it a function to double a number: | |
942 | |
943 @example | |
944 @group | |
945 (defun double-property (symbol prop) | |
946 (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) | |
947 @end group | |
948 @end example | |
949 | |
950 @noindent | |
951 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead | |
952 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this: | |
953 | |
954 @example | |
955 @group | |
956 (defun double-property (symbol prop) | |
957 (change-property symbol prop | |
958 (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))))) | |
959 @end group | |
960 @end example | |
961 | |
962 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you | |
963 compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you | |
964 compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous | |
965 function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first | |
966 definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to | |
967 @code{change-property} is the precise list shown: | |
968 | |
969 @example | |
970 (lambda (x) (* x 2)) | |
971 @end example | |
972 | |
973 @noindent | |
974 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it | |
975 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will | |
976 do with the list. Perhaps it will check whether the @sc{car} of the third | |
977 element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the | |
978 compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function. | |
979 | |
980 Nowadays it is possible to omit @code{function} entirely, like this: | |
981 | |
982 @example | |
983 @group | |
984 (defun double-property (symbol prop) | |
985 (change-property symbol prop (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) | |
986 @end group | |
987 @end example | |
988 | |
989 @noindent | |
990 This is because @code{lambda} itself implies @code{function}. | |
991 | |
992 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when | |
993 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of | |
994 comment: | |
995 | |
996 @example | |
997 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} | |
998 @end example | |
999 | |
1000 @cindex @samp{#'} syntax | |
1001 The read syntax @code{#'} is a short-hand for using @code{function}. | |
1002 For example, | |
1003 | |
1004 @example | |
1005 #'(lambda (x) (* x x)) | |
1006 @end example | |
1007 | |
1008 @noindent | |
1009 is equivalent to | |
1010 | |
1011 @example | |
1012 (function (lambda (x) (* x x))) | |
1013 @end example | |
1014 | |
1015 @defspec function function-object | |
1016 @cindex function quoting | |
1017 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
1018 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
1019 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
1020 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
1021 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
1022 @end defspec | |
1023 | |
1024 @xref{describe-symbols example}, for a realistic example using | |
1025 @code{function} and an anonymous function. | |
1026 | |
1027 @node Function Cells | |
1028 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
1029 | |
1030 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
1031 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
1032 and set the function cell of symbols. | |
1033 | |
1034 See also the function @code{indirect-function}. @xref{Definition of | |
1035 indirect-function}. | |
1036 | |
1037 @defun symbol-function symbol | |
1038 @kindex void-function | |
1039 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
1040 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
1041 signaled. | |
1042 | |
1043 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
1044 function. | |
1045 | |
1046 @example | |
1047 @group | |
1048 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
1049 @result{} bar | |
1050 @end group | |
1051 @group | |
1052 (symbol-function 'bar) | |
1053 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
1054 @end group | |
1055 @group | |
1056 (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
1057 @result{} bar | |
1058 @end group | |
1059 @group | |
1060 (symbol-function 'baz) | |
1061 @result{} bar | |
1062 @end group | |
1063 @end example | |
1064 @end defun | |
1065 | |
1066 @cindex void function cell | |
1067 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
1068 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
1069 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
1070 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
1071 | |
1072 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
1073 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
1074 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
1075 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
1076 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever. | |
1077 | |
1078 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
1079 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
1080 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
1081 | |
1082 @defun fboundp symbol | |
1083 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
1084 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
1085 is a legitimate function. | |
1086 @end defun | |
1087 | |
1088 @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
1089 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
1090 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a | |
1091 @code{void-function} error. It returns @var{symbol}. (See also | |
1092 @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Void Variables}.) | |
1093 | |
1094 @example | |
1095 @group | |
1096 (defun foo (x) x) | |
1097 @result{} foo | |
1098 @end group | |
1099 @group | |
1100 (foo 1) | |
1101 @result{}1 | |
1102 @end group | |
1103 @group | |
1104 (fmakunbound 'foo) | |
1105 @result{} foo | |
1106 @end group | |
1107 @group | |
1108 (foo 1) | |
1109 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
1110 @end group | |
1111 @end example | |
1112 @end defun | |
1113 | |
1114 @defun fset symbol definition | |
1115 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of | |
1116 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally | |
1117 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but | |
1118 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated | |
1119 argument. | |
1120 | |
1121 There are three normal uses of this function: | |
1122 | |
1123 @itemize @bullet | |
1124 @item | |
1125 Copying one symbol's function definition to another---in other words, | |
1126 making an alternate name for a function. (If you think of this as the | |
1127 definition of the new name, you should use @code{defalias} instead of | |
1128 @code{fset}; see @ref{Definition of defalias}.) | |
1129 | |
1130 @item | |
1131 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
1132 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset} | |
1133 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol | |
1134 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition | |
1135 @code{s2} presently has. (Once again use @code{defalias} instead of | |
1136 @code{fset} if you think of this as the definition of @code{s1}.) | |
1137 | |
1138 @item | |
1139 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
1140 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
1141 @code{fset}. | |
1142 @end itemize | |
1143 | |
1144 Here are examples of these uses: | |
1145 | |
1146 @example | |
1147 @group | |
1148 ;; @r{Save @code{foo}'s definition in @code{old-foo}.} | |
1149 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) | |
1150 @end group | |
1151 | |
1152 @group | |
1153 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
1154 ;; @r{(Most likely, @code{defalias} would be better than @code{fset} here.)} | |
1155 (fset 'xfirst 'car) | |
1156 @result{} car | |
1157 @end group | |
1158 @group | |
1159 (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
1160 @result{} 1 | |
1161 @end group | |
1162 @group | |
1163 (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
1164 @result{} car | |
1165 @end group | |
1166 @group | |
1167 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
1168 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1169 @end group | |
1170 | |
1171 @group | |
1172 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
1173 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
1174 @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
1175 @end group | |
1176 | |
1177 @group | |
1178 ;; @r{Here is a function that alters other functions.} | |
1179 (defun copy-function-definition (new old) | |
1180 "Define NEW with the same function definition as OLD." | |
1181 (fset new (symbol-function old))) | |
1182 @end group | |
1183 @end example | |
1184 @end defun | |
1185 | |
1186 @code{fset} is sometimes used to save the old definition of a | |
1187 function before redefining it. That permits the new definition to | |
1188 invoke the old definition. But it is unmodular and unclean for a Lisp | |
1189 file to redefine a function defined elsewhere. If you want to modify | |
1190 a function defined by another package, it is cleaner to use | |
1191 @code{defadvice} (@pxref{Advising Functions}). | |
1192 | |
1193 @node Obsolete Functions | |
1194 @section Declaring Functions Obsolete | |
1195 | |
1196 You can use @code{make-obsolete} to declare a function obsolete. This | |
1197 indicates that the function may be removed at some stage in the future. | |
1198 | |
1199 @defun make-obsolete obsolete-name current-name &optional when | |
1200 This function makes the byte compiler warn that the function | |
1201 @var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, the | |
1202 warning message says to use @var{current-name} instead of | |
1203 @var{obsolete-name}. @var{current-name} does not need to be an alias for | |
1204 @var{obsolete-name}; it can be a different function with similar | |
1205 functionality. If @var{current-name} is a string, it is the warning | |
1206 message. | |
1207 | |
1208 If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the function | |
1209 was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release number. | |
1210 @end defun | |
1211 | |
1212 You can define a function as an alias and declare it obsolete at the | |
1213 same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-function-alias}. | |
1214 | |
1215 @defmac define-obsolete-function-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring | |
1216 This macro marks the function @var{obsolete-name} obsolete and also | |
1217 defines it as an alias for the function @var{current-name}. It is | |
1218 equivalent to the following: | |
1219 | |
1220 @example | |
1221 (defalias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring}) | |
1222 (make-obsolete @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when}) | |
1223 @end example | |
1224 @end defmac | |
1225 | |
1226 @node Inline Functions | |
1227 @section Inline Functions | |
1228 @cindex inline functions | |
1229 | |
1230 @findex defsubst | |
1231 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1232 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1233 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1234 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1235 | |
1236 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1237 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you | |
1238 change the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use | |
1239 the old definition until you recompile them. | |
1240 | |
1241 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1242 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1243 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1244 generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1245 | |
1246 Also, inline functions do not behave well with respect to debugging, | |
1247 tracing, and advising (@pxref{Advising Functions}). Since ease of | |
1248 debugging and the flexibility of redefining functions are important | |
1249 features of Emacs, you should not make a function inline, even if it's | |
1250 small, unless its speed is really crucial, and you've timed the code | |
1251 to verify that using @code{defun} actually has performance problems. | |
1252 | |
1253 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
1254 inline function would execute. (@xref{Macros}.) But the macro would be | |
1255 limited to direct use in expressions---a macro cannot be called with | |
1256 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to | |
1257 convert an ordinary function into a macro. To convert it into an inline | |
1258 function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} with @code{defsubst}. | |
1259 Since each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you | |
1260 needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you | |
1261 do for macros. (@xref{Argument Evaluation}.) | |
1262 | |
1263 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file, | |
1264 following the definition, just like macros. | |
1265 | |
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1266 @node Declaring Functions |
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1267 @section Telling the Compiler that a Function is Defined |
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1268 @cindex function declaration |
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1269 @cindex declaring functions |
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1270 @findex declare-function |
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1271 |
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1272 Byte-compiling a file often produces warnings about functions that the |
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1273 compiler doesn't know about (@pxref{Compiler Errors}). Sometimes this |
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1274 indicates a real problem, but usually the functions in question are |
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1275 defined in other files which would be loaded if that code is run. For |
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1276 example, byte-compiling @file{fortran.el} used to warn: |
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1277 |
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1278 @smallexample |
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1279 In end of data: |
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1280 fortran.el:2152:1:Warning: the function `gud-find-c-expr' is not known to be defined. |
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1281 @end smallexample |
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1282 |
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1283 In fact, @code{gud-find-c-expr} is only used in the function that |
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1284 Fortran mode uses for the local value of |
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1285 @code{gud-find-expr-function}, which is a callback from GUD; if it is |
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1286 called, the GUD functions will be loaded. When you know that such a |
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1287 warning does not indicate a real problem, it is good to suppress the |
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1288 warning. That makes new warnings which might mean real problems more |
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1289 visible. You do that with @code{declare-function}. |
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1290 |
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1291 All you need to do is add a @code{declare-function} statement before the |
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1292 first use of the function in question: |
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1293 |
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1294 @smallexample |
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1295 (declare-function gud-find-c-expr "gud.el" nil) |
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1296 @end smallexample |
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1297 |
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1298 This says that @code{gud-find-c-expr} is defined in @file{gud.el} (the |
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1299 @samp{.el} can be omitted). The compiler takes for granted that that file |
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1300 really defines the function, and does not check. |
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1301 |
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1302 The optional third argument specifies the argument list of |
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1303 @code{gud-find-c-expr}. In this case, it takes no arguments |
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1304 (@code{nil} is different from not specifying a value). In other |
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1305 cases, this might be something like @code{(file &optional overwrite)}. |
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1306 You don't have to specify the argument list, but if you do the |
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1307 byte compiler can check that the calls match the declaration. |
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1308 |
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1309 @defmac declare-function function file &optional arglist fileonly |
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1310 Tell the byte compiler to assume that @var{function} is defined, with |
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1311 arguments @var{arglist}, and that the definition should come from the |
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1312 file @var{file}. @var{fileonly} non-@code{nil} means only check that |
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1313 @var{file} exists, not that it actually defines @var{function}. |
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1314 @end defmac |
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1315 |
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1316 To verify that these functions really are declared where |
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1317 @code{declare-function} says they are, use @code{check-declare-file} |
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1318 to check all @code{declare-function} calls in one source file, or use |
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1319 @code{check-declare-directory} check all the files in and under a |
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1320 certain directory. |
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1321 |
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1322 These commands find the file that ought to contain a function's |
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1323 definition using @code{locate-library}; if that finds no file, they |
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1324 expand the definition file name relative to the directory of the file |
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1325 that contains the @code{declare-function} call. |
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1326 |
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1327 You can also say that a function is defined by C code by specifying |
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1328 a file name ending in @samp{.c}. @code{check-declare-file} looks for |
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1329 these files in the C source code directory. This is useful only when |
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1330 you call a function that is defined only on certain systems. Most |
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1331 of the primitive functions of Emacs are always defined so they will |
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1332 never give you a warning. |
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1333 |
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1334 Sometimes a file will optionally use functions from an external package. |
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1335 If you prefix the filename in the @code{declare-function} statement with |
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1336 @samp{ext:}, then it will be checked if it is found, otherwise skipped |
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1337 without error. |
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1338 |
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1339 There are some function definitions that @samp{check-declare} does not |
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1340 understand (e.g. @code{defstruct} and some other macros). In such cases, |
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1341 you can pass a non-@code{nil} @var{fileonly} argument to |
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1342 @code{declare-function}, meaning to only check that the file exists, not |
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1343 that it actually defines the function. Note that to do this without |
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1344 having to specify an argument list, you should set the @var{arglist} |
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1345 argument to @code{t} (because @code{nil} means an empty argument list, as |
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1346 opposed to an unspecified one). |
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1347 |
84070 | 1348 @node Function Safety |
1349 @section Determining whether a Function is Safe to Call | |
1350 @cindex function safety | |
1351 @cindex safety of functions | |
1352 | |
1353 Some major modes such as SES call functions that are stored in user | |
1354 files. (@inforef{Top, ,ses}, for more information on SES.) User | |
1355 files sometimes have poor pedigrees---you can get a spreadsheet from | |
1356 someone you've just met, or you can get one through email from someone | |
1357 you've never met. So it is risky to call a function whose source code | |
1358 is stored in a user file until you have determined that it is safe. | |
1359 | |
1360 @defun unsafep form &optional unsafep-vars | |
1361 Returns @code{nil} if @var{form} is a @dfn{safe} Lisp expression, or | |
1362 returns a list that describes why it might be unsafe. The argument | |
1363 @var{unsafep-vars} is a list of symbols known to have temporary | |
1364 bindings at this point; it is mainly used for internal recursive | |
1365 calls. The current buffer is an implicit argument, which provides a | |
1366 list of buffer-local bindings. | |
1367 @end defun | |
1368 | |
1369 Being quick and simple, @code{unsafep} does a very light analysis and | |
1370 rejects many Lisp expressions that are actually safe. There are no | |
1371 known cases where @code{unsafep} returns @code{nil} for an unsafe | |
1372 expression. However, a ``safe'' Lisp expression can return a string | |
1373 with a @code{display} property, containing an associated Lisp | |
1374 expression to be executed after the string is inserted into a buffer. | |
1375 This associated expression can be a virus. In order to be safe, you | |
1376 must delete properties from all strings calculated by user code before | |
1377 inserting them into buffers. | |
1378 | |
1379 @ignore | |
1380 What is a safe Lisp expression? Basically, it's an expression that | |
1381 calls only built-in functions with no side effects (or only innocuous | |
1382 ones). Innocuous side effects include displaying messages and | |
1383 altering non-risky buffer-local variables (but not global variables). | |
1384 | |
1385 @table @dfn | |
1386 @item Safe expression | |
1387 @itemize | |
1388 @item | |
1389 An atom or quoted thing. | |
1390 @item | |
1391 A call to a safe function (see below), if all its arguments are | |
1392 safe expressions. | |
1393 @item | |
1394 One of the special forms @code{and}, @code{catch}, @code{cond}, | |
1395 @code{if}, @code{or}, @code{prog1}, @code{prog2}, @code{progn}, | |
1396 @code{while}, and @code{unwind-protect}], if all its arguments are | |
1397 safe. | |
1398 @item | |
1399 A form that creates temporary bindings (@code{condition-case}, | |
1400 @code{dolist}, @code{dotimes}, @code{lambda}, @code{let}, or | |
1401 @code{let*}), if all args are safe and the symbols to be bound are not | |
1402 explicitly risky (see @pxref{File Local Variables}). | |
1403 @item | |
1404 An assignment using @code{add-to-list}, @code{setq}, @code{push}, or | |
1405 @code{pop}, if all args are safe and the symbols to be assigned are | |
1406 not explicitly risky and they already have temporary or buffer-local | |
1407 bindings. | |
1408 @item | |
1409 One of [apply, mapc, mapcar, mapconcat] if the first argument is a | |
1410 safe explicit lambda and the other args are safe expressions. | |
1411 @end itemize | |
1412 | |
1413 @item Safe function | |
1414 @itemize | |
1415 @item | |
1416 A lambda containing safe expressions. | |
1417 @item | |
1418 A symbol on the list @code{safe-functions}, so the user says it's safe. | |
1419 @item | |
1420 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{side-effect-free} property. | |
1421 @item | |
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1422 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-function} property. The |
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1423 value @code{t} indicates a function that is safe but has innocuous |
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1424 side effects. Other values will someday indicate functions with |
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1425 classes of side effects that are not always safe. |
84070 | 1426 @end itemize |
1427 | |
1428 The @code{side-effect-free} and @code{safe-function} properties are | |
1429 provided for built-in functions and for low-level functions and macros | |
1430 defined in @file{subr.el}. You can assign these properties for the | |
1431 functions you write. | |
1432 @end table | |
1433 @end ignore | |
1434 | |
1435 @node Related Topics | |
1436 @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1437 | |
1438 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1439 function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1440 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1441 | |
1442 @table @code | |
1443 @item apply | |
1444 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1445 | |
1446 @item autoload | |
1447 See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1448 | |
1449 @item call-interactively | |
1450 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1451 | |
85688 | 1452 @item called-interactively-p |
1453 See @ref{Distinguish Interactive}. | |
1454 | |
84070 | 1455 @item commandp |
1456 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1457 | |
1458 @item documentation | |
1459 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1460 | |
1461 @item eval | |
1462 See @ref{Eval}. | |
1463 | |
1464 @item funcall | |
1465 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1466 | |
1467 @item function | |
1468 See @ref{Anonymous Functions}. | |
1469 | |
1470 @item ignore | |
1471 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1472 | |
1473 @item indirect-function | |
1474 See @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
1475 | |
1476 @item interactive | |
1477 See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1478 | |
1479 @item interactive-p | |
85688 | 1480 See @ref{Distinguish Interactive}. |
84070 | 1481 |
1482 @item mapatoms | |
1483 See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1484 | |
1485 @item mapcar | |
1486 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1487 | |
1488 @item map-char-table | |
1489 See @ref{Char-Tables}. | |
1490 | |
1491 @item mapconcat | |
1492 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1493 | |
1494 @item undefined | |
1495 See @ref{Functions for Key Lookup}. | |
1496 @end table | |
1497 | |
1498 @ignore | |
1499 arch-tag: 39100cdf-8a55-4898-acba-595db619e8e2 | |
1500 @end ignore |