Mercurial > emacs
annotate doc/lispref/strings.texi @ 101327:b0eef2ac5a59
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column position which manifested e.g. in proced's signal completion.
author | Stefan Monnier <monnier@iro.umontreal.ca> |
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date | Wed, 21 Jan 2009 21:20:55 +0000 |
parents | cb5d2387102c |
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84100 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, | |
100974 | 4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
84100 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
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6 @setfilename ../../info/strings |
84100 | 7 @node Strings and Characters, Lists, Numbers, Top |
8 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
9 @chapter Strings and Characters | |
10 @cindex strings | |
11 @cindex character arrays | |
12 @cindex characters | |
13 @cindex bytes | |
14 | |
15 A string in Emacs Lisp is an array that contains an ordered sequence | |
16 of characters. Strings are used as names of symbols, buffers, and | |
17 files; to send messages to users; to hold text being copied between | |
18 buffers; and for many other purposes. Because strings are so important, | |
19 Emacs Lisp has many functions expressly for manipulating them. Emacs | |
20 Lisp programs use strings more often than individual characters. | |
21 | |
22 @xref{Strings of Events}, for special considerations for strings of | |
23 keyboard character events. | |
24 | |
25 @menu | |
26 * Basics: String Basics. Basic properties of strings and characters. | |
27 * Predicates for Strings:: Testing whether an object is a string or char. | |
28 * Creating Strings:: Functions to allocate new strings. | |
29 * Modifying Strings:: Altering the contents of an existing string. | |
30 * Text Comparison:: Comparing characters or strings. | |
31 * String Conversion:: Converting to and from characters and strings. | |
32 * Formatting Strings:: @code{format}: Emacs's analogue of @code{printf}. | |
33 * Case Conversion:: Case conversion functions. | |
34 * Case Tables:: Customizing case conversion. | |
35 @end menu | |
36 | |
37 @node String Basics | |
38 @section String and Character Basics | |
39 | |
40 Characters are represented in Emacs Lisp as integers; | |
41 whether an integer is a character or not is determined only by how it is | |
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42 used. Thus, strings really contain integers. @xref{Character Codes}, |
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43 for details about character representation in Emacs. |
84100 | 44 |
45 The length of a string (like any array) is fixed, and cannot be | |
46 altered once the string exists. Strings in Lisp are @emph{not} | |
47 terminated by a distinguished character code. (By contrast, strings in | |
48 C are terminated by a character with @acronym{ASCII} code 0.) | |
49 | |
50 Since strings are arrays, and therefore sequences as well, you can | |
51 operate on them with the general array and sequence functions. | |
52 (@xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.) For example, you can access or | |
53 change individual characters in a string using the functions @code{aref} | |
54 and @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). | |
55 | |
56 There are two text representations for non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in | |
57 Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte (@pxref{Text | |
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58 Representations}). For most Lisp programming, you don't need to be |
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59 concerned with these two representations. |
84100 | 60 |
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61 Sometimes key sequences are represented as unibyte strings. When a |
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62 unibyte string is a key sequence, string elements in the range 128 to |
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63 255 represent meta characters (which are large integers) rather than |
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64 character codes in the range 128 to 255. |
84100 | 65 |
66 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super or alt | |
67 modifiers; they can hold @acronym{ASCII} control characters, but no other | |
68 control characters. They do not distinguish case in @acronym{ASCII} control | |
69 characters. If you want to store such characters in a sequence, such as | |
70 a key sequence, you must use a vector instead of a string. | |
71 @xref{Character Type}, for more information about the representation of meta | |
72 and other modifiers for keyboard input characters. | |
73 | |
74 Strings are useful for holding regular expressions. You can also | |
75 match regular expressions against strings with @code{string-match} | |
76 (@pxref{Regexp Search}). The functions @code{match-string} | |
77 (@pxref{Simple Match Data}) and @code{replace-match} (@pxref{Replacing | |
78 Match}) are useful for decomposing and modifying strings after | |
79 matching regular expressions against them. | |
80 | |
81 Like a buffer, a string can contain text properties for the characters | |
82 in it, as well as the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
83 All the Lisp primitives that copy text from strings to buffers or other | |
84 strings also copy the properties of the characters being copied. | |
85 | |
86 @xref{Text}, for information about functions that display strings or | |
87 copy them into buffers. @xref{Character Type}, and @ref{String Type}, | |
88 for information about the syntax of characters and strings. | |
89 @xref{Non-ASCII Characters}, for functions to convert between text | |
90 representations and to encode and decode character codes. | |
91 | |
92 @node Predicates for Strings | |
93 @section The Predicates for Strings | |
94 | |
95 For more information about general sequence and array predicates, | |
96 see @ref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}, and @ref{Arrays}. | |
97 | |
98 @defun stringp object | |
99 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string, @code{nil} | |
100 otherwise. | |
101 @end defun | |
102 | |
103 @defun string-or-null-p object | |
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104 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or |
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105 @code{nil}. It returns @code{nil} otherwise. |
84100 | 106 @end defun |
107 | |
108 @defun char-or-string-p object | |
109 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or a | |
110 character (i.e., an integer), @code{nil} otherwise. | |
111 @end defun | |
112 | |
113 @node Creating Strings | |
114 @section Creating Strings | |
115 | |
116 The following functions create strings, either from scratch, or by | |
117 putting strings together, or by taking them apart. | |
118 | |
119 @defun make-string count character | |
120 This function returns a string made up of @var{count} repetitions of | |
121 @var{character}. If @var{count} is negative, an error is signaled. | |
122 | |
123 @example | |
124 (make-string 5 ?x) | |
125 @result{} "xxxxx" | |
126 (make-string 0 ?x) | |
127 @result{} "" | |
128 @end example | |
129 | |
130 Other functions to compare with this one include @code{char-to-string} | |
131 (@pxref{String Conversion}), @code{make-vector} (@pxref{Vectors}), and | |
132 @code{make-list} (@pxref{Building Lists}). | |
133 @end defun | |
134 | |
135 @defun string &rest characters | |
136 This returns a string containing the characters @var{characters}. | |
137 | |
138 @example | |
139 (string ?a ?b ?c) | |
140 @result{} "abc" | |
141 @end example | |
142 @end defun | |
143 | |
144 @defun substring string start &optional end | |
145 This function returns a new string which consists of those characters | |
146 from @var{string} in the range from (and including) the character at the | |
147 index @var{start} up to (but excluding) the character at the index | |
148 @var{end}. The first character is at index zero. | |
149 | |
150 @example | |
151 @group | |
152 (substring "abcdefg" 0 3) | |
153 @result{} "abc" | |
154 @end group | |
155 @end example | |
156 | |
157 @noindent | |
158 Here the index for @samp{a} is 0, the index for @samp{b} is 1, and the | |
159 index for @samp{c} is 2. Thus, three letters, @samp{abc}, are copied | |
160 from the string @code{"abcdefg"}. The index 3 marks the character | |
161 position up to which the substring is copied. The character whose index | |
162 is 3 is actually the fourth character in the string. | |
163 | |
164 A negative number counts from the end of the string, so that @minus{}1 | |
165 signifies the index of the last character of the string. For example: | |
166 | |
167 @example | |
168 @group | |
169 (substring "abcdefg" -3 -1) | |
170 @result{} "ef" | |
171 @end group | |
172 @end example | |
173 | |
174 @noindent | |
175 In this example, the index for @samp{e} is @minus{}3, the index for | |
176 @samp{f} is @minus{}2, and the index for @samp{g} is @minus{}1. | |
177 Therefore, @samp{e} and @samp{f} are included, and @samp{g} is excluded. | |
178 | |
179 When @code{nil} is used for @var{end}, it stands for the length of the | |
180 string. Thus, | |
181 | |
182 @example | |
183 @group | |
184 (substring "abcdefg" -3 nil) | |
185 @result{} "efg" | |
186 @end group | |
187 @end example | |
188 | |
189 Omitting the argument @var{end} is equivalent to specifying @code{nil}. | |
190 It follows that @code{(substring @var{string} 0)} returns a copy of all | |
191 of @var{string}. | |
192 | |
193 @example | |
194 @group | |
195 (substring "abcdefg" 0) | |
196 @result{} "abcdefg" | |
197 @end group | |
198 @end example | |
199 | |
200 @noindent | |
201 But we recommend @code{copy-sequence} for this purpose (@pxref{Sequence | |
202 Functions}). | |
203 | |
204 If the characters copied from @var{string} have text properties, the | |
205 properties are copied into the new string also. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
206 | |
207 @code{substring} also accepts a vector for the first argument. | |
208 For example: | |
209 | |
210 @example | |
211 (substring [a b (c) "d"] 1 3) | |
212 @result{} [b (c)] | |
213 @end example | |
214 | |
215 A @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled if @var{start} is not | |
216 an integer or if @var{end} is neither an integer nor @code{nil}. An | |
217 @code{args-out-of-range} error is signaled if @var{start} indicates a | |
218 character following @var{end}, or if either integer is out of range | |
219 for @var{string}. | |
220 | |
221 Contrast this function with @code{buffer-substring} (@pxref{Buffer | |
222 Contents}), which returns a string containing a portion of the text in | |
223 the current buffer. The beginning of a string is at index 0, but the | |
224 beginning of a buffer is at index 1. | |
225 @end defun | |
226 | |
227 @defun substring-no-properties string &optional start end | |
228 This works like @code{substring} but discards all text properties from | |
229 the value. Also, @var{start} may be omitted or @code{nil}, which is | |
230 equivalent to 0. Thus, @w{@code{(substring-no-properties | |
231 @var{string})}} returns a copy of @var{string}, with all text | |
232 properties removed. | |
233 @end defun | |
234 | |
235 @defun concat &rest sequences | |
236 @cindex copying strings | |
237 @cindex concatenating strings | |
238 This function returns a new string consisting of the characters in the | |
239 arguments passed to it (along with their text properties, if any). The | |
240 arguments may be strings, lists of numbers, or vectors of numbers; they | |
241 are not themselves changed. If @code{concat} receives no arguments, it | |
242 returns an empty string. | |
243 | |
244 @example | |
245 (concat "abc" "-def") | |
246 @result{} "abc-def" | |
247 (concat "abc" (list 120 121) [122]) | |
248 @result{} "abcxyz" | |
249 ;; @r{@code{nil} is an empty sequence.} | |
250 (concat "abc" nil "-def") | |
251 @result{} "abc-def" | |
252 (concat "The " "quick brown " "fox.") | |
253 @result{} "The quick brown fox." | |
254 (concat) | |
255 @result{} "" | |
256 @end example | |
257 | |
258 @noindent | |
259 The @code{concat} function always constructs a new string that is | |
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260 not @code{eq} to any existing string, except when the result is empty |
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261 (since empty strings are canonicalized to save space). |
84100 | 262 |
263 In Emacs versions before 21, when an argument was an integer (not a | |
264 sequence of integers), it was converted to a string of digits making up | |
265 the decimal printed representation of the integer. This obsolete usage | |
266 no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to its decimal | |
267 printed form is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or | |
268 @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). | |
269 | |
270 For information about other concatenation functions, see the | |
271 description of @code{mapconcat} in @ref{Mapping Functions}, | |
272 @code{vconcat} in @ref{Vector Functions}, and @code{append} in @ref{Building | |
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273 Lists}. For concatenating individual command-line arguments into a |
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274 string to be used as a shell command, see @ref{Shell Arguments, |
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275 combine-and-quote-strings}. |
84100 | 276 @end defun |
277 | |
278 @defun split-string string &optional separators omit-nulls | |
279 This function splits @var{string} into substrings at matches for the | |
280 regular expression @var{separators}. Each match for @var{separators} | |
281 defines a splitting point; the substrings between the splitting points | |
282 are made into a list, which is the value returned by | |
283 @code{split-string}. | |
284 | |
285 If @var{omit-nulls} is @code{nil}, the result contains null strings | |
286 whenever there are two consecutive matches for @var{separators}, or a | |
287 match is adjacent to the beginning or end of @var{string}. If | |
288 @var{omit-nulls} is @code{t}, these null strings are omitted from the | |
289 result. | |
290 | |
291 If @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), | |
292 the default is the value of @code{split-string-default-separators}. | |
293 | |
294 As a special case, when @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), | |
295 null strings are always omitted from the result. Thus: | |
296 | |
297 @example | |
298 (split-string " two words ") | |
299 @result{} ("two" "words") | |
300 @end example | |
301 | |
302 The result is not @code{("" "two" "words" "")}, which would rarely be | |
303 useful. If you need such a result, use an explicit value for | |
304 @var{separators}: | |
305 | |
306 @example | |
307 (split-string " two words " | |
308 split-string-default-separators) | |
309 @result{} ("" "two" "words" "") | |
310 @end example | |
311 | |
312 More examples: | |
313 | |
314 @example | |
315 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o") | |
316 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "" "d f" "" "d") | |
317 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o" t) | |
318 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") | |
319 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o+") | |
320 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") | |
321 @end example | |
322 | |
323 Empty matches do count, except that @code{split-string} will not look | |
324 for a final empty match when it already reached the end of the string | |
325 using a non-empty match or when @var{string} is empty: | |
326 | |
327 @example | |
328 (split-string "aooob" "o*") | |
329 @result{} ("" "a" "" "b" "") | |
330 (split-string "ooaboo" "o*") | |
331 @result{} ("" "" "a" "b" "") | |
332 (split-string "" "") | |
333 @result{} ("") | |
334 @end example | |
335 | |
336 However, when @var{separators} can match the empty string, | |
337 @var{omit-nulls} is usually @code{t}, so that the subtleties in the | |
338 three previous examples are rarely relevant: | |
339 | |
340 @example | |
341 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o*" t) | |
342 @result{} ("S" "u" "p" " " "i" "s" " " "g" "d" " " "f" "d") | |
343 (split-string "Nice doggy!" "" t) | |
344 @result{} ("N" "i" "c" "e" " " "d" "o" "g" "g" "y" "!") | |
345 (split-string "" "" t) | |
346 @result{} nil | |
347 @end example | |
348 | |
349 Somewhat odd, but predictable, behavior can occur for certain | |
350 ``non-greedy'' values of @var{separators} that can prefer empty | |
351 matches over non-empty matches. Again, such values rarely occur in | |
352 practice: | |
353 | |
354 @example | |
355 (split-string "ooo" "o*" t) | |
356 @result{} nil | |
357 (split-string "ooo" "\\|o+" t) | |
358 @result{} ("o" "o" "o") | |
359 @end example | |
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360 |
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361 If you need to split a string that is a shell command, where |
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362 individual arguments could be quoted, see @ref{Shell Arguments, |
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363 split-string-and-unquote}. |
84100 | 364 @end defun |
365 | |
366 @defvar split-string-default-separators | |
367 The default value of @var{separators} for @code{split-string}. Its | |
368 usual value is @w{@code{"[ \f\t\n\r\v]+"}}. | |
369 @end defvar | |
370 | |
371 @node Modifying Strings | |
372 @section Modifying Strings | |
373 | |
374 The most basic way to alter the contents of an existing string is with | |
375 @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). @code{(aset @var{string} | |
376 @var{idx} @var{char})} stores @var{char} into @var{string} at index | |
377 @var{idx}. Each character occupies one or more bytes, and if @var{char} | |
378 needs a different number of bytes from the character already present at | |
379 that index, @code{aset} signals an error. | |
380 | |
381 A more powerful function is @code{store-substring}: | |
382 | |
383 @defun store-substring string idx obj | |
384 This function alters part of the contents of the string @var{string}, by | |
385 storing @var{obj} starting at index @var{idx}. The argument @var{obj} | |
386 may be either a character or a (smaller) string. | |
387 | |
388 Since it is impossible to change the length of an existing string, it is | |
389 an error if @var{obj} doesn't fit within @var{string}'s actual length, | |
390 or if any new character requires a different number of bytes from the | |
391 character currently present at that point in @var{string}. | |
392 @end defun | |
393 | |
394 To clear out a string that contained a password, use | |
395 @code{clear-string}: | |
396 | |
397 @defun clear-string string | |
398 This makes @var{string} a unibyte string and clears its contents to | |
399 zeros. It may also change @var{string}'s length. | |
400 @end defun | |
401 | |
402 @need 2000 | |
403 @node Text Comparison | |
404 @section Comparison of Characters and Strings | |
405 @cindex string equality | |
406 | |
407 @defun char-equal character1 character2 | |
408 This function returns @code{t} if the arguments represent the same | |
409 character, @code{nil} otherwise. This function ignores differences | |
410 in case if @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}. | |
411 | |
412 @example | |
413 (char-equal ?x ?x) | |
414 @result{} t | |
415 (let ((case-fold-search nil)) | |
416 (char-equal ?x ?X)) | |
417 @result{} nil | |
418 @end example | |
419 @end defun | |
420 | |
421 @defun string= string1 string2 | |
422 This function returns @code{t} if the characters of the two strings | |
423 match exactly. Symbols are also allowed as arguments, in which case | |
424 their print names are used. | |
425 Case is always significant, regardless of @code{case-fold-search}. | |
426 | |
427 @example | |
428 (string= "abc" "abc") | |
429 @result{} t | |
430 (string= "abc" "ABC") | |
431 @result{} nil | |
432 (string= "ab" "ABC") | |
433 @result{} nil | |
434 @end example | |
435 | |
436 The function @code{string=} ignores the text properties of the two | |
437 strings. When @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}) compares two | |
438 strings, it uses @code{string=}. | |
439 | |
440 For technical reasons, a unibyte and a multibyte string are | |
441 @code{equal} if and only if they contain the same sequence of | |
442 character codes and all these codes are either in the range 0 through | |
443 127 (@acronym{ASCII}) or 160 through 255 (@code{eight-bit-graphic}). | |
444 However, when a unibyte string gets converted to a multibyte string, | |
445 all characters with codes in the range 160 through 255 get converted | |
446 to characters with higher codes, whereas @acronym{ASCII} characters | |
447 remain unchanged. Thus, a unibyte string and its conversion to | |
448 multibyte are only @code{equal} if the string is all @acronym{ASCII}. | |
449 Character codes 160 through 255 are not entirely proper in multibyte | |
450 text, even though they can occur. As a consequence, the situation | |
451 where a unibyte and a multibyte string are @code{equal} without both | |
452 being all @acronym{ASCII} is a technical oddity that very few Emacs | |
453 Lisp programmers ever get confronted with. @xref{Text | |
454 Representations}. | |
455 @end defun | |
456 | |
457 @defun string-equal string1 string2 | |
458 @code{string-equal} is another name for @code{string=}. | |
459 @end defun | |
460 | |
461 @cindex lexical comparison | |
462 @defun string< string1 string2 | |
463 @c (findex string< causes problems for permuted index!!) | |
464 This function compares two strings a character at a time. It | |
465 scans both the strings at the same time to find the first pair of corresponding | |
466 characters that do not match. If the lesser character of these two is | |
467 the character from @var{string1}, then @var{string1} is less, and this | |
468 function returns @code{t}. If the lesser character is the one from | |
469 @var{string2}, then @var{string1} is greater, and this function returns | |
470 @code{nil}. If the two strings match entirely, the value is @code{nil}. | |
471 | |
472 Pairs of characters are compared according to their character codes. | |
473 Keep in mind that lower case letters have higher numeric values in the | |
474 @acronym{ASCII} character set than their upper case counterparts; digits and | |
475 many punctuation characters have a lower numeric value than upper case | |
476 letters. An @acronym{ASCII} character is less than any non-@acronym{ASCII} | |
477 character; a unibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character is always less than any | |
478 multibyte non-@acronym{ASCII} character (@pxref{Text Representations}). | |
479 | |
480 @example | |
481 @group | |
482 (string< "abc" "abd") | |
483 @result{} t | |
484 (string< "abd" "abc") | |
485 @result{} nil | |
486 (string< "123" "abc") | |
487 @result{} t | |
488 @end group | |
489 @end example | |
490 | |
491 When the strings have different lengths, and they match up to the | |
492 length of @var{string1}, then the result is @code{t}. If they match up | |
493 to the length of @var{string2}, the result is @code{nil}. A string of | |
494 no characters is less than any other string. | |
495 | |
496 @example | |
497 @group | |
498 (string< "" "abc") | |
499 @result{} t | |
500 (string< "ab" "abc") | |
501 @result{} t | |
502 (string< "abc" "") | |
503 @result{} nil | |
504 (string< "abc" "ab") | |
505 @result{} nil | |
506 (string< "" "") | |
507 @result{} nil | |
508 @end group | |
509 @end example | |
510 | |
511 Symbols are also allowed as arguments, in which case their print names | |
512 are used. | |
513 @end defun | |
514 | |
515 @defun string-lessp string1 string2 | |
516 @code{string-lessp} is another name for @code{string<}. | |
517 @end defun | |
518 | |
519 @defun compare-strings string1 start1 end1 string2 start2 end2 &optional ignore-case | |
520 This function compares the specified part of @var{string1} with the | |
521 specified part of @var{string2}. The specified part of @var{string1} | |
522 runs from index @var{start1} up to index @var{end1} (@code{nil} means | |
523 the end of the string). The specified part of @var{string2} runs from | |
524 index @var{start2} up to index @var{end2} (@code{nil} means the end of | |
525 the string). | |
526 | |
527 The strings are both converted to multibyte for the comparison | |
528 (@pxref{Text Representations}) so that a unibyte string and its | |
529 conversion to multibyte are always regarded as equal. If | |
530 @var{ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, then case is ignored, so that | |
531 upper case letters can be equal to lower case letters. | |
532 | |
533 If the specified portions of the two strings match, the value is | |
534 @code{t}. Otherwise, the value is an integer which indicates how many | |
535 leading characters agree, and which string is less. Its absolute value | |
536 is one plus the number of characters that agree at the beginning of the | |
537 two strings. The sign is negative if @var{string1} (or its specified | |
538 portion) is less. | |
539 @end defun | |
540 | |
541 @defun assoc-string key alist &optional case-fold | |
542 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a | |
543 string or symbol, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}. | |
544 Symbols are converted to strings before testing. | |
545 If @var{case-fold} is non-@code{nil}, it ignores case differences. | |
546 Unlike @code{assoc}, this function can also match elements of the alist | |
547 that are strings or symbols rather than conses. In particular, @var{alist} can | |
548 be a list of strings or symbols rather than an actual alist. | |
549 @xref{Association Lists}. | |
550 @end defun | |
551 | |
552 See also the @code{compare-buffer-substrings} function in | |
553 @ref{Comparing Text}, for a way to compare text in buffers. The | |
554 function @code{string-match}, which matches a regular expression | |
555 against a string, can be used for a kind of string comparison; see | |
556 @ref{Regexp Search}. | |
557 | |
558 @node String Conversion | |
559 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
560 @section Conversion of Characters and Strings | |
561 @cindex conversion of strings | |
562 | |
563 This section describes functions for conversions between characters, | |
564 strings and integers. @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) | |
565 and @code{prin1-to-string} | |
566 (@pxref{Output Functions}) can also convert Lisp objects into strings. | |
567 @code{read-from-string} (@pxref{Input Functions}) can ``convert'' a | |
568 string representation of a Lisp object into an object. The functions | |
569 @code{string-make-multibyte} and @code{string-make-unibyte} convert the | |
570 text representation of a string (@pxref{Converting Representations}). | |
571 | |
572 @xref{Documentation}, for functions that produce textual descriptions | |
573 of text characters and general input events | |
574 (@code{single-key-description} and @code{text-char-description}). These | |
575 are used primarily for making help messages. | |
576 | |
577 @defun char-to-string character | |
578 @cindex character to string | |
579 This function returns a new string containing one character, | |
580 @var{character}. This function is semi-obsolete because the function | |
581 @code{string} is more general. @xref{Creating Strings}. | |
582 @end defun | |
583 | |
584 @defun string-to-char string | |
585 @cindex string to character | |
586 This function returns the first character in @var{string}. If the | |
587 string is empty, the function returns 0. The value is also 0 when the | |
588 first character of @var{string} is the null character, @acronym{ASCII} code | |
589 0. | |
590 | |
591 @example | |
592 (string-to-char "ABC") | |
593 @result{} 65 | |
594 | |
595 (string-to-char "xyz") | |
596 @result{} 120 | |
597 (string-to-char "") | |
598 @result{} 0 | |
599 @group | |
600 (string-to-char "\000") | |
601 @result{} 0 | |
602 @end group | |
603 @end example | |
604 | |
605 This function may be eliminated in the future if it does not seem useful | |
606 enough to retain. | |
607 @end defun | |
608 | |
609 @defun number-to-string number | |
610 @cindex integer to string | |
611 @cindex integer to decimal | |
612 This function returns a string consisting of the printed base-ten | |
613 representation of @var{number}, which may be an integer or a floating | |
614 point number. The returned value starts with a minus sign if the argument is | |
615 negative. | |
616 | |
617 @example | |
618 (number-to-string 256) | |
619 @result{} "256" | |
620 @group | |
621 (number-to-string -23) | |
622 @result{} "-23" | |
623 @end group | |
624 (number-to-string -23.5) | |
625 @result{} "-23.5" | |
626 @end example | |
627 | |
628 @cindex int-to-string | |
629 @code{int-to-string} is a semi-obsolete alias for this function. | |
630 | |
631 See also the function @code{format} in @ref{Formatting Strings}. | |
632 @end defun | |
633 | |
634 @defun string-to-number string &optional base | |
635 @cindex string to number | |
636 This function returns the numeric value of the characters in | |
637 @var{string}. If @var{base} is non-@code{nil}, it must be an integer | |
638 between 2 and 16 (inclusive), and integers are converted in that base. | |
639 If @var{base} is @code{nil}, then base ten is used. Floating point | |
640 conversion only works in base ten; we have not implemented other | |
641 radices for floating point numbers, because that would be much more | |
642 work and does not seem useful. If @var{string} looks like an integer | |
643 but its value is too large to fit into a Lisp integer, | |
644 @code{string-to-number} returns a floating point result. | |
645 | |
646 The parsing skips spaces and tabs at the beginning of @var{string}, | |
647 then reads as much of @var{string} as it can interpret as a number in | |
648 the given base. (On some systems it ignores other whitespace at the | |
649 beginning, not just spaces and tabs.) If the first character after | |
650 the ignored whitespace is neither a digit in the given base, nor a | |
651 plus or minus sign, nor the leading dot of a floating point number, | |
652 this function returns 0. | |
653 | |
654 @example | |
655 (string-to-number "256") | |
656 @result{} 256 | |
657 (string-to-number "25 is a perfect square.") | |
658 @result{} 25 | |
659 (string-to-number "X256") | |
660 @result{} 0 | |
661 (string-to-number "-4.5") | |
662 @result{} -4.5 | |
663 (string-to-number "1e5") | |
664 @result{} 100000.0 | |
665 @end example | |
666 | |
667 @findex string-to-int | |
668 @code{string-to-int} is an obsolete alias for this function. | |
669 @end defun | |
670 | |
671 Here are some other functions that can convert to or from a string: | |
672 | |
673 @table @code | |
674 @item concat | |
675 @code{concat} can convert a vector or a list into a string. | |
676 @xref{Creating Strings}. | |
677 | |
678 @item vconcat | |
679 @code{vconcat} can convert a string into a vector. @xref{Vector | |
680 Functions}. | |
681 | |
682 @item append | |
683 @code{append} can convert a string into a list. @xref{Building Lists}. | |
684 @end table | |
685 | |
686 @node Formatting Strings | |
687 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
688 @section Formatting Strings | |
689 @cindex formatting strings | |
690 @cindex strings, formatting them | |
691 | |
692 @dfn{Formatting} means constructing a string by substitution of | |
693 computed values at various places in a constant string. This constant string | |
694 controls how the other values are printed, as well as where they appear; | |
695 it is called a @dfn{format string}. | |
696 | |
697 Formatting is often useful for computing messages to be displayed. In | |
698 fact, the functions @code{message} and @code{error} provide the same | |
699 formatting feature described here; they differ from @code{format} only | |
700 in how they use the result of formatting. | |
701 | |
702 @defun format string &rest objects | |
703 This function returns a new string that is made by copying | |
704 @var{string} and then replacing any format specification | |
705 in the copy with encodings of the corresponding @var{objects}. The | |
706 arguments @var{objects} are the computed values to be formatted. | |
707 | |
708 The characters in @var{string}, other than the format specifications, | |
709 are copied directly into the output, including their text properties, | |
710 if any. | |
711 @end defun | |
712 | |
713 @cindex @samp{%} in format | |
714 @cindex format specification | |
715 A format specification is a sequence of characters beginning with a | |
716 @samp{%}. Thus, if there is a @samp{%d} in @var{string}, the | |
717 @code{format} function replaces it with the printed representation of | |
718 one of the values to be formatted (one of the arguments @var{objects}). | |
719 For example: | |
720 | |
721 @example | |
722 @group | |
723 (format "The value of fill-column is %d." fill-column) | |
724 @result{} "The value of fill-column is 72." | |
725 @end group | |
726 @end example | |
727 | |
728 Since @code{format} interprets @samp{%} characters as format | |
729 specifications, you should @emph{never} pass an arbitrary string as | |
730 the first argument. This is particularly true when the string is | |
731 generated by some Lisp code. Unless the string is @emph{known} to | |
732 never include any @samp{%} characters, pass @code{"%s"}, described | |
733 below, as the first argument, and the string as the second, like this: | |
734 | |
735 @example | |
736 (format "%s" @var{arbitrary-string}) | |
737 @end example | |
738 | |
739 If @var{string} contains more than one format specification, the | |
740 format specifications correspond to successive values from | |
741 @var{objects}. Thus, the first format specification in @var{string} | |
742 uses the first such value, the second format specification uses the | |
743 second such value, and so on. Any extra format specifications (those | |
744 for which there are no corresponding values) cause an error. Any | |
745 extra values to be formatted are ignored. | |
746 | |
747 Certain format specifications require values of particular types. If | |
748 you supply a value that doesn't fit the requirements, an error is | |
749 signaled. | |
750 | |
751 Here is a table of valid format specifications: | |
752 | |
753 @table @samp | |
754 @item %s | |
755 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
756 made without quoting (that is, using @code{princ}, not | |
757 @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output Functions}). Thus, strings are represented | |
758 by their contents alone, with no @samp{"} characters, and symbols appear | |
759 without @samp{\} characters. | |
760 | |
761 If the object is a string, its text properties are | |
762 copied into the output. The text properties of the @samp{%s} itself | |
763 are also copied, but those of the object take priority. | |
764 | |
765 @item %S | |
766 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
767 made with quoting (that is, using @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output | |
768 Functions}). Thus, strings are enclosed in @samp{"} characters, and | |
769 @samp{\} characters appear where necessary before special characters. | |
770 | |
771 @item %o | |
772 @cindex integer to octal | |
773 Replace the specification with the base-eight representation of an | |
774 integer. | |
775 | |
776 @item %d | |
777 Replace the specification with the base-ten representation of an | |
778 integer. | |
779 | |
780 @item %x | |
781 @itemx %X | |
782 @cindex integer to hexadecimal | |
783 Replace the specification with the base-sixteen representation of an | |
784 integer. @samp{%x} uses lower case and @samp{%X} uses upper case. | |
785 | |
786 @item %c | |
787 Replace the specification with the character which is the value given. | |
788 | |
789 @item %e | |
790 Replace the specification with the exponential notation for a floating | |
791 point number. | |
792 | |
793 @item %f | |
794 Replace the specification with the decimal-point notation for a floating | |
795 point number. | |
796 | |
797 @item %g | |
798 Replace the specification with notation for a floating point number, | |
799 using either exponential notation or decimal-point notation, whichever | |
800 is shorter. | |
801 | |
802 @item %% | |
803 Replace the specification with a single @samp{%}. This format | |
804 specification is unusual in that it does not use a value. For example, | |
805 @code{(format "%% %d" 30)} returns @code{"% 30"}. | |
806 @end table | |
807 | |
808 Any other format character results in an @samp{Invalid format | |
809 operation} error. | |
810 | |
811 Here are several examples: | |
812 | |
813 @example | |
814 @group | |
815 (format "The name of this buffer is %s." (buffer-name)) | |
816 @result{} "The name of this buffer is strings.texi." | |
817 | |
818 (format "The buffer object prints as %s." (current-buffer)) | |
819 @result{} "The buffer object prints as strings.texi." | |
820 | |
821 (format "The octal value of %d is %o, | |
822 and the hex value is %x." 18 18 18) | |
823 @result{} "The octal value of 18 is 22, | |
824 and the hex value is 12." | |
825 @end group | |
826 @end example | |
827 | |
828 @cindex field width | |
829 @cindex padding | |
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830 A specification can have a @dfn{width}, which is a decimal number |
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831 between the @samp{%} and the specification character. If the printed |
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832 representation of the object contains fewer characters than this |
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833 width, @code{format} extends it with padding. The width specifier is |
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834 ignored for the @samp{%%} specification. Any padding introduced by |
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835 the width specifier normally consists of spaces inserted on the left: |
84100 | 836 |
837 @example | |
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838 (format "%5d is padded on the left with spaces" 123) |
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839 @result{} " 123 is padded on the left with spaces" |
84100 | 840 @end example |
841 | |
842 @noindent | |
843 If the width is too small, @code{format} does not truncate the | |
844 object's printed representation. Thus, you can use a width to specify | |
845 a minimum spacing between columns with no risk of losing information. | |
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846 In the following three examples, @samp{%7s} specifies a minimum width |
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847 of 7. In the first case, the string inserted in place of @samp{%7s} |
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848 has only 3 letters, and needs 4 blank spaces as padding. In the |
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849 second case, the string @code{"specification"} is 13 letters wide but |
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850 is not truncated. |
84100 | 851 |
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852 @example |
84100 | 853 @group |
854 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
855 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
856 @result{} "The word ` foo' actually has 3 letters in it." | |
857 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
858 "specification" (length "specification")) | |
859 @result{} "The word `specification' actually has 13 letters in it." | |
860 @end group | |
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861 @end example |
84100 | 862 |
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863 @cindex flags in format specifications |
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864 Immediately after the @samp{%} and before the optional width |
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865 specifier, you can also put certain @dfn{flag characters}. |
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866 |
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867 The flag @samp{+} inserts a plus sign before a positive number, so |
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868 that it always has a sign. A space character as flag inserts a space |
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869 before a positive number. (Otherwise, positive numbers start with the |
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870 first digit.) These flags are useful for ensuring that positive |
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871 numbers and negative numbers use the same number of columns. They are |
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872 ignored except for @samp{%d}, @samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, @samp{%g}, and if |
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873 both flags are used, @samp{+} takes precedence. |
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874 |
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875 The flag @samp{#} specifies an ``alternate form'' which depends on |
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876 the format in use. For @samp{%o}, it ensures that the result begins |
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877 with a @samp{0}. For @samp{%x} and @samp{%X}, it prefixes the result |
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878 with @samp{0x} or @samp{0X}. For @samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, and @samp{%g}, |
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879 the @samp{#} flag means include a decimal point even if the precision |
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880 is zero. |
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881 |
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882 The flag @samp{-} causes the padding inserted by the width |
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883 specifier, if any, to be inserted on the right rather than the left. |
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884 The flag @samp{0} ensures that the padding consists of @samp{0} |
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885 characters instead of spaces, inserted on the left. These flags are |
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886 ignored for specification characters for which they do not make sense: |
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887 @samp{%s}, @samp{%S} and @samp{%c} accept the @samp{0} flag, but still |
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888 pad with @emph{spaces} on the left. If both @samp{-} and @samp{0} are |
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889 present and valid, @samp{-} takes precedence. |
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890 |
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891 @example |
84100 | 892 @group |
92239
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893 (format "%06d is padded on the left with zeros" 123) |
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894 @result{} "000123 is padded on the left with zeros" |
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895 |
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896 (format "%-6d is padded on the right" 123) |
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897 @result{} "123 is padded on the right" |
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898 |
84100 | 899 (format "The word `%-7s' actually has %d letters in it." |
900 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
901 @result{} "The word `foo ' actually has 3 letters in it." | |
902 @end group | |
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903 @end example |
84100 | 904 |
905 @cindex precision in format specifications | |
906 All the specification characters allow an optional @dfn{precision} | |
907 before the character (after the width, if present). The precision is | |
908 a decimal-point @samp{.} followed by a digit-string. For the | |
909 floating-point specifications (@samp{%e}, @samp{%f}, @samp{%g}), the | |
910 precision specifies how many decimal places to show; if zero, the | |
911 decimal-point itself is also omitted. For @samp{%s} and @samp{%S}, | |
912 the precision truncates the string to the given width, so @samp{%.3s} | |
913 shows only the first three characters of the representation for | |
914 @var{object}. Precision has no effect for other specification | |
915 characters. | |
916 | |
917 @node Case Conversion | |
918 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
919 @section Case Conversion in Lisp | |
920 @cindex upper case | |
921 @cindex lower case | |
922 @cindex character case | |
923 @cindex case conversion in Lisp | |
924 | |
925 The character case functions change the case of single characters or | |
926 of the contents of strings. The functions normally convert only | |
927 alphabetic characters (the letters @samp{A} through @samp{Z} and | |
928 @samp{a} through @samp{z}, as well as non-@acronym{ASCII} letters); other | |
929 characters are not altered. You can specify a different case | |
930 conversion mapping by specifying a case table (@pxref{Case Tables}). | |
931 | |
932 These functions do not modify the strings that are passed to them as | |
933 arguments. | |
934 | |
935 The examples below use the characters @samp{X} and @samp{x} which have | |
936 @acronym{ASCII} codes 88 and 120 respectively. | |
937 | |
938 @defun downcase string-or-char | |
939 This function converts a character or a string to lower case. | |
940 | |
941 When the argument to @code{downcase} is a string, the function creates | |
942 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
943 upper case is converted to lower case. When the argument to | |
944 @code{downcase} is a character, @code{downcase} returns the | |
945 corresponding lower case character. This value is an integer. If the | |
946 original character is lower case, or is not a letter, then the value | |
947 equals the original character. | |
948 | |
949 @example | |
950 (downcase "The cat in the hat") | |
951 @result{} "the cat in the hat" | |
952 | |
953 (downcase ?X) | |
954 @result{} 120 | |
955 @end example | |
956 @end defun | |
957 | |
958 @defun upcase string-or-char | |
959 This function converts a character or a string to upper case. | |
960 | |
961 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a string, the function creates | |
962 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
963 lower case is converted to upper case. | |
964 | |
965 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a character, @code{upcase} | |
966 returns the corresponding upper case character. This value is an integer. | |
967 If the original character is upper case, or is not a letter, then the | |
968 value returned equals the original character. | |
969 | |
970 @example | |
971 (upcase "The cat in the hat") | |
972 @result{} "THE CAT IN THE HAT" | |
973 | |
974 (upcase ?x) | |
975 @result{} 88 | |
976 @end example | |
977 @end defun | |
978 | |
979 @defun capitalize string-or-char | |
980 @cindex capitalization | |
981 This function capitalizes strings or characters. If | |
982 @var{string-or-char} is a string, the function creates and returns a new | |
983 string, whose contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char} in which each | |
984 word has been capitalized. This means that the first character of each | |
985 word is converted to upper case, and the rest are converted to lower | |
986 case. | |
987 | |
988 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that | |
989 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax | |
990 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). | |
991 | |
992 When the argument to @code{capitalize} is a character, @code{capitalize} | |
993 has the same result as @code{upcase}. | |
994 | |
995 @example | |
996 @group | |
997 (capitalize "The cat in the hat") | |
998 @result{} "The Cat In The Hat" | |
999 @end group | |
1000 | |
1001 @group | |
1002 (capitalize "THE 77TH-HATTED CAT") | |
1003 @result{} "The 77th-Hatted Cat" | |
1004 @end group | |
1005 | |
1006 @group | |
1007 (capitalize ?x) | |
1008 @result{} 88 | |
1009 @end group | |
1010 @end example | |
1011 @end defun | |
1012 | |
1013 @defun upcase-initials string-or-char | |
1014 If @var{string-or-char} is a string, this function capitalizes the | |
1015 initials of the words in @var{string-or-char}, without altering any | |
1016 letters other than the initials. It returns a new string whose | |
1017 contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char}, in which each word has | |
1018 had its initial letter converted to upper case. | |
1019 | |
1020 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that | |
1021 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax | |
1022 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). | |
1023 | |
1024 When the argument to @code{upcase-initials} is a character, | |
1025 @code{upcase-initials} has the same result as @code{upcase}. | |
1026 | |
1027 @example | |
1028 @group | |
1029 (upcase-initials "The CAT in the hAt") | |
1030 @result{} "The CAT In The HAt" | |
1031 @end group | |
1032 @end example | |
1033 @end defun | |
1034 | |
1035 @xref{Text Comparison}, for functions that compare strings; some of | |
1036 them ignore case differences, or can optionally ignore case differences. | |
1037 | |
1038 @node Case Tables | |
1039 @section The Case Table | |
1040 | |
1041 You can customize case conversion by installing a special @dfn{case | |
1042 table}. A case table specifies the mapping between upper case and lower | |
1043 case letters. It affects both the case conversion functions for Lisp | |
1044 objects (see the previous section) and those that apply to text in the | |
1045 buffer (@pxref{Case Changes}). Each buffer has a case table; there is | |
1046 also a standard case table which is used to initialize the case table | |
1047 of new buffers. | |
1048 | |
1049 A case table is a char-table (@pxref{Char-Tables}) whose subtype is | |
1050 @code{case-table}. This char-table maps each character into the | |
1051 corresponding lower case character. It has three extra slots, which | |
1052 hold related tables: | |
1053 | |
1054 @table @var | |
1055 @item upcase | |
1056 The upcase table maps each character into the corresponding upper | |
1057 case character. | |
1058 @item canonicalize | |
1059 The canonicalize table maps all of a set of case-related characters | |
1060 into a particular member of that set. | |
1061 @item equivalences | |
1062 The equivalences table maps each one of a set of case-related characters | |
1063 into the next character in that set. | |
1064 @end table | |
1065 | |
1066 In simple cases, all you need to specify is the mapping to lower-case; | |
1067 the three related tables will be calculated automatically from that one. | |
1068 | |
1069 For some languages, upper and lower case letters are not in one-to-one | |
1070 correspondence. There may be two different lower case letters with the | |
1071 same upper case equivalent. In these cases, you need to specify the | |
1072 maps for both lower case and upper case. | |
1073 | |
1074 The extra table @var{canonicalize} maps each character to a canonical | |
1075 equivalent; any two characters that are related by case-conversion have | |
1076 the same canonical equivalent character. For example, since @samp{a} | |
1077 and @samp{A} are related by case-conversion, they should have the same | |
1078 canonical equivalent character (which should be either @samp{a} for both | |
1079 of them, or @samp{A} for both of them). | |
1080 | |
1081 The extra table @var{equivalences} is a map that cyclically permutes | |
1082 each equivalence class (of characters with the same canonical | |
1083 equivalent). (For ordinary @acronym{ASCII}, this would map @samp{a} into | |
1084 @samp{A} and @samp{A} into @samp{a}, and likewise for each set of | |
1085 equivalent characters.) | |
1086 | |
1087 When you construct a case table, you can provide @code{nil} for | |
1088 @var{canonicalize}; then Emacs fills in this slot from the lower case | |
1089 and upper case mappings. You can also provide @code{nil} for | |
1090 @var{equivalences}; then Emacs fills in this slot from | |
1091 @var{canonicalize}. In a case table that is actually in use, those | |
1092 components are non-@code{nil}. Do not try to specify @var{equivalences} | |
1093 without also specifying @var{canonicalize}. | |
1094 | |
1095 Here are the functions for working with case tables: | |
1096 | |
1097 @defun case-table-p object | |
1098 This predicate returns non-@code{nil} if @var{object} is a valid case | |
1099 table. | |
1100 @end defun | |
1101 | |
1102 @defun set-standard-case-table table | |
1103 This function makes @var{table} the standard case table, so that it will | |
1104 be used in any buffers created subsequently. | |
1105 @end defun | |
1106 | |
1107 @defun standard-case-table | |
1108 This returns the standard case table. | |
1109 @end defun | |
1110 | |
1111 @defun current-case-table | |
1112 This function returns the current buffer's case table. | |
1113 @end defun | |
1114 | |
1115 @defun set-case-table table | |
1116 This sets the current buffer's case table to @var{table}. | |
1117 @end defun | |
1118 | |
1119 @defmac with-case-table table body@dots{} | |
1120 The @code{with-case-table} macro saves the current case table, makes | |
1121 @var{table} the current case table, evaluates the @var{body} forms, | |
1122 and finally restores the case table. The return value is the value of | |
1123 the last form in @var{body}. The case table is restored even in case | |
1124 of an abnormal exit via @code{throw} or error (@pxref{Nonlocal | |
1125 Exits}). | |
1126 @end defmac | |
1127 | |
1128 Some language environments may modify the case conversions of | |
1129 @acronym{ASCII} characters; for example, in the Turkish language | |
1130 environment, the @acronym{ASCII} character @samp{I} is downcased into | |
1131 a Turkish ``dotless i''. This can interfere with code that requires | |
1132 ordinary ASCII case conversion, such as implementations of | |
1133 @acronym{ASCII}-based network protocols. In that case, use the | |
1134 @code{with-case-table} macro with the variable @var{ascii-case-table}, | |
1135 which stores the unmodified case table for the @acronym{ASCII} | |
1136 character set. | |
1137 | |
1138 @defvar ascii-case-table | |
1139 The case table for the @acronym{ASCII} character set. This should not be | |
1140 modified by any language environment settings. | |
1141 @end defvar | |
1142 | |
1143 The following three functions are convenient subroutines for packages | |
1144 that define non-@acronym{ASCII} character sets. They modify the specified | |
1145 case table @var{case-table}; they also modify the standard syntax table. | |
1146 @xref{Syntax Tables}. Normally you would use these functions to change | |
1147 the standard case table. | |
1148 | |
1149 @defun set-case-syntax-pair uc lc case-table | |
1150 This function specifies a pair of corresponding letters, one upper case | |
1151 and one lower case. | |
1152 @end defun | |
1153 | |
1154 @defun set-case-syntax-delims l r case-table | |
1155 This function makes characters @var{l} and @var{r} a matching pair of | |
1156 case-invariant delimiters. | |
1157 @end defun | |
1158 | |
1159 @defun set-case-syntax char syntax case-table | |
1160 This function makes @var{char} case-invariant, with syntax | |
1161 @var{syntax}. | |
1162 @end defun | |
1163 | |
1164 @deffn Command describe-buffer-case-table | |
1165 This command displays a description of the contents of the current | |
1166 buffer's case table. | |
1167 @end deffn | |
1168 | |
1169 @ignore | |
1170 arch-tag: 700b8e95-7aa5-4b52-9eb3-8f2e1ea152b4 | |
1171 @end ignore |