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annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 11045:b4bf1f2d99f8
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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Thu, 16 Mar 1995 23:28:27 +0000 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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6 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 7 @chapter Numbers |
8 @cindex integers | |
9 @cindex numbers | |
10 | |
11 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
12 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
13 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
14 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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15 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: |
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16 1.5e2 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the |
6510 | 17 second power, and is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
18 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. | |
19 | |
20 Support for floating point numbers is a new feature in Emacs 19, and it | |
21 is controlled by a separate compilation option, so you may encounter a site | |
22 where Emacs does not support them. | |
23 | |
24 @menu | |
25 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
26 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
27 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
28 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
29 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
30 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
31 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
32 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
33 * Transcendental Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. | |
34 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. | |
35 @end menu | |
36 | |
37 @node Integer Basics | |
38 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
39 @section Integer Basics | |
40 | |
41 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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42 minimum range is @minus{}134217728 to 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., |
6510 | 43 @ifinfo |
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44 -2**27 |
6510 | 45 @end ifinfo |
46 @tex | |
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47 $-2^{27}$ |
6510 | 48 @end tex |
49 to | |
50 @ifinfo | |
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51 2**27 - 1), |
6510 | 52 @end ifinfo |
53 @tex | |
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54 $2^{27}-1$), |
6510 | 55 @end tex |
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56 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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57 chapter assume an integer has 28 bits. |
6510 | 58 @cindex overflow |
59 | |
60 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
61 initial sign and optional final period. | |
62 | |
63 @example | |
64 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
65 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
66 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
67 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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68 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 69 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
70 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
71 @end example | |
72 | |
73 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the | |
74 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
75 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
76 | |
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77 In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 78 |
79 @example | |
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80 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 81 @end example |
82 | |
83 @noindent | |
84 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
85 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
86 | |
87 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
88 | |
89 @example | |
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90 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 91 @end example |
92 | |
93 @noindent | |
94 @cindex two's complement | |
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95 @minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 96 complement} notation.) |
97 | |
98 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
99 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
100 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
101 | |
102 @example | |
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103 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 104 @end example |
105 | |
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106 In this implementation, the largest 28-bit binary integer is the |
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107 decimal integer 134,217,727. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 108 |
109 @example | |
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110 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 111 @end example |
112 | |
113 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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114 outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the |
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115 negative integer @minus{}134,217,728: |
6510 | 116 |
117 @example | |
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118 (+ 1 134217727) |
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119 @result{} -134217728 |
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120 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 121 @end example |
122 | |
123 Many of the following functions accept markers for arguments as well | |
124 as integers. (@xref{Markers}.) More precisely, the actual arguments to | |
125 such functions may be either integers or markers, which is why we often | |
126 give these arguments the name @var{int-or-marker}. When the argument | |
127 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. | |
128 | |
129 @ignore | |
130 In version 19, except where @emph{integer} is specified as an | |
131 argument, all of the functions for markers and integers also work for | |
132 floating point numbers. | |
133 @end ignore | |
134 | |
135 @node Float Basics | |
136 @section Floating Point Basics | |
137 | |
138 @cindex @code{LISP_FLOAT_TYPE} configuration macro | |
139 Emacs version 19 supports floating point numbers, if compiled with the | |
140 macro @code{LISP_FLOAT_TYPE} defined. The precise range of floating | |
141 point numbers is machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C | |
142 data type @code{double} on the machine in question. | |
143 | |
144 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
145 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
146 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
147 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
148 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use | |
149 a minus sign to write negative floating point numbers, as in | |
150 @samp{-1.0}. | |
151 | |
152 @cindex IEEE floating point | |
153 @cindex positive infinity | |
154 @cindex negative infinity | |
155 @cindex infinity | |
156 @cindex NaN | |
157 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which | |
158 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point | |
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159 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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160 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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161 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a |
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162 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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163 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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164 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so this manual |
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165 doesn't try to distinguish them. Emacs Lisp has no read syntax for NaNs |
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166 or infinities; perhaps we should create a syntax in the future. |
6510 | 167 |
168 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating | |
169 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
170 | |
171 @defun logb number | |
172 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
173 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
174 down to an integer. | |
175 @end defun | |
176 | |
177 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
178 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
179 | |
180 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or | |
181 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp} | |
182 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the | |
183 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop} | |
184 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also | |
185 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in | |
186 @ref{Predicates on Markers}. | |
187 | |
188 @defun floatp object | |
189 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
190 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
191 | |
192 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
193 @end defun | |
194 | |
195 @defun integerp object | |
196 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
197 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
198 @end defun | |
199 | |
200 @defun numberp object | |
201 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
202 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
203 @end defun | |
204 | |
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205 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 206 @cindex natural numbers |
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207 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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208 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 209 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
210 considered non-negative. | |
211 | |
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212 @findex natnump |
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213 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 214 @end defun |
215 | |
216 @defun zerop number | |
217 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
218 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
219 | |
220 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}. | |
221 @end defun | |
222 | |
223 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
224 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
225 @cindex number equality | |
226 | |
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227 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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228 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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229 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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230 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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231 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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232 of the objects. |
6510 | 233 |
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234 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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235 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent @code{=} where integers are |
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236 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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237 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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238 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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239 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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240 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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241 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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242 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 243 |
244 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not | |
245 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
246 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
247 Here's a function to do this: | |
248 | |
249 @example | |
250 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
251 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
252 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
253 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
254 fuzz-factor)) | |
255 @end example | |
256 | |
257 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
258 @quotation | |
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259 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 260 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
261 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
262 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
263 limited range of integer values. | |
264 @end quotation | |
265 | |
266 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
267 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
268 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
269 @end defun | |
270 | |
271 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
272 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
273 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
274 @end defun | |
275 | |
276 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
277 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
278 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
279 @end defun | |
280 | |
281 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
282 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
283 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
284 otherwise. | |
285 @end defun | |
286 | |
287 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
288 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
289 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
290 otherwise. | |
291 @end defun | |
292 | |
293 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
294 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
295 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
296 otherwise. | |
297 @end defun | |
298 | |
299 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
300 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
301 | |
302 @example | |
303 (max 20) | |
304 @result{} 20 | |
305 (max 1 2.5) | |
306 @result{} 2.5 | |
307 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
308 @result{} 3 | |
309 @end example | |
310 @end defun | |
311 | |
312 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
313 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
314 | |
315 @example | |
316 (min -4 1) | |
317 @result{} -4 | |
318 @end example | |
319 @end defun | |
320 | |
321 @node Numeric Conversions | |
322 @section Numeric Conversions | |
323 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
324 | |
325 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
326 | |
327 @defun float number | |
328 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
329 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
330 it unchanged. | |
331 @end defun | |
332 | |
333 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
334 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments | |
335 also, and return such arguments unchanged. | |
336 | |
337 @defun truncate number | |
338 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards | |
339 zero. | |
340 @end defun | |
341 | |
342 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
343 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
344 (towards negative infinity). | |
345 | |
346 If @var{divisor} is specified, @var{number} is divided by @var{divisor} | |
347 before the floor is taken; this is the division operation that | |
348 corresponds to @code{mod}. An @code{arith-error} results if | |
349 @var{divisor} is 0. | |
350 @end defun | |
351 | |
352 @defun ceiling number | |
353 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward | |
354 (towards positive infinity). | |
355 @end defun | |
356 | |
357 @defun round number | |
358 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the | |
359 nearest integer. | |
360 @end defun | |
361 | |
362 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
363 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
364 | |
365 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
366 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
367 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
368 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
369 commonly used. | |
370 | |
371 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
372 if any argument is floating. | |
373 | |
374 It is important to note that in GNU Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions | |
375 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 8388607)} may evaluate to | |
376 @minus{}8388608, depending on your hardware. | |
377 | |
378 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
379 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
380 For example, | |
381 | |
382 @example | |
383 (setq foo 4) | |
384 @result{} 4 | |
385 (1+ foo) | |
386 @result{} 5 | |
387 @end example | |
388 | |
389 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does | |
390 not increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, | |
391 | |
392 @example | |
393 foo | |
394 @result{} 4 | |
395 @end example | |
396 | |
397 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
398 like this: | |
399 | |
400 @example | |
401 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
402 @result{} 5 | |
403 @end example | |
404 @end defun | |
405 | |
406 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
407 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
408 @end defun | |
409 | |
410 @defun abs number | |
411 This returns the absolute value of @var{number}. | |
412 @end defun | |
413 | |
414 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
415 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
416 @code{+} returns 0. It does not check for overflow. | |
417 | |
418 @example | |
419 (+) | |
420 @result{} 0 | |
421 (+ 1) | |
422 @result{} 1 | |
423 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
424 @result{} 10 | |
425 @end example | |
426 @end defun | |
427 | |
428 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest other-numbers-or-markers | |
429 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. | |
430 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
431 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
432 the @var{other-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, | |
433 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. This | |
434 function does not check for overflow. | |
435 | |
436 @example | |
437 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
438 @result{} 0 | |
439 (- 10) | |
440 @result{} -10 | |
441 (-) | |
442 @result{} 0 | |
443 @end example | |
444 @end defun | |
445 | |
446 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
447 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
448 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. It does | |
449 not check for overflow. | |
450 | |
451 @example | |
452 (*) | |
453 @result{} 1 | |
454 (* 1) | |
455 @result{} 1 | |
456 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
457 @result{} 24 | |
458 @end example | |
459 @end defun | |
460 | |
461 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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462 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 463 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
464 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
465 number or a marker. | |
466 | |
467 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
468 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
469 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
470 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
471 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
472 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
473 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
474 | |
475 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
476 If you divide by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. | |
477 (@xref{Errors}.) | |
478 | |
479 @example | |
480 (/ 6 2) | |
481 @result{} 3 | |
482 (/ 5 2) | |
483 @result{} 2 | |
484 (/ 25 3 2) | |
485 @result{} 4 | |
486 (/ -17 6) | |
487 @result{} -2 | |
488 @end example | |
489 | |
490 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
491 machines. | |
492 @end defun | |
493 | |
494 @defun % dividend divisor | |
495 @cindex remainder | |
496 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
497 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
498 | |
499 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
500 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
501 | |
502 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
503 | |
504 @example | |
505 (% 9 4) | |
506 @result{} 1 | |
507 (% -9 4) | |
508 @result{} -1 | |
509 (% 9 -4) | |
510 @result{} 1 | |
511 (% -9 -4) | |
512 @result{} -1 | |
513 @end example | |
514 | |
515 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
516 | |
517 @example | |
518 @group | |
519 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
520 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
521 @end group | |
522 @end example | |
523 | |
524 @noindent | |
525 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
526 @end defun | |
527 | |
528 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
529 @cindex modulus | |
530 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
531 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
532 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
533 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
534 | |
535 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
536 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
537 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
538 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
539 | |
540 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
541 | |
542 @example | |
543 (mod 9 4) | |
544 @result{} 1 | |
545 (mod -9 4) | |
546 @result{} 3 | |
547 (mod 9 -4) | |
548 @result{} -3 | |
549 (mod -9 -4) | |
550 @result{} -1 | |
551 (mod 5.5 2.5) | |
552 @result{} .5 | |
553 @end example | |
554 | |
555 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
556 | |
557 @example | |
558 @group | |
559 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
560 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
561 @end group | |
562 @end example | |
563 | |
564 @noindent | |
565 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if | |
566 either argument is floating point. | |
567 @end defun | |
568 | |
569 @node Rounding Operations | |
570 @section Rounding Operations | |
571 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
572 | |
8017 | 573 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround} and |
6510 | 574 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
575 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 576 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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577 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 578 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
579 | |
580 @defun ffloor float | |
581 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
582 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
583 @end defun | |
584 | |
8017 | 585 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 586 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
587 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
588 @end defun | |
589 | |
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590 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 591 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
592 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
593 @end defun | |
594 | |
595 @defun fround float | |
596 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
597 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
598 @end defun | |
599 | |
600 @node Bitwise Operations | |
601 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
602 | |
603 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
604 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
605 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
606 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
607 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
608 | |
609 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
610 | |
611 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
612 @cindex logical shift | |
613 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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614 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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615 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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616 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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617 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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618 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 619 |
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620 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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621 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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622 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 623 |
624 @example | |
625 @group | |
626 (lsh 5 1) | |
627 @result{} 10 | |
628 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
629 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
630 | |
631 (lsh 7 1) | |
632 @result{} 14 | |
633 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
634 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
635 @end group | |
636 @end example | |
637 | |
638 @noindent | |
639 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
640 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
641 number. | |
642 | |
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643 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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644 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
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645 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting 8,388,607 |
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646 produces @minus{}2 on a 24-bit machine: |
6510 | 647 |
648 @example | |
649 (lsh 8388607 1) ; @r{left shift} | |
650 @result{} -2 | |
651 @end example | |
652 | |
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653 In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 654 |
655 @example | |
656 @group | |
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657 ;; @r{Decimal 134.217,727} |
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658 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 659 @end group |
660 @end example | |
661 | |
662 @noindent | |
663 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
664 | |
665 @example | |
666 @group | |
667 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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668 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 669 @end group |
670 @end example | |
671 | |
672 Shifting the pattern of bits two places to the left produces results | |
673 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
674 | |
675 @example | |
676 @group | |
677 (lsh 3 2) | |
678 @result{} 12 | |
679 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
680 00000011 @result{} 00001100 | |
681 @end group | |
682 @end example | |
683 | |
684 On the other hand, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
685 looks like this: | |
686 | |
687 @example | |
688 @group | |
689 (lsh 6 -1) | |
690 @result{} 3 | |
691 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
692 00000110 @result{} 00000011 | |
693 @end group | |
694 | |
695 @group | |
696 (lsh 5 -1) | |
697 @result{} 2 | |
698 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
699 00000101 @result{} 00000010 | |
700 @end group | |
701 @end example | |
702 | |
703 @noindent | |
704 As the example illustrates, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
705 the right divides the value of the binary number by two, rounding downward. | |
706 @end defun | |
707 | |
708 @defun ash integer1 count | |
709 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
710 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
711 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
712 is negative. | |
713 | |
714 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
715 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
716 @code{ash} puts a one in the leftmost position, while @code{lsh} puts | |
717 a zero in the leftmost position. | |
718 | |
719 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
720 looks like this: | |
721 | |
722 @example | |
723 @group | |
724 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 | |
725 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} | |
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726 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 727 @result{} |
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728 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 729 @end group |
730 @end example | |
731 | |
732 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
733 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
734 | |
735 @example | |
736 @group | |
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737 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725 |
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738 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.} |
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739 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 740 @result{} |
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741 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 742 @end group |
743 @end example | |
744 | |
745 Here are other examples: | |
746 | |
747 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
748 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
749 @smallexample | |
750 @group | |
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751 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 752 |
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753 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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754 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 755 @end group |
756 @group | |
757 (ash 5 2) | |
758 @result{} 20 | |
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759 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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760 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 761 (ash -5 2) |
762 @result{} -20 | |
763 @end group | |
764 @group | |
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765 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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766 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 767 @end group |
768 @group | |
769 (ash 5 -2) | |
770 @result{} 1 | |
771 @end group | |
772 @group | |
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773 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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774 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 775 @end group |
776 @group | |
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777 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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778 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 779 @end group |
780 @end smallexample | |
781 @end defun | |
782 | |
783 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
784 @cindex logical and | |
785 @cindex bitwise and | |
786 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
787 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
788 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
789 rather than 0.) | |
790 | |
791 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
792 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
793 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
794 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
795 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
796 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
797 | |
798 @noindent | |
799 Therefore, | |
800 | |
801 @example | |
802 @group | |
803 (logand 13 12) | |
804 @result{} 12 | |
805 @end group | |
806 @end example | |
807 | |
808 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
809 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
810 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
811 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
812 | |
813 @smallexample | |
814 @group | |
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815 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 816 |
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817 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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818 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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819 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 820 @end group |
821 | |
822 @group | |
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823 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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824 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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825 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
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826 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 827 @end group |
828 | |
829 @group | |
830 (logand) | |
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831 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 832 @end group |
833 @end smallexample | |
834 @end defun | |
835 | |
836 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
837 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
838 @cindex bitwise or | |
839 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
840 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
841 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
842 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
843 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
844 | |
845 @smallexample | |
846 @group | |
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847 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 848 |
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849 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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850 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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851 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 852 @end group |
853 | |
854 @group | |
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855 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
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856 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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857 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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858 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 859 @end group |
860 @end smallexample | |
861 @end defun | |
862 | |
863 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
864 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
865 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
866 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
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867 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
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868 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
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869 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
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870 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 871 |
872 @smallexample | |
873 @group | |
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874 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 875 |
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876 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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877 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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878 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 879 @end group |
880 | |
881 @group | |
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882 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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883 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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884 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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885 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 886 @end group |
887 @end smallexample | |
888 @end defun | |
889 | |
890 @defun lognot integer | |
891 @cindex logical not | |
892 @cindex bitwise not | |
893 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
894 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
895 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
896 | |
897 @example | |
898 (lognot 5) | |
899 @result{} -6 | |
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900 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 901 ;; @r{becomes} |
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902 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 903 @end example |
904 @end defun | |
905 | |
906 @node Transcendental Functions | |
907 @section Transcendental Functions | |
908 @cindex transcendental functions | |
909 @cindex mathematical functions | |
910 | |
911 These mathematical functions are available if floating point is | |
912 supported. They allow integers as well as floating point numbers | |
913 as arguments. | |
914 | |
915 @defun sin arg | |
916 @defunx cos arg | |
917 @defunx tan arg | |
918 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
919 in radians. | |
920 @end defun | |
921 | |
922 @defun asin arg | |
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923 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2 |
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924 and pi/2 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} |
6510 | 925 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. |
926 @end defun | |
927 | |
928 @defun acos arg | |
929 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and pi | |
930 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} | |
931 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. | |
932 @end defun | |
933 | |
934 @defun atan arg | |
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935 The value of @code{(atan @var{arg})} is a number between @minus{}pi/2 |
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936 and pi/2 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{arg}. |
6510 | 937 @end defun |
938 | |
939 @defun exp arg | |
940 This is the exponential function; it returns @i{e} to the power | |
941 @var{arg}. @i{e} is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the | |
942 base of natural logarithms. | |
943 @end defun | |
944 | |
945 @defun log arg &optional base | |
946 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
947 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base @var{e} is used. If @var{arg} | |
948 is negative, the result is a NaN. | |
949 @end defun | |
950 | |
951 @ignore | |
952 @defun expm1 arg | |
953 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
954 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
955 is close to 1. | |
956 @end defun | |
957 | |
958 @defun log1p arg | |
959 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
960 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
961 lose accuracy. | |
962 @end defun | |
963 @end ignore | |
964 | |
965 @defun log10 arg | |
966 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
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967 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})} |
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968 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately. |
6510 | 969 @end defun |
970 | |
971 @defun expt x y | |
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972 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
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973 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
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974 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible |
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975 integer values. |
6510 | 976 @end defun |
977 | |
978 @defun sqrt arg | |
979 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
980 the value is a NaN. | |
981 @end defun | |
982 | |
983 @node Random Numbers | |
984 @section Random Numbers | |
985 @cindex random numbers | |
986 | |
987 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
988 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
989 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
990 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
991 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
992 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
993 | |
994 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
995 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
996 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
997 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
998 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
999 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1000 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1001 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1002 | |
1003 If you want truly unpredictable random numbers, execute @code{(random | |
1004 t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of day and on | |
1005 Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1006 | |
1007 @defun random &optional limit | |
1008 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1009 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1010 | |
1011 If @var{limit} is @code{nil}, then the value may in principle be any | |
1012 integer. If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to | |
1013 be nonnegative and less than @var{limit} (only in Emacs 19). | |
1014 | |
1015 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
1016 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1017 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! | |
1018 | |
1019 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1020 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1021 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1022 @end defun |