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annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 66134:b4d414f000c1
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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Mon, 17 Oct 2005 02:35:03 +0000 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003, |
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4 @c 2004, 2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 8 @chapter Numbers |
9 @cindex integers | |
10 @cindex numbers | |
11 | |
12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2 |
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second |
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
6510 | 19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. |
20 | |
21 @menu | |
22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
32 @end menu | |
33 | |
34 @node Integer Basics | |
35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
36 @section Integer Basics | |
37 | |
38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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39 minimum range is @minus{}268435456 to 268435455 (29 bits; i.e., |
27193 | 40 @ifnottex |
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41 -2**28 |
27193 | 42 @end ifnottex |
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43 @tex |
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44 @math{-2^{28}} |
6510 | 45 @end tex |
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46 to |
27193 | 47 @ifnottex |
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48 2**28 - 1), |
27193 | 49 @end ifnottex |
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50 @tex |
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51 @math{2^{28}-1}), |
6510 | 52 @end tex |
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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54 chapter assume an integer has 29 bits. |
6510 | 55 @cindex overflow |
56 | |
57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
58 initial sign and optional final period. | |
59 | |
60 @example | |
61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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65 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
68 @end example | |
69 | |
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70 @cindex integers in specific radix |
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71 @cindex radix for reading an integer |
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72 @cindex base for reading an integer |
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73 @cindex hex numbers |
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74 @cindex octal numbers |
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75 @cindex reading numbers in hex, octal, and binary |
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76 The syntax for integers in bases other than 10 uses @samp{#} |
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77 followed by a letter that specifies the radix: @samp{b} for binary, |
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78 @samp{o} for octal, @samp{x} for hex, or @samp{@var{radix}r} to |
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79 specify radix @var{radix}. Case is not significant for the letter |
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80 that specifies the radix. Thus, @samp{#b@var{integer}} reads |
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81 @var{integer} in binary, and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads |
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82 @var{integer} in radix @var{radix}. Allowed values of @var{radix} run |
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83 from 2 to 36. For example: |
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84 |
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85 @example |
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86 #b101100 @result{} 44 |
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87 #o54 @result{} 44 |
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88 #x2c @result{} 44 |
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89 #24r1k @result{} 44 |
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90 @end example |
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91 |
6510 | 92 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the |
93 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
94 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
95 | |
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96 In 29-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 97 |
98 @example | |
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99 0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 100 @end example |
101 | |
102 @noindent | |
103 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
104 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
105 | |
106 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
107 | |
108 @example | |
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109 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 110 @end example |
111 | |
112 @noindent | |
113 @cindex two's complement | |
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114 @minus{}1 is represented as 29 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 115 complement} notation.) |
116 | |
117 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
118 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
119 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
120 | |
121 @example | |
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122 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 123 @end example |
124 | |
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125 In this implementation, the largest 29-bit binary integer value is |
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126 268,435,455 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 127 |
128 @example | |
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129 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 130 @end example |
131 | |
132 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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133 outside their range, when you add 1 to 268,435,455, the value is the |
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134 negative integer @minus{}268,435,456: |
6510 | 135 |
136 @example | |
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137 (+ 1 268435455) |
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138 @result{} -268435456 |
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139 @result{} 1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 140 @end example |
141 | |
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142 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for |
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143 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual |
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144 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often |
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145 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument |
6510 | 146 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. |
147 | |
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148 @defvar most-positive-fixnum |
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149 The value of this variable is the largest integer that Emacs Lisp |
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150 can handle. |
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151 @end defvar |
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152 |
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153 @defvar most-negative-fixnum |
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154 The value of this variable is the smallest integer that Emacs Lisp can |
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155 handle. It is negative. |
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156 @end defvar |
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157 |
6510 | 158 @node Float Basics |
159 @section Floating Point Basics | |
160 | |
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161 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are |
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162 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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163 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type |
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164 @code{double} on the machine you are using. |
6510 | 165 |
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166 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal |
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167 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For |
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168 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and |
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169 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose |
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170 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign |
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171 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}. |
6510 | 172 |
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173 @cindex @acronym{IEEE} floating point |
6510 | 174 @cindex positive infinity |
175 @cindex negative infinity | |
176 @cindex infinity | |
177 @cindex NaN | |
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178 Most modern computers support the @acronym{IEEE} floating point standard, |
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179 which provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point |
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180 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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181 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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182 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(/ 0.0 0.0)} returns a |
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183 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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184 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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185 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp |
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186 doesn't try to distinguish them (but it does report the sign, if you |
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187 print it). Here are the read syntaxes for these special floating |
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188 point values: |
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189 |
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190 @table @asis |
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191 @item positive infinity |
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192 @samp{1.0e+INF} |
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193 @item negative infinity |
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194 @samp{-1.0e+INF} |
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195 @item Not-a-number |
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196 @samp{0.0e+NaN} or @samp{-0.0e+NaN}. |
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197 @end table |
6510 | 198 |
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199 To test whether a floating point value is a NaN, compare it with |
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200 itself using @code{=}. That returns @code{nil} for a NaN, and |
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201 @code{t} for any other floating point value. |
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202 |
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203 The value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary zero in |
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204 @acronym{IEEE} floating point, but Emacs Lisp @code{equal} and |
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205 @code{=} consider them equal values. |
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206 |
6510 | 207 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating |
208 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
209 | |
210 @defun logb number | |
211 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
212 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
213 down to an integer. | |
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214 |
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215 @example |
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216 (logb 10) |
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217 @result{} 3 |
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218 (logb 10.0e20) |
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219 @result{} 69 |
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220 @end example |
6510 | 221 @end defun |
222 | |
223 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
224 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
225 | |
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226 The functions in this section test for numbers, or for a specific |
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227 type of number. The functions @code{integerp} and @code{floatp} can |
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228 take any type of Lisp object as argument (they would not be of much |
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229 use otherwise), but the @code{zerop} predicate requires a number as |
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230 its argument. See also @code{integer-or-marker-p} and |
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231 @code{number-or-marker-p}, in @ref{Predicates on Markers}. |
6510 | 232 |
233 @defun floatp object | |
234 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
235 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
236 | |
237 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
238 @end defun | |
239 | |
240 @defun integerp object | |
241 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
242 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
243 @end defun | |
244 | |
245 @defun numberp object | |
246 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
247 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
248 @end defun | |
249 | |
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250 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 251 @cindex natural numbers |
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252 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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253 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 254 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
255 considered non-negative. | |
256 | |
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257 @findex natnump |
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258 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 259 @end defun |
260 | |
261 @defun zerop number | |
262 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
263 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
264 | |
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265 @code{(zerop x)} is equivalent to @code{(= x 0)}. |
6510 | 266 @end defun |
267 | |
268 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
269 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
270 @cindex number equality | |
271 | |
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272 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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273 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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274 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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275 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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276 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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277 of the objects. |
6510 | 278 |
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279 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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280 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are |
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281 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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282 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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283 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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284 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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285 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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286 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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287 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 288 |
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289 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it |
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290 treats two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both |
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291 integers, or both floating point) and the same value. By contrast, |
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292 @code{=} can treat an integer and a floating point number as equal. |
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293 @xref{Equality Predicates}. |
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294 |
6510 | 295 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not |
296 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
297 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
298 Here's a function to do this: | |
299 | |
300 @example | |
301 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
302 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 303 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
304 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
305 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
306 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 307 @end example |
308 | |
309 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
310 @quotation | |
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311 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 312 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
313 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
314 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
315 limited range of integer values. | |
316 @end quotation | |
317 | |
318 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
319 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
320 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
321 @end defun | |
322 | |
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323 @defun eql value1 value2 |
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324 This function acts like @code{eq} except when both arguments are |
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325 numbers. It compares numbers by type and numberic value, so that |
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326 @code{(eql 1.0 1)} returns @code{nil}, but @code{(eql 1.0 1.0)} and |
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327 @code{(eql 1 1)} both return @code{t}. |
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328 @end defun |
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329 |
6510 | 330 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 |
331 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
332 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
333 @end defun | |
334 | |
335 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
336 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
337 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
338 @end defun | |
339 | |
340 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
341 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
342 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
343 otherwise. | |
344 @end defun | |
345 | |
346 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
347 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
348 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
349 otherwise. | |
350 @end defun | |
351 | |
352 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
353 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
354 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
355 otherwise. | |
356 @end defun | |
357 | |
358 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
359 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
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360 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned |
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361 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 362 |
363 @example | |
364 (max 20) | |
365 @result{} 20 | |
366 (max 1 2.5) | |
367 @result{} 2.5 | |
368 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
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369 @result{} 3.0 |
6510 | 370 @end example |
371 @end defun | |
372 | |
373 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
374 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
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375 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned |
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376 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 377 |
378 @example | |
379 (min -4 1) | |
380 @result{} -4 | |
381 @end example | |
382 @end defun | |
383 | |
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384 @defun abs number |
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385 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}. |
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386 @end defun |
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387 |
6510 | 388 @node Numeric Conversions |
389 @section Numeric Conversions | |
390 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
391 | |
392 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
393 | |
394 @defun float number | |
395 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
396 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
397 it unchanged. | |
398 @end defun | |
399 | |
400 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
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401 they differ in how they round. All accept an argument @var{number} |
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402 and an optional argument @var{divisor}. Both arguments may be |
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403 integers or floating point numbers. @var{divisor} may also be |
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404 @code{nil}. If @var{divisor} is @code{nil} or omitted, these |
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405 functions convert @var{number} to an integer, or return it unchanged |
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406 if it already is an integer. If @var{divisor} is non-@code{nil}, they |
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407 divide @var{number} by @var{divisor} and convert the result to an |
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408 integer. An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. |
6510 | 409 |
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410 @defun truncate number &optional divisor |
6510 | 411 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards |
412 zero. | |
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413 |
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414 @example |
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415 (truncate 1.2) |
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416 @result{} 1 |
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417 (truncate 1.7) |
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418 @result{} 1 |
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419 (truncate -1.2) |
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420 @result{} -1 |
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421 (truncate -1.7) |
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422 @result{} -1 |
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423 @end example |
6510 | 424 @end defun |
425 | |
426 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
427 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
428 (towards negative infinity). | |
429 | |
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430 If @var{divisor} is specified, this uses the kind of division |
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431 operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward. |
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432 |
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433 @example |
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434 (floor 1.2) |
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435 @result{} 1 |
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436 (floor 1.7) |
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437 @result{} 1 |
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438 (floor -1.2) |
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439 @result{} -2 |
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440 (floor -1.7) |
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441 @result{} -2 |
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442 (floor 5.99 3) |
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443 @result{} 1 |
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444 @end example |
6510 | 445 @end defun |
446 | |
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447 @defun ceiling number &optional divisor |
6510 | 448 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward |
449 (towards positive infinity). | |
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450 |
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451 @example |
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452 (ceiling 1.2) |
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453 @result{} 2 |
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454 (ceiling 1.7) |
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455 @result{} 2 |
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456 (ceiling -1.2) |
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457 @result{} -1 |
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458 (ceiling -1.7) |
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459 @result{} -1 |
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460 @end example |
6510 | 461 @end defun |
462 | |
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463 @defun round number &optional divisor |
6510 | 464 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the |
12098 | 465 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
466 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
467 depending on your machine. | |
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468 |
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469 @example |
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470 (round 1.2) |
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471 @result{} 1 |
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472 (round 1.7) |
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473 @result{} 2 |
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474 (round -1.2) |
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475 @result{} -1 |
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476 (round -1.7) |
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477 @result{} -2 |
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478 @end example |
6510 | 479 @end defun |
480 | |
481 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
482 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
483 | |
484 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
485 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
486 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
487 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
488 commonly used. | |
489 | |
490 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
491 if any argument is floating. | |
492 | |
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493 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions |
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494 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} may evaluate to |
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495 @minus{}268435456, depending on your hardware. |
6510 | 496 |
497 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
498 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
499 For example, | |
500 | |
501 @example | |
502 (setq foo 4) | |
503 @result{} 4 | |
504 (1+ foo) | |
505 @result{} 5 | |
506 @end example | |
507 | |
12098 | 508 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
509 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 510 |
511 @example | |
512 foo | |
513 @result{} 4 | |
514 @end example | |
515 | |
516 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
517 like this: | |
518 | |
519 @example | |
520 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
521 @result{} 5 | |
522 @end example | |
523 @end defun | |
524 | |
525 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
526 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
527 @end defun | |
528 | |
529 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
530 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 531 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 532 |
533 @example | |
534 (+) | |
535 @result{} 0 | |
536 (+ 1) | |
537 @result{} 1 | |
538 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
539 @result{} 10 | |
540 @end example | |
541 @end defun | |
542 | |
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543 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers |
6510 | 544 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. |
545 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
546 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
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547 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, |
12098 | 548 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 549 |
550 @example | |
551 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
552 @result{} 0 | |
553 (- 10) | |
554 @result{} -10 | |
555 (-) | |
556 @result{} 0 | |
557 @end example | |
558 @end defun | |
559 | |
560 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
561 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 562 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 563 |
564 @example | |
565 (*) | |
566 @result{} 1 | |
567 (* 1) | |
568 @result{} 1 | |
569 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
570 @result{} 24 | |
571 @end example | |
572 @end defun | |
573 | |
574 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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575 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 576 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
577 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
578 number or a marker. | |
579 | |
580 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
581 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
582 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
583 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
584 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
585 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
586 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
587 | |
588 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
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589 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. |
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590 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either |
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591 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports @acronym{IEEE} floating point; |
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592 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error. |
6510 | 593 |
594 @example | |
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595 @group |
6510 | 596 (/ 6 2) |
597 @result{} 3 | |
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598 @end group |
6510 | 599 (/ 5 2) |
600 @result{} 2 | |
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601 (/ 5.0 2) |
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602 @result{} 2.5 |
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603 (/ 5 2.0) |
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604 @result{} 2.5 |
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605 (/ 5.0 2.0) |
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606 @result{} 2.5 |
6510 | 607 (/ 25 3 2) |
608 @result{} 4 | |
609 (/ -17 6) | |
610 @result{} -2 | |
611 @end example | |
612 | |
613 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
614 machines. | |
615 @end defun | |
616 | |
617 @defun % dividend divisor | |
618 @cindex remainder | |
619 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
620 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
621 | |
622 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
623 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
624 | |
625 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
626 | |
627 @example | |
628 (% 9 4) | |
629 @result{} 1 | |
630 (% -9 4) | |
631 @result{} -1 | |
632 (% 9 -4) | |
633 @result{} 1 | |
634 (% -9 -4) | |
635 @result{} -1 | |
636 @end example | |
637 | |
638 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
639 | |
640 @example | |
641 @group | |
642 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
643 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
644 @end group | |
645 @end example | |
646 | |
647 @noindent | |
648 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
649 @end defun | |
650 | |
651 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
652 @cindex modulus | |
653 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
654 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
655 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
656 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
657 | |
658 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
659 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
660 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
661 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
662 | |
663 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
664 | |
665 @example | |
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666 @group |
6510 | 667 (mod 9 4) |
668 @result{} 1 | |
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669 @end group |
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670 @group |
6510 | 671 (mod -9 4) |
672 @result{} 3 | |
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673 @end group |
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674 @group |
6510 | 675 (mod 9 -4) |
676 @result{} -3 | |
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677 @end group |
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678 @group |
6510 | 679 (mod -9 -4) |
680 @result{} -1 | |
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681 @end group |
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682 @group |
6510 | 683 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
684 @result{} .5 | |
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685 @end group |
6510 | 686 @end example |
687 | |
688 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
689 | |
690 @example | |
691 @group | |
692 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
693 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
694 @end group | |
695 @end example | |
696 | |
697 @noindent | |
12098 | 698 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
699 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
700 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 701 @end defun |
702 | |
703 @node Rounding Operations | |
704 @section Rounding Operations | |
705 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
706 | |
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707 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and |
6510 | 708 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
709 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 710 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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711 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 712 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
713 | |
714 @defun ffloor float | |
715 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
716 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
717 @end defun | |
718 | |
8017 | 719 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 720 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
721 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
722 @end defun | |
723 | |
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724 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 725 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
726 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
727 @end defun | |
728 | |
729 @defun fround float | |
730 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
731 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
732 @end defun | |
733 | |
734 @node Bitwise Operations | |
735 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
736 | |
737 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
738 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
739 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
740 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
741 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
742 | |
743 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
744 | |
745 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
746 @cindex logical shift | |
747 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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748 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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749 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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750 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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751 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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752 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 753 |
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754 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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755 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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756 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 757 |
758 @example | |
759 @group | |
760 (lsh 5 1) | |
761 @result{} 10 | |
762 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
763 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
764 | |
765 (lsh 7 1) | |
766 @result{} 14 | |
767 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
768 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
769 @end group | |
770 @end example | |
771 | |
772 @noindent | |
773 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
774 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
775 number. | |
776 | |
12098 | 777 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
778 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
779 | |
780 @example | |
781 @group | |
782 (lsh 3 2) | |
783 @result{} 12 | |
784 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
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785 00000011 @result{} 00001100 |
12098 | 786 @end group |
787 @end example | |
788 | |
789 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
790 | |
791 @example | |
792 @group | |
793 (lsh 6 -1) | |
794 @result{} 3 | |
795 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
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796 00000110 @result{} 00000011 |
12098 | 797 @end group |
798 | |
799 @group | |
800 (lsh 5 -1) | |
801 @result{} 2 | |
802 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
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803 00000101 @result{} 00000010 |
12098 | 804 @end group |
805 @end example | |
806 | |
807 @noindent | |
808 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
809 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
810 | |
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811 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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812 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 813 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
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814 268,435,455 produces @minus{}2 on a 29-bit machine: |
6510 | 815 |
816 @example | |
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817 (lsh 268435455 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 818 @result{} -2 |
819 @end example | |
820 | |
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821 In binary, in the 29-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 822 |
823 @example | |
824 @group | |
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825 ;; @r{Decimal 268,435,455} |
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826 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 827 @end group |
828 @end example | |
829 | |
830 @noindent | |
831 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
832 | |
833 @example | |
834 @group | |
835 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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836 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 837 @end group |
838 @end example | |
839 @end defun | |
840 | |
841 @defun ash integer1 count | |
842 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
843 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
844 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
845 is negative. | |
846 | |
847 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
848 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 849 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
850 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 851 |
852 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
853 looks like this: | |
854 | |
855 @example | |
856 @group | |
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857 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 |
6510 | 858 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} |
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859 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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860 @result{} |
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861 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 862 @end group |
863 @end example | |
864 | |
865 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
866 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
867 | |
868 @example | |
869 @group | |
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870 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 268435453 |
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871 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 268,435,453.} |
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872 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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873 @result{} |
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874 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 875 @end group |
876 @end example | |
877 | |
878 Here are other examples: | |
879 | |
880 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
881 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
882 @smallexample | |
883 @group | |
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884 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 885 |
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886 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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887 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 888 @end group |
889 @group | |
890 (ash 5 2) | |
891 @result{} 20 | |
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892 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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893 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 894 (ash -5 2) |
895 @result{} -20 | |
896 @end group | |
897 @group | |
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898 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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899 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 900 @end group |
901 @group | |
902 (ash 5 -2) | |
903 @result{} 1 | |
904 @end group | |
905 @group | |
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906 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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907 @result{} 134217726 ; = @r{0 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 908 @end group |
909 @group | |
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910 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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911 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 912 @end group |
913 @end smallexample | |
914 @end defun | |
915 | |
916 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
917 @cindex logical and | |
918 @cindex bitwise and | |
919 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
920 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
921 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
922 rather than 0.) | |
923 | |
924 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
925 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
926 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
927 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
928 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
929 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
930 | |
931 @noindent | |
932 Therefore, | |
933 | |
934 @example | |
935 @group | |
936 (logand 13 12) | |
937 @result{} 12 | |
938 @end group | |
939 @end example | |
940 | |
941 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
942 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
943 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
944 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
945 | |
946 @smallexample | |
947 @group | |
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948 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 949 |
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950 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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951 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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952 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 953 @end group |
954 | |
955 @group | |
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956 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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957 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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958 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
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959 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 960 @end group |
961 | |
962 @group | |
963 (logand) | |
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964 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 965 @end group |
966 @end smallexample | |
967 @end defun | |
968 | |
969 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
970 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
971 @cindex bitwise or | |
972 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
973 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
974 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
975 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
976 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
977 | |
978 @smallexample | |
979 @group | |
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980 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 981 |
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982 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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983 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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984 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 985 @end group |
986 | |
987 @group | |
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988 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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989 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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990 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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991 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 992 @end group |
993 @end smallexample | |
994 @end defun | |
995 | |
996 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
997 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
998 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
999 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
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1000 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
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1001 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
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1002 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
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1003 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 1004 |
1005 @smallexample | |
1006 @group | |
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1007 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 1008 |
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1009 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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1010 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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1011 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 1012 @end group |
1013 | |
1014 @group | |
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1015 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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1016 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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1017 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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1018 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 1019 @end group |
1020 @end smallexample | |
1021 @end defun | |
1022 | |
1023 @defun lognot integer | |
1024 @cindex logical not | |
1025 @cindex bitwise not | |
1026 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
1027 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
1028 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
1029 | |
1030 @example | |
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1031 (lognot 5) |
6510 | 1032 @result{} -6 |
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1033 ;; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 1034 ;; @r{becomes} |
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1035 ;; -6 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 1036 @end example |
1037 @end defun | |
1038 | |
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1039 @node Math Functions |
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1040 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 1041 @cindex transcendental functions |
1042 @cindex mathematical functions | |
1043 | |
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1044 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point |
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1045 numbers as arguments. |
6510 | 1046 |
1047 @defun sin arg | |
1048 @defunx cos arg | |
1049 @defunx tan arg | |
1050 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
1051 in radians. | |
1052 @end defun | |
1053 | |
1054 @defun asin arg | |
25454 | 1055 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between |
27193 | 1056 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1057 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1058 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1059 @tex |
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1060 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1061 @end tex |
1062 and | |
27193 | 1063 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1064 pi/2 |
27193 | 1065 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1066 @tex |
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1067 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1068 @end tex |
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1069 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out of |
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1070 range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1071 @end defun |
1072 | |
1073 @defun acos arg | |
25454 | 1074 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and |
27193 | 1075 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1076 pi |
27193 | 1077 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1078 @tex |
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1079 @math{\pi} |
25454 | 1080 @end tex |
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1081 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out |
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1082 of range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1083 @end defun |
1084 | |
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1085 @defun atan y &optional x |
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1086 The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between |
27193 | 1087 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1088 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1089 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1090 @tex |
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1091 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1092 @end tex |
1093 and | |
27193 | 1094 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1095 pi/2 |
27193 | 1096 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1097 @tex |
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1098 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1099 @end tex |
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1100 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{y}. If the optional second |
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1101 argument @var{x} is given, the value of @code{(atan y x)} is the |
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1102 angle in radians between the vector @code{[@var{x}, @var{y}]} and the |
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1103 @code{X} axis. |
6510 | 1104 @end defun |
1105 | |
1106 @defun exp arg | |
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1107 This is the exponential function; it returns |
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1108 @tex |
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1109 @math{e} |
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1110 @end tex |
27193 | 1111 @ifnottex |
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1112 @i{e} |
27193 | 1113 @end ifnottex |
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1114 to the power @var{arg}. |
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1115 @tex |
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1116 @math{e} |
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1117 @end tex |
27193 | 1118 @ifnottex |
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1119 @i{e} |
27193 | 1120 @end ifnottex |
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1121 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural |
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1122 logarithms. |
6510 | 1123 @end defun |
1124 | |
1125 @defun log arg &optional base | |
1126 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
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1127 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base |
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1128 @tex |
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1129 @math{e} |
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1130 @end tex |
27193 | 1131 @ifnottex |
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1132 @i{e} |
27193 | 1133 @end ifnottex |
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1134 is used. If @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} |
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1135 error. |
6510 | 1136 @end defun |
1137 | |
1138 @ignore | |
1139 @defun expm1 arg | |
1140 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1141 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
1142 is close to 1. | |
1143 @end defun | |
1144 | |
1145 @defun log1p arg | |
1146 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1147 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
1148 lose accuracy. | |
1149 @end defun | |
1150 @end ignore | |
1151 | |
1152 @defun log10 arg | |
1153 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
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1154 @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
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1155 @code{(log10 @var{x})} @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least |
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1156 approximately. |
6510 | 1157 @end defun |
1158 | |
1159 @defun expt x y | |
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1160 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
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1161 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
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1162 integer; in this case, overflow causes truncation, so watch out. |
6510 | 1163 @end defun |
1164 | |
1165 @defun sqrt arg | |
1166 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
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1167 it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1168 @end defun |
1169 | |
1170 @node Random Numbers | |
1171 @section Random Numbers | |
1172 @cindex random numbers | |
1173 | |
1174 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1175 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1176 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1177 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1178 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1179 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1180 | |
1181 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1182 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1183 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1184 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1185 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1186 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1187 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1188 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1189 | |
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1190 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute |
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1191 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of |
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1192 day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number. |
6510 | 1193 |
1194 @defun random &optional limit | |
1195 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1196 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1197 | |
12067 | 1198 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1199 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1200 |
1201 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
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1202 current time of day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number. |
6510 | 1203 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! |
1204 | |
1205 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1206 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1207 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1208 @end defun | |
52401 | 1209 |
1210 @ignore | |
1211 arch-tag: 574e8dd2-d513-4616-9844-c9a27869782e | |
1212 @end ignore |