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annotate lispref/variables.texi @ 90541:b7130e76c2f9
Include window.h.
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author | Kenichi Handa <handa@m17n.org> |
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date | Mon, 24 Jul 2006 04:42:53 +0000 |
parents | 8a8e69664178 |
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rev | line source |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, |
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4 @c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/variables | |
7 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top | |
8 @chapter Variables | |
9 @cindex variable | |
10 | |
11 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value. | |
12 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the | |
13 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for | |
14 symbols. | |
15 | |
16 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented | |
17 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp | |
18 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable | |
19 name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the | |
20 symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as | |
21 a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
22 | |
23 The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual | |
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24 form of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp |
6510 | 25 objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program |
26 is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the | |
27 variable. | |
28 | |
29 @menu | |
30 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere. | |
31 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change. | |
32 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily. | |
33 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values. | |
34 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable. | |
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35 * Tips for Defining:: Things you should think about when you |
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36 define a variable. |
6510 | 37 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names |
38 are known only at run time. | |
39 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables. | |
40 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values. | |
41 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer. | |
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42 * Frame-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one frame. |
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43 * Future Local Variables:: New kinds of local values we might add some day. |
62367 | 44 * File Local Variables:: Handling local variable lists in files. |
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45 * Variable Aliases:: Variables that are aliases for other variables. |
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46 * Variables with Restricted Values:: Non-constant variables whose value can |
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47 @emph{not} be an arbitrary Lisp object. |
6510 | 48 @end menu |
49 | |
50 @node Global Variables | |
51 @section Global Variables | |
52 @cindex global variable | |
53 | |
54 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that | |
55 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect | |
56 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains | |
57 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the | |
58 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable. | |
59 | |
60 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example, | |
61 | |
62 @example | |
63 (setq x '(a b)) | |
64 @end example | |
65 | |
66 @noindent | |
67 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that | |
68 @code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the | |
69 variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value. | |
70 | |
71 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol | |
72 by itself as an expression. Thus, | |
73 | |
74 @example | |
75 @group | |
76 x @result{} (a b) | |
77 @end group | |
78 @end example | |
79 | |
80 @noindent | |
81 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed. | |
82 | |
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83 If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the old |
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84 one: |
6510 | 85 |
86 @example | |
87 @group | |
88 x | |
89 @result{} (a b) | |
90 @end group | |
91 @group | |
92 (setq x 4) | |
93 @result{} 4 | |
94 @end group | |
95 @group | |
96 x | |
97 @result{} 4 | |
98 @end group | |
99 @end example | |
100 | |
101 @node Constant Variables | |
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102 @section Variables that Never Change |
6510 | 103 @vindex nil |
104 @vindex t | |
105 @kindex setting-constant | |
26200 | 106 @cindex keyword symbol |
6510 | 107 |
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108 In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. These |
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109 include @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name starts |
26200 | 110 with @samp{:} (these are called @dfn{keywords}). These symbols cannot |
111 be rebound, nor can their values be changed. Any attempt to set or bind | |
112 @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. The | |
113 same is true for a keyword (a symbol whose name starts with @samp{:}), | |
114 if it is interned in the standard obarray, except that setting such a | |
115 symbol to itself is not an error. | |
6510 | 116 |
117 @example | |
118 @group | |
119 nil @equiv{} 'nil | |
120 @result{} nil | |
121 @end group | |
122 @group | |
123 (setq nil 500) | |
124 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil | |
125 @end group | |
126 @end example | |
127 | |
27528 | 128 @defun keywordp object |
129 function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol whose name | |
130 starts with @samp{:}, interned in the standard obarray, and returns | |
131 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
132 @end defun | |
133 | |
6510 | 134 @node Local Variables |
135 @section Local Variables | |
136 @cindex binding local variables | |
137 @cindex local variables | |
138 @cindex local binding | |
139 @cindex global binding | |
140 | |
141 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded | |
142 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that | |
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143 exist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes. |
6510 | 144 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are |
145 called @dfn{local variables}. | |
146 | |
147 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive | |
148 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let} | |
149 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified | |
150 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form. | |
151 | |
152 @cindex shadowing of variables | |
153 Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of | |
154 one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over, | |
155 the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the | |
156 previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and | |
157 local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}). | |
158 | |
159 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local, | |
160 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or | |
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161 previous local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we |
6510 | 162 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value. |
163 | |
164 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value. | |
165 Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the | |
166 local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the | |
167 local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value | |
168 is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a | |
169 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does | |
170 not create a new binding. | |
171 | |
172 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where | |
173 (conceptually) the global value is kept. | |
174 | |
175 @cindex current binding | |
176 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for | |
177 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a | |
178 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the | |
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179 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called |
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180 @dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no |
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181 local bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding. |
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182 We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existing |
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183 binding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns |
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184 the value of its current binding. |
6510 | 185 |
186 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create | |
187 local bindings. | |
188 | |
189 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
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190 This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then |
6510 | 191 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form |
192 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}. | |
193 | |
194 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case | |
195 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form | |
196 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is | |
197 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form} | |
198 is omitted, @code{nil} is used. | |
199 | |
200 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the | |
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201 order they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them. |
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202 Here is an example of this: @code{z} is bound to the old value of |
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203 @code{y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{y}, which is 1. |
6510 | 204 |
205 @example | |
206 @group | |
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207 (setq y 2) |
6510 | 208 @result{} 2 |
209 @end group | |
210 @group | |
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211 (let ((y 1) |
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212 (z y)) |
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213 (list y z)) |
6510 | 214 @result{} (1 2) |
215 @end group | |
216 @end example | |
217 @end defspec | |
218 | |
219 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
220 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right | |
221 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for | |
222 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can | |
223 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*} | |
224 form. Compare the following example with the example above for | |
225 @code{let}. | |
226 | |
227 @example | |
228 @group | |
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229 (setq y 2) |
6510 | 230 @result{} 2 |
231 @end group | |
232 @group | |
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233 (let* ((y 1) |
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234 (z y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{y}.} |
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235 (list y z)) |
6510 | 236 @result{} (1 1) |
237 @end group | |
238 @end example | |
239 @end defspec | |
240 | |
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241 Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local |
6510 | 242 bindings: |
243 | |
244 @itemize @bullet | |
245 @item | |
246 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}). | |
247 | |
248 @item | |
249 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}). | |
250 | |
251 @item | |
252 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}). | |
253 @end itemize | |
254 | |
12098 | 255 Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local |
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256 Variables}) and frame-local bindings (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}); a |
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257 few variables have terminal-local bindings (@pxref{Multiple Displays}). |
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258 These kinds of bindings work somewhat like ordinary local bindings, but |
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259 they are localized depending on ``where'' you are in Emacs, rather than |
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260 localized in time. |
12098 | 261 |
56215 | 262 @defvar max-specpdl-size |
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263 @anchor{Definition of max-specpdl-size} |
6510 | 264 @cindex variable limit error |
265 @cindex evaluation error | |
266 @cindex infinite recursion | |
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267 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable |
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268 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Cleanups,, |
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269 Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits}) that are allowed before signaling an |
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270 error (with data @code{"Variable binding depth exceeds |
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271 max-specpdl-size"}). |
6510 | 272 |
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273 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way |
6510 | 274 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function. |
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275 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting. |
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276 @xref{Definition of max-lisp-eval-depth,, Eval}. |
6510 | 277 |
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278 The default value is 1000. Entry to the Lisp debugger increases the |
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279 value, if there is little room left, to make sure the debugger itself |
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280 has room to execute. |
6510 | 281 @end defvar |
282 | |
283 @node Void Variables | |
284 @section When a Variable is ``Void'' | |
285 @kindex void-variable | |
286 @cindex void variable | |
287 | |
288 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we | |
289 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the | |
290 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to | |
291 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than | |
292 a value. | |
293 | |
294 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol | |
295 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any | |
296 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not | |
297 have any value. | |
298 | |
299 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more | |
300 using @code{makunbound}. | |
301 | |
302 @defun makunbound symbol | |
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303 This function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void. |
6510 | 304 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal |
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305 the error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again. |
6510 | 306 |
307 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}. | |
308 | |
309 @example | |
310 @group | |
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311 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.} |
6510 | 312 @result{} x |
313 @end group | |
314 @group | |
315 x | |
316 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
317 @end group | |
318 @end example | |
319 | |
320 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most | |
321 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void | |
322 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings | |
323 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as | |
324 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from | |
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325 the construct that made it, the previous local or global binding is |
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326 reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly |
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327 reexposed binding was void all along. |
6510 | 328 |
329 @smallexample | |
330 @group | |
331 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.} | |
332 @result{} 1 | |
333 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
334 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.} | |
335 x) | |
336 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
337 @end group | |
338 @group | |
339 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.} | |
340 @result{} 1 | |
341 | |
342 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
343 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.} | |
344 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.} | |
345 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.} | |
346 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
347 @end group | |
348 | |
349 @group | |
350 (let ((x 2)) | |
351 (let ((x 3)) | |
352 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.} | |
353 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.} | |
354 @result{} 2 | |
355 @end group | |
356 @end smallexample | |
357 @end defun | |
358 | |
359 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is | |
360 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has | |
361 always been void. | |
362 | |
363 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is | |
364 currently void. | |
365 | |
366 @defun boundp variable | |
367 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void; | |
368 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns | |
369 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
370 | |
371 @smallexample | |
372 @group | |
373 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.} | |
374 @result{} nil | |
375 @end group | |
376 @group | |
377 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
378 (boundp 'abracadabra)) | |
379 @result{} t | |
380 @end group | |
381 @group | |
382 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.} | |
383 @result{} nil | |
384 @end group | |
385 @group | |
386 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.} | |
387 @result{} 5 | |
388 @end group | |
389 @group | |
390 (boundp 'abracadabra) | |
391 @result{} t | |
392 @end group | |
393 @end smallexample | |
394 @end defun | |
395 | |
396 @node Defining Variables | |
397 @section Defining Global Variables | |
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398 @cindex variable definition |
6510 | 399 |
400 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable | |
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401 with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst} |
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402 or @code{defvar}. |
6510 | 403 |
404 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform | |
405 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be | |
406 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system | |
407 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they | |
408 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and | |
409 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and | |
410 variables in a program. | |
411 | |
412 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily | |
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413 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the value |
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414 should ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a |
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415 variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar} |
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416 declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization: |
6510 | 417 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while |
418 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void. | |
419 | |
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420 @ignore |
6510 | 421 One would expect user option variables to be defined with |
422 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this | |
423 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded: | |
424 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is | |
425 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init | |
426 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For | |
427 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}. | |
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428 @end ignore |
6510 | 429 |
430 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
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431 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can also |
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432 initialize and document it. The definition informs a person reading |
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433 your code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set or |
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434 changed. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be |
6510 | 435 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}. |
436 | |
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437 If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar} |
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438 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol} |
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439 already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not even |
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440 evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value} |
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441 is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case. |
6510 | 442 |
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443 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, |
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444 @code{defvar} operates on the default value, which is buffer-independent, |
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445 not the current (buffer-local) binding. It sets the default value if |
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446 the default value is void. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. |
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447 |
12098 | 448 When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} in |
449 Emacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of | |
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450 @code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally, without |
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451 testing whether its value is void. |
6510 | 452 |
453 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation | |
454 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of | |
455 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is | |
456 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The | |
457 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property. | |
458 | |
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459 If the variable is a user option that users would want to set |
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460 interactively, you should use @samp{*} as the first character of |
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461 @var{doc-string}. This lets users set the variable conveniently using |
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462 the @code{set-variable} command. Note that you should nearly always |
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463 use @code{defcustom} instead of @code{defvar} to define these |
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464 variables, so that users can use @kbd{M-x customize} and related |
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465 commands to set them. @xref{Customization}. |
6510 | 466 |
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467 Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does not |
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468 initialize it: |
6510 | 469 |
470 @example | |
471 @group | |
472 (defvar foo) | |
473 @result{} foo | |
474 @end group | |
475 @end example | |
476 | |
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477 This example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and gives |
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478 it a documentation string: |
6510 | 479 |
480 @example | |
481 @group | |
482 (defvar bar 23 | |
483 "The normal weight of a bar.") | |
484 @result{} bar | |
485 @end group | |
486 @end example | |
487 | |
488 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar}, | |
489 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar} | |
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490 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an error |
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491 if it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.) |
6510 | 492 |
493 @example | |
494 @group | |
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495 (defvar bar (1+ nil) |
6510 | 496 "*The normal weight of a bar.") |
497 @result{} bar | |
498 @end group | |
499 @group | |
500 bar | |
501 @result{} 23 | |
502 @end group | |
503 @end example | |
504 | |
505 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form: | |
506 | |
507 @example | |
508 @group | |
509 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string}) | |
510 @equiv{} | |
511 (progn | |
512 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol})) | |
513 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value})) | |
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514 (if '@var{doc-string} |
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515 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string})) |
6510 | 516 '@var{symbol}) |
517 @end group | |
518 @end example | |
519 | |
520 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used | |
521 at top level in a file where its value does not matter. | |
522 @end defspec | |
523 | |
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524 @defspec defconst symbol value [doc-string] |
6510 | 525 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it. |
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526 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standard |
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527 global value, established here, that should not be changed by the user |
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528 or by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the |
6510 | 529 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}. |
530 | |
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531 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of |
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532 @var{symbol} to the result. If @var{symbol} does have a buffer-local |
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533 binding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} sets the default value, |
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534 not the buffer-local value. (But you should not be making |
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535 buffer-local bindings for a symbol that is defined with |
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536 @code{defconst}.) |
6510 | 537 |
538 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed | |
539 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding). | |
540 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory. | |
541 | |
542 @example | |
543 @group | |
544 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.") | |
545 @result{} pi | |
546 @end group | |
547 @group | |
548 (setq pi 3) | |
549 @result{} pi | |
550 @end group | |
551 @group | |
552 pi | |
553 @result{} 3 | |
554 @end group | |
555 @end example | |
556 @end defspec | |
557 | |
558 @defun user-variable-p variable | |
559 @cindex user option | |
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560 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a |
6510 | 561 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and |
562 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the | |
563 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.) | |
564 | |
27528 | 565 User option variables are distinguished from other variables either |
566 though being declared using @code{defcustom}@footnote{They may also be | |
567 declared equivalently in @file{cus-start.el}.} or by the first character | |
568 of their @code{variable-documentation} property. If the property exists | |
569 and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, then the variable | |
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570 is a user option. Aliases of user options are also user options. |
6510 | 571 @end defun |
572 | |
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573 @kindex variable-interactive |
6510 | 574 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property, |
12098 | 575 the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading the |
576 new value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it were | |
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577 specified in @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However, |
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578 this feature is largely obsoleted by @code{defcustom} |
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579 (@pxref{Customization}). |
6510 | 580 |
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581 @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special |
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582 forms are used while the variable has a local binding (made with |
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583 @code{let}, or a function argument), they set the local-binding's |
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584 value; the top-level binding is not changed. This is not what you |
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585 usually want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top level in |
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586 a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make sure to |
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587 load the file before making a local binding for the variable. |
6510 | 588 |
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589 @node Tips for Defining |
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590 @section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly |
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591 |
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592 When you define a variable whose value is a function, or a list of |
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593 functions, use a name that ends in @samp{-function} or |
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594 @samp{-functions}, respectively. |
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595 |
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596 There are several other variable name conventions; |
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597 here is a complete list: |
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598 |
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599 @table @samp |
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600 @item @dots{}-hook |
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601 The variable is a normal hook (@pxref{Hooks}). |
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602 |
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603 @item @dots{}-function |
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604 The value is a function. |
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605 |
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606 @item @dots{}-functions |
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607 The value is a list of functions. |
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608 |
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609 @item @dots{}-form |
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610 The value is a form (an expression). |
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611 |
37583 | 612 @item @dots{}-forms |
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613 The value is a list of forms (expressions). |
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614 |
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615 @item @dots{}-predicate |
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616 The value is a predicate---a function of one argument that returns |
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617 non-@code{nil} for ``good'' arguments and @code{nil} for ``bad'' |
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618 arguments. |
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619 |
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620 @item @dots{}-flag |
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621 The value is significant only as to whether it is @code{nil} or not. |
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622 |
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623 @item @dots{}-program |
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624 The value is a program name. |
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625 |
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626 @item @dots{}-command |
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627 The value is a whole shell command. |
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628 |
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629 @item @samp{}-switches |
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630 The value specifies options for a command. |
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631 @end table |
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632 |
37583 | 633 When you define a variable, always consider whether you should mark |
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634 it as ``risky''; see @ref{File Local Variables}. |
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635 |
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636 When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicated |
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637 value (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put the |
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638 entire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this: |
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639 |
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640 @example |
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641 (defvar my-mode-map |
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642 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) |
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643 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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644 @dots{} |
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645 map) |
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646 @var{docstring}) |
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647 @end example |
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648 |
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649 @noindent |
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650 This method has several benefits. First, if the user quits while |
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651 loading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized or |
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652 initialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized, |
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653 reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading the |
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654 file once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that is |
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655 important if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (such |
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656 as, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with |
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657 @kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely. |
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658 |
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659 Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage: |
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660 it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names the |
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661 variable. Here's a safe way to avoid that: |
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662 |
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663 @example |
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664 (defvar my-mode-map nil |
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665 @var{docstring}) |
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666 (unless my-mode-map |
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667 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) |
30502 | 668 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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669 @dots{} |
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670 (setq my-mode-map map))) |
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671 @end example |
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672 |
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673 @noindent |
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674 This has all the same advantages as putting the initialization inside |
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675 the @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once on |
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676 each form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable. |
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677 |
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678 But be careful not to write the code like this: |
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679 |
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680 @example |
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681 (defvar my-mode-map nil |
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682 @var{docstring}) |
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683 (unless my-mode-map |
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684 (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap)) |
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685 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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686 @dots{}) |
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687 @end example |
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688 |
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689 @noindent |
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690 This code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more than |
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691 one step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves the |
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692 variable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Once |
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693 that happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; it |
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694 will remain incomplete. |
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695 |
6510 | 696 @node Accessing Variables |
697 @section Accessing Variable Values | |
698 | |
699 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which | |
700 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the | |
701 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what | |
702 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which | |
703 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}. | |
704 | |
705 @defun symbol-value symbol | |
706 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in | |
707 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it | |
708 has no local bindings. | |
709 | |
710 @example | |
711 @group | |
712 (setq abracadabra 5) | |
713 @result{} 5 | |
714 @end group | |
715 @group | |
716 (setq foo 9) | |
717 @result{} 9 | |
718 @end group | |
719 | |
720 @group | |
721 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}} | |
722 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
723 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
724 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)) | |
725 @result{} foo | |
726 @end group | |
727 | |
728 @group | |
71995 | 729 ;; @r{Here, the value of @code{abracadabra},} |
6510 | 730 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},} |
731 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
732 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
733 (symbol-value abracadabra)) | |
734 @result{} 9 | |
735 @end group | |
736 | |
737 @group | |
738 (symbol-value 'abracadabra) | |
739 @result{} 5 | |
740 @end group | |
741 @end example | |
742 | |
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743 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of |
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744 @var{symbol} is void. |
6510 | 745 @end defun |
746 | |
747 @node Setting Variables | |
748 @section How to Alter a Variable Value | |
749 | |
750 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special | |
751 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at | |
752 run time, use the function @code{set}. | |
753 | |
754 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{} | |
755 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's | |
756 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of | |
757 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing | |
758 binding of the symbol is changed. | |
759 | |
760 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you | |
761 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The | |
762 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.'' | |
763 | |
764 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}. | |
765 | |
766 @example | |
767 @group | |
768 (setq x (1+ 2)) | |
769 @result{} 3 | |
770 @end group | |
771 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.} | |
772 @result{} 3 | |
773 @group | |
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774 (let ((x 5)) |
6510 | 775 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.} |
776 x) | |
777 @result{} 6 | |
778 @end group | |
779 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.} | |
780 @result{} 3 | |
781 @end example | |
782 | |
783 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first | |
784 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the | |
785 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on: | |
786 | |
787 @example | |
788 @group | |
789 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before} | |
790 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.} | |
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791 @result{} 11 |
6510 | 792 @end group |
793 @end example | |
794 @end defspec | |
795 | |
796 @defun set symbol value | |
797 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns | |
798 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for | |
799 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set. | |
800 | |
801 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is | |
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802 set; shadowed bindings are not affected. |
6510 | 803 |
804 @example | |
805 @group | |
806 (set one 1) | |
807 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one | |
808 @end group | |
809 @group | |
810 (set 'one 1) | |
811 @result{} 1 | |
812 @end group | |
813 @group | |
814 (set 'two 'one) | |
815 @result{} one | |
816 @end group | |
817 @group | |
818 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.} | |
819 @result{} 2 | |
820 @end group | |
821 @group | |
822 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.} | |
823 @result{} 2 | |
824 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,} | |
825 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.} | |
826 one) | |
827 @result{} 3 | |
828 @end group | |
829 @group | |
830 one | |
831 @result{} 2 | |
832 @end group | |
833 @end example | |
834 | |
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835 If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument} |
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836 error is signaled. |
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837 |
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838 @example |
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839 (set '(x y) 'z) |
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840 @error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y) |
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841 @end example |
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842 |
6510 | 843 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than |
844 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use | |
845 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the | |
846 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used; | |
7194
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847 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing |
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848 at run time which variable to set. For example, the command |
6510 | 849 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then |
850 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}. | |
851 | |
852 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local | |
853 @quotation | |
7194
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854 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the |
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855 symbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings. |
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856 In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set} |
6510 | 857 always affects the most local existing binding. |
858 @end quotation | |
859 @end defun | |
860 | |
12067 | 861 One other function for setting a variable is designed to add |
862 an element to a list if it is not already present in the list. | |
863 | |
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864 @defun add-to-list symbol element &optional append |
12067 | 865 This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by consing @var{element} |
866 onto the old value, if @var{element} is not already a member of that | |
12098 | 867 value. It returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. The |
868 value of @var{symbol} had better be a list already before the call. | |
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869 Membership is tested using @code{equal}. |
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870 |
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871 Normally, if @var{element} is added, it is added to the front of |
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872 @var{symbol}, but if the optional argument @var{append} is |
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873 non-@code{nil}, it is added at the end. |
12098 | 874 |
875 The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; @code{add-to-list} | |
876 is an ordinary function, like @code{set} and unlike @code{setq}. Quote | |
877 the argument yourself if that is what you want. | |
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878 @end defun |
12067 | 879 |
880 Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-list}: | |
881 | |
882 @example | |
883 (setq foo '(a b)) | |
884 @result{} (a b) | |
885 | |
886 (add-to-list 'foo 'c) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.} | |
887 @result{} (c a b) | |
888 | |
889 (add-to-list 'foo 'b) ;; @r{No effect.} | |
890 @result{} (c a b) | |
891 | |
892 foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.} | |
893 @result{} (c a b) | |
894 @end example | |
895 | |
896 An equivalent expression for @code{(add-to-list '@var{var} | |
897 @var{value})} is this: | |
898 | |
899 @example | |
900 (or (member @var{value} @var{var}) | |
901 (setq @var{var} (cons @var{value} @var{var}))) | |
902 @end example | |
903 | |
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904 @defun add-to-ordered-list symbol element &optional order |
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905 This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by inserting |
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906 @var{element} into the old value, which must be a list, at the |
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907 position specified by @var{order}. If @var{element} is already a |
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908 member of the list, its position in the list is adjusted according |
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909 to @var{order}. Membership is tested using @code{eq}. |
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910 This function returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. |
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911 |
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912 The @var{order} is typically a number (integer or float), and the |
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913 elements of the list are sorted in non-decreasing numerical order. |
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914 |
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915 @var{order} may also be omitted or @code{nil}. Then the numeric order |
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916 of @var{element} stays unchanged if it already has one; otherwise, |
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917 @var{element} has no numeric order. Elements without a numeric list |
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918 order are placed at the end of the list, in no particular order. |
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919 |
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920 Any other value for @var{order} removes the numeric order of @var{element} |
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921 if it already has one; otherwise, it is equivalent to @code{nil}. |
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922 |
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923 The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; |
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924 @code{add-to-ordered-list} is an ordinary function, like @code{set} |
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925 and unlike @code{setq}. Quote the argument yourself if that is what |
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926 you want. |
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927 |
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928 The ordering information is stored in a hash table on @var{symbol}'s |
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929 @code{list-order} property. |
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930 @end defun |
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931 |
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932 Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-ordered-list}: |
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933 |
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934 @example |
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935 (setq foo '()) |
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936 @result{} nil |
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937 |
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938 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'a 1) ;; @r{Add @code{a}.} |
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939 @result{} (a) |
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940 |
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941 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'c 3) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.} |
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942 @result{} (a c) |
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943 |
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944 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 2) ;; @r{Add @code{b}.} |
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945 @result{} (a b c) |
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946 |
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947 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'b 4) ;; @r{Move @code{b}.} |
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948 @result{} (a c b) |
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949 |
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950 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'd) ;; @r{Append @code{d}.} |
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951 @result{} (a c b d) |
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952 |
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953 (add-to-ordered-list 'foo 'e) ;; @r{Add @code{e}}. |
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954 @result{} (a c b e d) |
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955 |
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956 foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.} |
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957 @result{} (a c b e d) |
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958 @end example |
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959 |
6510 | 960 @node Variable Scoping |
961 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings | |
962 | |
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963 A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings, |
6510 | 964 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global |
965 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over | |
966 the others. | |
967 | |
968 @cindex scope | |
969 @cindex extent | |
970 @cindex dynamic scoping | |
52784 | 971 @cindex lexical scoping |
6510 | 972 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and |
973 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in | |
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974 the source code the binding can be accessed. ``Indefinite scope'' means |
6510 | 975 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable |
976 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is | |
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977 executing, the binding exists. ``Dynamic extent'' means that the binding |
6510 | 978 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it. |
979 | |
980 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called | |
981 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use | |
982 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be | |
983 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable. | |
984 | |
985 @cindex CL note---special variables | |
986 @quotation | |
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987 @b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp are |
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988 dynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp. |
6510 | 989 @end quotation |
990 | |
991 @menu | |
992 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible. | |
993 Comparison with other languages. | |
994 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists. | |
995 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping. | |
996 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems. | |
997 @end menu | |
998 | |
999 @node Scope | |
1000 @subsection Scope | |
1001 | |
1002 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings. | |
1003 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a | |
1004 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function | |
1005 definitions: | |
1006 | |
1007 @example | |
1008 @group | |
1009 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.} | |
1010 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.} | |
1011 @end group | |
1012 | |
1013 @group | |
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1014 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.} |
6510 | 1015 (list x)) |
1016 @end group | |
1017 @end example | |
1018 | |
1019 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in | |
1020 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because | |
1021 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function | |
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1022 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically-scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user} |
6510 | 1023 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in |
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1024 @code{binder}, depending on the circumstances: |
6510 | 1025 |
1026 @itemize @bullet | |
1027 @item | |
1028 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all, | |
1029 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from | |
1030 @code{binder}. | |
1031 | |
1032 @item | |
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1033 If we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then the |
6510 | 1034 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}: |
1035 | |
1036 @example | |
1037 @group | |
1038 (defun foo (lose) | |
1039 (user)) | |
1040 @end group | |
1041 @end example | |
1042 | |
1043 @item | |
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1044 However, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, |
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1045 then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in |
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1046 @code{user}: |
6510 | 1047 |
1048 @example | |
1049 (defun foo (x) | |
1050 (user)) | |
1051 @end example | |
1052 | |
1053 @noindent | |
1054 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}. | |
1055 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in | |
1056 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound | |
1057 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}. | |
1058 @end itemize | |
1059 | |
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1060 Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of |
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1061 lexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offer |
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1062 dynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm, |
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1063 there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particular |
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1064 variable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, but |
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1065 implementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier. |
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1066 |
6510 | 1067 @node Extent |
1068 @subsection Extent | |
1069 | |
1070 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a | |
1071 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while | |
1072 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic | |
1073 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages, | |
1074 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent. | |
1075 | |
1076 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This | |
1077 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form | |
1078 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support | |
1079 this, but Emacs Lisp does not. | |
1080 | |
1081 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a | |
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1082 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. This |
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1083 would work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp, |
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1084 because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n} |
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1085 is no longer bound to the actual argument 2. |
6510 | 1086 |
1087 @example | |
1088 (defun make-add (n) | |
1089 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.} | |
1090 @result{} make-add | |
1091 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}} | |
1092 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.} | |
1093 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m)) | |
1094 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.} | |
1095 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n | |
1096 @end example | |
1097 | |
1098 @cindex closures not available | |
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1099 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures,'' objects that are like functions |
6510 | 1100 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have |
1101 closures. | |
1102 | |
1103 @node Impl of Scope | |
1104 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping | |
1105 @cindex deep binding | |
1106 | |
1107 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually | |
1108 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is | |
1109 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems. | |
1110 | |
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1111 Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs. |
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1112 At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings |
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1113 onto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. We |
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1114 can pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the binding |
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1115 construct. |
6510 | 1116 |
1117 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to | |
1118 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is | |
1119 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the | |
1120 current binding, then store the new value into that binding. | |
1121 | |
1122 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it | |
1123 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is | |
1124 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function | |
1125 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the | |
1126 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite. | |
1127 | |
1128 @cindex shallow binding | |
1129 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a | |
1130 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard | |
1131 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the | |
1132 symbol. | |
1133 | |
1134 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in | |
1135 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value | |
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1136 (belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the new |
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1137 local value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping |
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1138 the old value off the stack, into the value cell. |
6510 | 1139 |
1140 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep | |
1141 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a | |
1142 binding. | |
1143 | |
1144 @node Using Scoping | |
1145 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping | |
1146 | |
1147 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a | |
1148 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs | |
1149 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique: | |
1150 | |
1151 @itemize @bullet | |
1152 @item | |
1153 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close | |
1154 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within | |
1155 one program. | |
1156 | |
1157 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see | |
1158 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses | |
1159 elsewhere. | |
1160 | |
1161 @item | |
1162 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all | |
1163 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever | |
1164 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable | |
1165 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case | |
1166 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it | |
1167 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it. | |
1168 | |
1169 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what | |
1170 the effect will be. | |
1171 @end itemize | |
1172 | |
12098 | 1173 In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}. |
1174 This helps other people understand your program by telling them to look | |
1175 for inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the byte | |
1176 compiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don't | |
1177 use short names like @code{x}. | |
1178 | |
6510 | 1179 @node Buffer-Local Variables |
1180 @section Buffer-Local Variables | |
1181 @cindex variables, buffer-local | |
1182 @cindex buffer-local variables | |
1183 | |
1184 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming | |
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1185 languages in one form or another. Emacs, however, also supports additional, |
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1186 unusual kinds of variable binding: @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which |
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1187 apply only in one buffer, and @dfn{frame-local} bindings, which apply only in |
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1188 one frame. Having different values for a variable in different buffers |
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1189 and/or frames is an important customization method. |
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1190 |
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1191 This section describes buffer-local bindings; for frame-local |
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1192 bindings, see the following section, @ref{Frame-Local Variables}. (A few |
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1193 variables have bindings that are local to each terminal; see |
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1194 @ref{Multiple Displays}.) |
6510 | 1195 |
1196 @menu | |
1197 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts. | |
1198 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings. | |
1199 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers | |
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1200 that don't have their own buffer-local values. |
6510 | 1201 @end menu |
1202 | |
1203 @node Intro to Buffer-Local | |
1204 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables | |
1205 | |
1206 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a | |
1207 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is | |
1208 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while | |
1209 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding, | |
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1210 so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change is |
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1211 visible only in the buffer where you made it. |
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1212 |
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1213 The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with any |
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1214 specific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases, |
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1215 this is the global binding. |
6510 | 1216 |
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1217 A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in |
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1218 other buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers that |
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1219 don't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes all |
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1220 newly-created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that does |
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1221 not have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding |
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1222 (assuming there are no frame-local bindings to complicate the matter), |
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1223 so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the default |
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1224 binding. |
6510 | 1225 |
1226 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change | |
1227 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and | |
1228 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only | |
1229 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable | |
1230 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and | |
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1231 then setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}. |
6510 | 1232 |
1233 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with | |
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1234 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typically |
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1235 use. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including |
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1236 those yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unless |
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1237 they are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings. |
6510 | 1238 |
1239 @cindex automatically buffer-local | |
1240 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as | |
1241 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling | |
1242 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the | |
1243 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More | |
1244 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes | |
1245 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All | |
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1246 buffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual, |
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1247 but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the current |
6510 | 1248 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving |
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1249 the default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannot |
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1250 be changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it is |
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1251 with @code{setq-default}. |
6510 | 1252 |
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1253 @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local or frame-local |
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1254 bindings in one or more buffers, @code{let} rebinds the binding that's |
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1255 currently in effect. For instance, if the current buffer has a |
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1256 buffer-local value, @code{let} temporarily rebinds that. If no |
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1257 buffer-local or frame-local bindings are in effect, @code{let} rebinds |
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1258 the default value. If inside the @code{let} you then change to a |
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1259 different current buffer in which a different binding is in effect, |
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1260 you won't see the @code{let} binding any more. And if you exit the |
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1261 @code{let} while still in the other buffer, you won't see the |
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1262 unbinding occur (though it will occur properly). Here is an example |
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1263 to illustrate: |
6510 | 1264 |
1265 @example | |
1266 @group | |
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1267 (setq foo 'g) |
6510 | 1268 (set-buffer "a") |
1269 (make-local-variable 'foo) | |
1270 @end group | |
1271 (setq foo 'a) | |
1272 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
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1273 ;; foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{let binding in buffer @samp{a}} |
6510 | 1274 (set-buffer "b") |
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1275 ;; foo @result{} 'g ; @r{the global value since foo is not local in @samp{b}} |
12098 | 1276 @var{body}@dots{}) |
6510 | 1277 @group |
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1278 foo @result{} 'g ; @r{exiting restored the local value in buffer @samp{a},} |
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1279 ; @r{but we don't see that in buffer @samp{b}} |
6510 | 1280 @end group |
1281 @group | |
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1282 (set-buffer "a") ; @r{verify the local value was restored} |
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1283 foo @result{} 'a |
6510 | 1284 @end group |
1285 @end example | |
1286 | |
1287 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the | |
1288 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}. | |
1289 | |
1290 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local | |
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1291 values when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, The |
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1292 GNU Emacs Manual}. |
6510 | 1293 |
1294 @node Creating Buffer-Local | |
1295 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings | |
1296 | |
1297 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable | |
1298 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for | |
1299 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value | |
1300 returned is @var{variable}. | |
1301 | |
1302 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1303 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value | |
1304 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains | |
1305 void. | |
1306 | |
1307 @example | |
1308 @group | |
1309 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:} | |
1310 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.} | |
1311 @result{} 5 | |
1312 @end group | |
1313 @group | |
1314 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.} | |
1315 @result{} foo | |
1316 @end group | |
1317 @group | |
1318 foo ; @r{That did not change} | |
1319 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.} | |
1320 @end group | |
1321 @group | |
1322 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value} | |
1323 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.} | |
1324 @end group | |
1325 @group | |
1326 foo | |
1327 @result{} 6 | |
1328 @end group | |
1329 | |
1330 @group | |
1331 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.} | |
1332 (save-excursion | |
1333 (set-buffer "b2") | |
1334 foo) | |
1335 @result{} 5 | |
1336 @end group | |
1337 @end example | |
8214 | 1338 |
1339 Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that | |
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1340 variable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do this |
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1341 is not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This is |
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1342 because @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds of |
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1343 bindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for. |
12067 | 1344 |
12098 | 1345 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error. Such |
1346 variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. @xref{Multiple | |
1347 Displays}. | |
1348 | |
52626 | 1349 @strong{Warning:} do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hook |
1350 variable. The hook variables are automatically made buffer-local as | |
1351 needed if you use the @var{local} argument to @code{add-hook} or | |
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1352 @code{remove-hook}. |
6510 | 1353 @end deffn |
1354 | |
1355 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable | |
1356 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically | |
1357 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it | |
1358 local to the current buffer at the time. | |
1359 | |
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1360 A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with |
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1361 @code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-local |
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1362 binding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or |
52994
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1363 @code{setq}), while the variable does not have a @code{let}-style |
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1364 binding that was made in the current buffer, does so. |
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1365 |
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1366 If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling this |
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1367 command will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable} |
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1368 already has a default value, that value remains unchanged. |
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1369 Subsequently calling @code{makunbound} on @var{variable} will result |
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1370 in a void buffer-local value and leave the default value unaffected. |
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1371 |
6510 | 1372 The value returned is @var{variable}. |
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1373 |
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1374 @strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use |
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1375 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simply |
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1376 because users @emph{might} want to customize them differently in |
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1377 different buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wish |
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1378 to. It is better to leave the choice to them. |
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1379 |
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1380 The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucial |
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1381 that no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when a |
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1382 variable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which depends |
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1383 on having separate values in separate buffers, then using |
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1384 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution. |
6510 | 1385 @end deffn |
1386 | |
12098 | 1387 @defun local-variable-p variable &optional buffer |
1388 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer | |
1389 @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise, | |
1390 @code{nil}. | |
1391 @end defun | |
1392 | |
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1393 @defun local-variable-if-set-p variable &optional buffer |
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1394 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} will become buffer-local in |
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1395 buffer @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer) if it is |
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1396 set there. |
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1397 @end defun |
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1398 |
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1399 @defun buffer-local-value variable buffer |
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1400 This function returns the buffer-local binding of @var{variable} (a |
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1401 symbol) in buffer @var{buffer}. If @var{variable} does not have a |
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1402 buffer-local binding in buffer @var{buffer}, it returns the default |
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1403 value (@pxref{Default Value}) of @var{variable} instead. |
51916
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1404 @end defun |
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1405 |
6510 | 1406 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer |
1407 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in | |
21682
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1408 buffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer is |
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1409 used.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) in |
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1410 which each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value. |
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1411 However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void, |
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1412 then the variable appears directly in the resulting list. |
6510 | 1413 |
1414 @example | |
1415 @group | |
1416 (make-local-variable 'foobar) | |
1417 (makunbound 'foobar) | |
1418 (make-local-variable 'bind-me) | |
1419 (setq bind-me 69) | |
1420 @end group | |
1421 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables)) | |
1422 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:} | |
1423 @result{} ((mark-active . nil) | |
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1424 (buffer-undo-list . nil) |
6510 | 1425 (mode-name . "Fundamental") |
1426 @dots{} | |
1427 @group | |
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1428 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.} |
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1429 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:} |
6510 | 1430 foobar |
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1431 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:} |
6510 | 1432 (bind-me . 69)) |
1433 @end group | |
1434 @end example | |
1435 | |
1436 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this | |
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1437 list does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables. |
6510 | 1438 @end defun |
1439 | |
1440 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable | |
1441 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for | |
1442 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the | |
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1443 default binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. This |
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1444 typically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since the |
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1445 default value is usually different from the buffer-local value just |
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1446 eliminated. |
6510 | 1447 |
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1448 If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automatically |
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1449 becomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible in |
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1450 the current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will |
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1451 once again create a buffer-local binding for it. |
6510 | 1452 |
1453 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}. | |
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1454 |
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1455 This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one |
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1456 buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create |
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1457 buffer-local variables interactively. |
6510 | 1458 @end deffn |
1459 | |
1460 @defun kill-all-local-variables | |
1461 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the | |
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1462 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent.'' As a |
6510 | 1463 result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables. |
1464 | |
1465 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the | |
1466 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the | |
22138
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1467 value of @code{(standard-syntax-table)}, the case table to |
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1468 @code{(standard-case-table)}, and the abbrev table to the value of |
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1469 @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}. |
6510 | 1470 |
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1471 The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook |
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1472 @code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below). |
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1473 |
6510 | 1474 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the |
1475 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects | |
1476 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the | |
1477 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent. | |
1478 | |
1479 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}. | |
1480 @end defun | |
1481 | |
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1482 @defvar change-major-mode-hook |
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1483 The function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hook |
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1484 before it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrange |
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1485 for something special to be done if the user switches to a different |
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1486 major mode. It is also useful for buffer-specific minor modes |
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1487 that should be forgotten if the user changes the major mode. |
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1488 |
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1489 For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that it will |
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1490 disappear after doing its job and will not interfere with the |
21682
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1491 subsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}. |
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1492 @end defvar |
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1493 |
6510 | 1494 @c Emacs 19 feature |
1495 @cindex permanent local variable | |
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1496 A buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a |
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1497 symbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}. |
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1498 Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file |
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1499 came from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents. |
6510 | 1500 |
1501 @node Default Value | |
1502 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable | |
1503 @cindex default value | |
1504 | |
1505 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also | |
1506 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in | |
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1507 effect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame has |
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1508 its own binding for the variable. |
6510 | 1509 |
1510 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and | |
1511 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current | |
1512 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use | |
1513 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of | |
1514 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when | |
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1515 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for |
6510 | 1516 this variable. |
1517 | |
1518 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1519 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the | |
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1520 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any |
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1521 buffer-local or frame-local value. |
6510 | 1522 |
1523 @defun default-value symbol | |
1524 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value | |
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1525 that is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values for |
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1526 this variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent |
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1527 to @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}). |
6510 | 1528 @end defun |
1529 | |
1530 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
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1531 @defun default-boundp symbol |
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1532 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s |
6510 | 1533 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns |
1534 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error. | |
1535 | |
1536 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to | |
1537 @code{symbol-value}. | |
1538 @end defun | |
1539 | |
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1540 @defspec setq-default [symbol form]@dots{} |
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1541 This special form gives each @var{symbol} a new default value, which is |
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1542 the result of evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. It does not |
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1543 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{form}. The value of the |
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1544 @code{setq-default} form is the value of the last @var{form}. |
6510 | 1545 |
1546 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not | |
1547 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same | |
1548 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current | |
1549 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long | |
1550 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the | |
1551 current buffer sees. | |
1552 | |
1553 @example | |
1554 @group | |
1555 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
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1556 (make-local-variable 'buffer-local) |
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1557 @result{} buffer-local |
6510 | 1558 @end group |
1559 @group | |
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1560 (setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo) |
6510 | 1561 @result{} value-in-foo |
1562 @end group | |
1563 @group | |
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1564 (setq-default buffer-local 'new-default) |
6510 | 1565 @result{} new-default |
1566 @end group | |
1567 @group | |
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1568 buffer-local |
6510 | 1569 @result{} value-in-foo |
1570 @end group | |
1571 @group | |
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1572 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1573 @result{} new-default |
1574 @end group | |
1575 | |
1576 @group | |
1577 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:} | |
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1578 buffer-local |
6510 | 1579 @result{} new-default |
1580 @end group | |
1581 @group | |
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1582 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1583 @result{} new-default |
1584 @end group | |
1585 @group | |
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1586 (setq buffer-local 'another-default) |
6510 | 1587 @result{} another-default |
1588 @end group | |
1589 @group | |
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1590 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1591 @result{} another-default |
1592 @end group | |
1593 | |
1594 @group | |
1595 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
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1596 buffer-local |
6510 | 1597 @result{} value-in-foo |
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1598 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1599 @result{} another-default |
1600 @end group | |
1601 @end example | |
1602 @end defspec | |
1603 | |
1604 @defun set-default symbol value | |
1605 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is | |
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1606 an ordinary evaluated argument. |
6510 | 1607 |
1608 @example | |
1609 @group | |
1610 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23) | |
1611 @result{} 23 | |
1612 @end group | |
1613 @group | |
1614 (default-value 'a) | |
1615 @result{} 23 | |
1616 @end group | |
1617 @end example | |
1618 @end defun | |
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1619 |
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1620 @node Frame-Local Variables |
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1621 @section Frame-Local Variables |
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1622 |
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1623 Just as variables can have buffer-local bindings, they can also have |
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1624 frame-local bindings. These bindings belong to one frame, and are in |
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1625 effect when that frame is selected. Frame-local bindings are actually |
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1626 frame parameters: you create a frame-local binding in a specific frame |
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1627 by calling @code{modify-frame-parameters} and specifying the variable |
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1628 name as the parameter name. |
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1629 |
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1630 To enable frame-local bindings for a certain variable, call the function |
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1631 @code{make-variable-frame-local}. |
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1632 |
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1633 @deffn Command make-variable-frame-local variable |
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1634 Enable the use of frame-local bindings for @var{variable}. This does |
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1635 not in itself create any frame-local bindings for the variable; however, |
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1636 if some frame already has a value for @var{variable} as a frame |
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1637 parameter, that value automatically becomes a frame-local binding. |
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1638 |
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1639 If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling this |
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1640 command will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable} |
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1641 already has a default value, that value remains unchanged. |
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1642 |
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1643 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error, |
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1644 because such variables cannot have frame-local bindings as well. |
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1645 @xref{Multiple Displays}. A few variables that are implemented |
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1646 specially in Emacs can be buffer-local, but can never be frame-local. |
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1647 |
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1648 This command returns @var{variable}. |
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1649 @end deffn |
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1650 |
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1651 Buffer-local bindings take precedence over frame-local bindings. Thus, |
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1652 consider a variable @code{foo}: if the current buffer has a buffer-local |
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1653 binding for @code{foo}, that binding is active; otherwise, if the |
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1654 selected frame has a frame-local binding for @code{foo}, that binding is |
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1655 active; otherwise, the default binding of @code{foo} is active. |
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1656 |
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1657 Here is an example. First we prepare a few bindings for @code{foo}: |
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1658 |
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1659 @example |
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1660 (setq f1 (selected-frame)) |
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1661 (make-variable-frame-local 'foo) |
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1662 |
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1663 ;; @r{Make a buffer-local binding for @code{foo} in @samp{b1}.} |
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1664 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1665 (make-local-variable 'foo) |
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1666 (setq foo '(b 1)) |
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1667 |
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1668 ;; @r{Make a frame-local binding for @code{foo} in a new frame.} |
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1669 ;; @r{Store that frame in @code{f2}.} |
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1670 (setq f2 (make-frame)) |
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1671 (modify-frame-parameters f2 '((foo . (f 2)))) |
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1672 @end example |
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1673 |
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1674 Now we examine @code{foo} in various contexts. Whenever the |
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1675 buffer @samp{b1} is current, its buffer-local binding is in effect, |
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1676 regardless of the selected frame: |
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1677 |
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1678 @example |
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1679 (select-frame f1) |
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1680 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1681 foo |
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1682 @result{} (b 1) |
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1683 |
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1684 (select-frame f2) |
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1685 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1686 foo |
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1687 @result{} (b 1) |
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1688 @end example |
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1689 |
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1690 @noindent |
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1691 Otherwise, the frame gets a chance to provide the binding; when frame |
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1692 @code{f2} is selected, its frame-local binding is in effect: |
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1693 |
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1694 @example |
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1695 (select-frame f2) |
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1696 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1697 foo |
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1698 @result{} (f 2) |
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1699 @end example |
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1700 |
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1701 @noindent |
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1702 When neither the current buffer nor the selected frame provides |
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1703 a binding, the default binding is used: |
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1704 |
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1705 @example |
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1706 (select-frame f1) |
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1707 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1708 foo |
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1709 @result{} nil |
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1710 @end example |
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1711 |
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1712 @noindent |
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1713 When the active binding of a variable is a frame-local binding, setting |
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1714 the variable changes that binding. You can observe the result with |
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1715 @code{frame-parameters}: |
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1716 |
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|
1717 @example |
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1718 (select-frame f2) |
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1719 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1720 (setq foo 'nobody) |
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1721 (assq 'foo (frame-parameters f2)) |
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1722 @result{} (foo . nobody) |
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1723 @end example |
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1724 |
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1725 @node Future Local Variables |
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1726 @section Possible Future Local Variables |
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1727 |
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1728 We have considered the idea of bindings that are local to a category |
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1729 of frames---for example, all color frames, or all frames with dark |
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1730 backgrounds. We have not implemented them because it is not clear that |
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|
1731 this feature is really useful. You can get more or less the same |
32596
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Obsolete variable `after-make-frame-hook'.
Kai Großjohann <kgrossjo@eu.uu.net>
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|
1732 results by adding a function to @code{after-make-frame-functions}, set up to |
21682
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1733 define a particular frame parameter according to the appropriate |
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1734 conditions for each frame. |
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1735 |
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1736 It would also be possible to implement window-local bindings. We |
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1737 don't know of many situations where they would be useful, and it seems |
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1738 that indirect buffers (@pxref{Indirect Buffers}) with buffer-local |
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1739 bindings offer a way to handle these situations more robustly. |
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1740 |
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1741 If sufficient application is found for either of these two kinds of |
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1742 local bindings, we will provide it in a subsequent Emacs version. |
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1743 |
62367 | 1744 @node File Local Variables |
1745 @section File Local Variables | |
1746 | |
71941
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1747 A file can specify local variable values; Emacs uses these to create |
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1748 buffer-local bindings for those variables in the buffer visiting that |
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1749 file. @xref{File variables, , Local Variables in Files, emacs, The |
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1750 GNU Emacs Manual}, for basic information about file local variables. |
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1751 This section describes the functions and variables that affect |
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1752 processing of file local variables. |
62367 | 1753 |
1754 @defopt enable-local-variables | |
1755 This variable controls whether to process file local variables. A | |
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1756 value of @code{t} means to process them, querying the user if unsafe |
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* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Document new file local
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1757 variables are encountered; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else |
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1758 means to query the user for each file. The default value is @code{t}. |
62367 | 1759 @end defopt |
1760 | |
1761 @defun hack-local-variables &optional mode-only | |
1762 This function parses, and binds or evaluates as appropriate, any local | |
1763 variables specified by the contents of the current buffer. The variable | |
1764 @code{enable-local-variables} has its effect here. However, this | |
1765 function does not look for the @samp{mode:} local variable in the | |
1766 @w{@samp{-*-}} line. @code{set-auto-mode} does that, also taking | |
1767 @code{enable-local-variables} into account (@pxref{Auto Major Mode}). | |
1768 | |
1769 If the optional argument @var{mode-only} is non-@code{nil}, then all | |
1770 this function does is return @code{t} if the @w{@samp{-*-}} line or | |
1771 the local variables list specifies a mode and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1772 It does not set the mode nor any other file local variable. | |
1773 @end defun | |
1774 | |
1775 If a file local variable could specify a function that would | |
1776 be called later, or an expression that would be executed later, simply | |
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|
1777 visiting a file could take over your Emacs. Emacs takes several |
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* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Document new file local
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|
1778 measures to prevent this. |
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1779 |
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|
1780 @cindex safe local variable |
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|
1781 You can specify safe values for a variable with a |
70273
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(File Local Variables): Remove the special case t for safe-local-variable.
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|
1782 @code{safe-local-variable} property. The property has to be |
693f5a9250ca
(File Local Variables): Remove the special case t for safe-local-variable.
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|
1783 a function of one argument; any value is safe if the function |
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(File Local Variables): Remove the special case t for safe-local-variable.
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|
1784 returns non-@code{nil} given that value. Many commonly encountered |
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(File Local Variables): Remove the special case t for safe-local-variable.
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|
1785 file variables standardly have @code{safe-local-variable} properties, |
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(File Local Variables): Remove the special case t for safe-local-variable.
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|
1786 including @code{fill-column}, @code{fill-prefix}, and |
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(File Local Variables): Suggest using booleanp.
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|
1787 @code{indent-tabs-mode}. For boolean-valued variables that are safe, |
70569
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(File Local Variables): Recommend to quote lambda
Reiner Steib <Reiner.Steib@gmx.de>
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|
1788 use @code{booleanp} as the property value. Lambda expressions should |
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(File Local Variables): Recommend to quote lambda
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1789 be quoted so that @code{describe-variable} can display the predicate. |
62367 | 1790 |
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* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Document new file local
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1791 @defopt safe-local-variable-values |
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1792 This variable provides another way to mark some variable values as |
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1793 safe. It is a list of cons cells @code{(@var{var} . @var{val})}, |
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1794 where @var{var} is a variable name and @var{val} is a value which is |
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|
1795 safe for that variable. |
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|
1796 |
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|
1797 When Emacs asks the user whether or not to obey a set of file local |
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|
1798 variable specifications, the user can choose to mark them as safe. |
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|
1799 Doing so adds those variable/value pairs to |
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|
1800 @code{safe-local-variable-values}, and saves it to the user's custom |
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|
1801 file. |
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|
1802 @end defopt |
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|
1803 |
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|
1804 @defun safe-local-variable-p sym val |
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* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Document new file local
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|
1805 This function returns non-@code{nil} if it is safe to give @var{sym} |
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|
1806 the value @var{val}, based on the above criteria. |
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1807 @end defun |
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1808 |
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|
1809 @cindex risky local variable |
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|
1810 Some variables are considered @dfn{risky}. A variable whose name |
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|
1811 ends in any of @samp{-command}, @samp{-frame-alist}, @samp{-function}, |
63584
5565eb3af021
Fix formatting ugliness.
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|
1812 @samp{-functions}, @samp{-hook}, @samp{-hooks}, @samp{-form}, |
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Fix formatting ugliness.
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|
1813 @samp{-forms}, @samp{-map}, @samp{-map-alist}, @samp{-mode-alist}, |
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|
1814 @samp{-program}, or @samp{-predicate} is considered risky. The |
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* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Document new file local
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|
1815 variables @samp{font-lock-keywords}, @samp{font-lock-keywords} |
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|
1816 followed by a digit, and @samp{font-lock-syntactic-keywords} are also |
68b8fcd1410c
* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Document new file local
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|
1817 considered risky. Finally, any variable whose name has a |
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|
1818 non-@code{nil} @code{risky-local-variable} property is considered |
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* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Document new file local
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|
1819 risky. |
62367 | 1820 |
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1821 @defun risky-local-variable-p sym |
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1822 This function returns non-@code{nil} if @var{sym} is a risky variable, |
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1823 based on the above criteria. |
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1824 @end defun |
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|
1825 |
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|
1826 If a variable is risky, it will not be entered automatically into |
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1827 @code{safe-local-variable-values} as described above. Therefore, |
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1828 Emacs will always query before setting a risky variable, unless the |
68916
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|
1829 user explicitly allows the setting by customizing |
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1830 @code{safe-local-variable-values} directly. |
62367 | 1831 |
1832 @defvar ignored-local-variables | |
1833 This variable holds a list of variables that should not be given local | |
1834 values by files. Any value specified for one of these variables is | |
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|
1835 completely ignored. |
62367 | 1836 @end defvar |
1837 | |
1838 The @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' is also a potential loophole, so Emacs | |
1839 normally asks for confirmation before handling it. | |
1840 | |
1841 @defopt enable-local-eval | |
1842 This variable controls processing of @samp{Eval:} in @samp{-*-} lines | |
1843 or local variables | |
1844 lists in files being visited. A value of @code{t} means process them | |
1845 unconditionally; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else means ask | |
1846 the user what to do for each file. The default value is @code{maybe}. | |
1847 @end defopt | |
1848 | |
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1849 @defopt safe-local-eval-forms |
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1850 This variable holds a list of expressions that are safe to |
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|
1851 evaluate when found in the @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' in a file |
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|
1852 local variables list. |
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|
1853 @end defopt |
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|
1854 |
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|
1855 If the expression is a function call and the function has a |
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|
1856 @code{safe-local-eval-function} property, the property value |
c53461da6760
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|
1857 determines whether the expression is safe to evaluate. The property |
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|
1858 value can be a predicate to call to test the expression, a list of |
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|
1859 such predicates (it's safe if any predicate succeeds), or @code{t} |
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|
1860 (always safe provided the arguments are constant). |
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|
1861 |
62367 | 1862 Text properties are also potential loopholes, since their values |
1863 could include functions to call. So Emacs discards all text | |
1864 properties from string values specified for file local variables. | |
1865 | |
39571
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1866 @node Variable Aliases |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1867 @section Variable Aliases |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1868 |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1869 It is sometimes useful to make two variables synonyms, so that both |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1870 variables always have the same value, and changing either one also |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1871 changes the other. Whenever you change the name of a |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1872 variable---either because you realize its old name was not well |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1873 chosen, or because its meaning has partly changed---it can be useful |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1874 to keep the old name as an @emph{alias} of the new one for |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1875 compatibility. You can do this with @code{defvaralias}. |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1876 |
63478
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1877 @defun defvaralias new-alias base-variable &optional docstring |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1878 This function defines the symbol @var{new-alias} as a variable alias |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1879 for symbol @var{base-variable}. This means that retrieving the value of |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1880 @var{new-alias} returns the value of @var{base-variable}, and changing the |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1881 value of @var{new-alias} changes the value of @var{base-variable}. |
46391
5d5a55d8897b
Document third argument of defvaralias.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
45276
diff
changeset
|
1882 |
51916
f7b97d07a39c
(Creating Buffer-Local): Add buffer-local-value.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
51703
diff
changeset
|
1883 If the @var{docstring} argument is non-@code{nil}, it specifies the |
63478
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1884 documentation for @var{new-alias}; otherwise, the alias gets the same |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1885 documentation as @var{base-variable} has, if any, unless |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1886 @var{base-variable} is itself an alias, in which case @var{new-alias} gets |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1887 the documentation of the variable at the end of the chain of aliases. |
52994
d0f419e4965f
(Defining Variables): Second argument to `defconst' is not optional.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
52784
diff
changeset
|
1888 |
63478
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1889 This function returns @var{base-variable}. |
46401
0616af8d6d42
Fix reference to `defvaralias' as a macro.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
46392
diff
changeset
|
1890 @end defun |
39571
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
diff
changeset
|
1891 |
62058
7276665dac33
Follow whitespace conventions.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
62020
diff
changeset
|
1892 Variable aliases are convenient for replacing an old name for a |
61852
48375a96a41a
(Variable Aliases): Clarify text.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
61729
diff
changeset
|
1893 variable with a new name. @code{make-obsolete-variable} declares that |
48375a96a41a
(Variable Aliases): Clarify text.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
61729
diff
changeset
|
1894 the old name is obsolete and therefore that it may be removed at some |
48375a96a41a
(Variable Aliases): Clarify text.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
61729
diff
changeset
|
1895 stage in the future. |
61729
bd6904d99629
(Variable Aliases): Describe make-obsolete-variable
Nick Roberts <nickrob@snap.net.nz>
parents:
60048
diff
changeset
|
1896 |
63478
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1897 @defun make-obsolete-variable obsolete-name current-name &optional when |
62020
846493e4a4fa
(Variable Aliases): `make-obsolete-variable' is a function and not a macro.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
61859
diff
changeset
|
1898 This function makes the byte-compiler warn that the variable |
63478
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1899 @var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, it is |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1900 the variable's new name; then the warning message says to use |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1901 @var{current-name} instead of @var{obsolete-name}. If @var{current-name} |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
diff
changeset
|
1902 is a string, this is the message and there is no replacement variable. |
61852
48375a96a41a
(Variable Aliases): Clarify text.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
61729
diff
changeset
|
1903 |
48375a96a41a
(Variable Aliases): Clarify text.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
61729
diff
changeset
|
1904 If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the |
48375a96a41a
(Variable Aliases): Clarify text.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
61729
diff
changeset
|
1905 variable was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release |
48375a96a41a
(Variable Aliases): Clarify text.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
61729
diff
changeset
|
1906 number. |
62020
846493e4a4fa
(Variable Aliases): `make-obsolete-variable' is a function and not a macro.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
61859
diff
changeset
|
1907 @end defun |
61729
bd6904d99629
(Variable Aliases): Describe make-obsolete-variable
Nick Roberts <nickrob@snap.net.nz>
parents:
60048
diff
changeset
|
1908 |
62058
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Follow whitespace conventions.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
62020
diff
changeset
|
1909 You can make two variables synonyms and declare one obsolete at the |
61729
bd6904d99629
(Variable Aliases): Describe make-obsolete-variable
Nick Roberts <nickrob@snap.net.nz>
parents:
60048
diff
changeset
|
1910 same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-variable-alias}. |
bd6904d99629
(Variable Aliases): Describe make-obsolete-variable
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parents:
60048
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changeset
|
1911 |
63478
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parents:
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changeset
|
1912 @defmac define-obsolete-variable-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring |
755286b69925
(Variable Aliases): Update argument names of `defvaralias',
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents:
62367
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changeset
|
1913 This macro marks the variable @var{obsolete-name} as obsolete and also |
63584
5565eb3af021
Fix formatting ugliness.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
63478
diff
changeset
|
1914 makes it an alias for the variable @var{current-name}. It is |
5565eb3af021
Fix formatting ugliness.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
63478
diff
changeset
|
1915 equivalent to the following: |
62098
bc3a702b646e
(Variable Aliases): Change description of `define-obsolete-variable-alias'.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
62058
diff
changeset
|
1916 |
bc3a702b646e
(Variable Aliases): Change description of `define-obsolete-variable-alias'.
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parents:
62058
diff
changeset
|
1917 @example |
63584
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Fix formatting ugliness.
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changeset
|
1918 (defvaralias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring}) |
5565eb3af021
Fix formatting ugliness.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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changeset
|
1919 (make-obsolete-variable @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when}) |
62098
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parents:
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changeset
|
1920 @end example |
61729
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changeset
|
1921 @end defmac |
bd6904d99629
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parents:
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changeset
|
1922 |
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changeset
|
1923 @defun indirect-variable variable |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
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parents:
39165
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changeset
|
1924 This function returns the variable at the end of the chain of aliases |
9b87a63bcb36
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Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
parents:
39165
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changeset
|
1925 of @var{variable}. If @var{variable} is not a symbol, or if @var{variable} is |
9b87a63bcb36
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parents:
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changeset
|
1926 not defined as an alias, the function returns @var{variable}. |
54724
d2c60b264fa8
* variables.texi (Variable Aliases): Mention
Jesper Harder <harder@ifa.au.dk>
parents:
53436
diff
changeset
|
1927 |
d2c60b264fa8
* variables.texi (Variable Aliases): Mention
Jesper Harder <harder@ifa.au.dk>
parents:
53436
diff
changeset
|
1928 This function signals a @code{cyclic-variable-indirection} error if |
d2c60b264fa8
* variables.texi (Variable Aliases): Mention
Jesper Harder <harder@ifa.au.dk>
parents:
53436
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changeset
|
1929 there is a loop in the chain of symbols. |
39571
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changeset
|
1930 @end defun |
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changeset
|
1931 |
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changeset
|
1932 @example |
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|
1933 (defvaralias 'foo 'bar) |
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changeset
|
1934 (indirect-variable 'foo) |
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changeset
|
1935 @result{} bar |
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changeset
|
1936 (indirect-variable 'bar) |
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changeset
|
1937 @result{} bar |
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changeset
|
1938 (setq bar 2) |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
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parents:
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changeset
|
1939 bar |
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changeset
|
1940 @result{} 2 |
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changeset
|
1941 @group |
39571
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changeset
|
1942 foo |
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changeset
|
1943 @result{} 2 |
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changeset
|
1944 @end group |
39571
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changeset
|
1945 (setq foo 0) |
9b87a63bcb36
(Variable Aliases): New node.
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changeset
|
1946 bar |
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changeset
|
1947 @result{} 0 |
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changeset
|
1948 foo |
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changeset
|
1949 @result{} 0 |
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changeset
|
1950 @end example |
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changeset
|
1951 |
53295
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(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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changeset
|
1952 @node Variables with Restricted Values |
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changeset
|
1953 @section Variables with Restricted Values |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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changeset
|
1954 |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1955 Ordinary Lisp variables can be assigned any value that is a valid |
9cffa5a5d3eb
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1956 Lisp object. However, certain Lisp variables are not defined in Lisp, |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1957 but in C. Most of these variables are defined in the C code using |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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changeset
|
1958 @code{DEFVAR_LISP}. Like variables defined in Lisp, these can take on |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1959 any value. However, some variables are defined using |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1960 @code{DEFVAR_INT} or @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. @xref{Defining Lisp |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1961 variables in C,, Writing Emacs Primitives}, in particular the |
9cffa5a5d3eb
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parents:
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changeset
|
1962 description of functions of the type @code{syms_of_@var{filename}}, |
9cffa5a5d3eb
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1963 for a brief discussion of the C implementation. |
9cffa5a5d3eb
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changeset
|
1964 |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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changeset
|
1965 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} can only take on the values |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1966 @code{nil} or @code{t}. Attempting to assign them any other value |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1967 will set them to @code{t}: |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1968 |
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(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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changeset
|
1969 @example |
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parents:
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changeset
|
1970 (let ((display-hourglass 5)) |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1971 display-hourglass) |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1972 @result{} t |
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parents:
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changeset
|
1973 @end example |
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changeset
|
1974 |
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parents:
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changeset
|
1975 @defvar byte-boolean-vars |
9cffa5a5d3eb
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
1976 This variable holds a list of all variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. |
9cffa5a5d3eb
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parents:
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changeset
|
1977 @end defvar |
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(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
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changeset
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1978 |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
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1979 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_INT} can only take on integer values. |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
52994
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changeset
|
1980 Attempting to assign them any other value will result in an error: |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
52994
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changeset
|
1981 |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
52994
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changeset
|
1982 @example |
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(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
52994
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changeset
|
1983 (setq window-min-height 5.0) |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
52994
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changeset
|
1984 @error{} Wrong type argument: integerp, 5.0 |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
52994
diff
changeset
|
1985 @end example |
9cffa5a5d3eb
(Variables with Restricted Values): New node.
Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu>
parents:
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|
1986 |
52401 | 1987 @ignore |
1988 arch-tag: 5ff62c44-2b51-47bb-99d4-fea5aeec5d3e | |
1989 @end ignore |