annotate doc/lispref/functions.texi @ 86903:c2cad5807c15

(bb-up, bb-down): Revert 2007-10-21 change and wrap next-/previous-line in with-no-warnings.
author Martin Rudalics <rudalics@gmx.at>
date Sat, 01 Dec 2007 09:06:35 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001,
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4 @c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../../info/functions
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7 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top
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8 @chapter Functions
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9
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10 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter
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11 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to
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12 define them.
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13
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14 @menu
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15 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology.
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16 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects.
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17 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function.
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18 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions.
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19 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function.
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20 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc.
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21 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names.
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22 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition
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23 of a symbol.
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24 * Obsolete Functions:: Declaring functions obsolete.
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25 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code.
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26 * Declaring Functions:: Telling the compiler that a function is defined.
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27 * Function Safety:: Determining whether a function is safe to call.
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28 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives
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29 that have a special bearing on how functions work.
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30 @end menu
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31
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32 @node What Is a Function
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33 @section What Is a Function?
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34
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35 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation
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36 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the
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37 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can
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38 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or
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39 the contents of data structures.
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40
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41 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other
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42 function-like objects.
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43
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44 @table @dfn
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45 @item function
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46 @cindex function
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47 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to
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48 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more
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49 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and
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50 macros are not functions.
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51
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52 @item primitive
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53 @cindex primitive
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54 @cindex subr
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55 @cindex built-in function
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56 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C,
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57 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called
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58 @dfn{built-in functions}, or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also
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59 considered primitives.)
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60
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61 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is either
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62 because it is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface
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63 to operating system services, or because it needs to run fast.
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64 Primitives can be modified or added only by changing the C sources and
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65 recompiling the editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}.
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66
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67 @item lambda expression
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68 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp.
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69 These are described in the following section.
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70 @ifnottex
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71 @xref{Lambda Expressions}.
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72 @end ifnottex
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73
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74 @item special form
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75 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not
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76 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only
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77 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or
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78 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control
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79 Structures}.
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80
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81 @item macro
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82 @cindex macro
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83 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It
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84 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you
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85 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the
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86 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of
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87 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and
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88 use macros.
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89
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90 @item command
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91 @cindex command
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92 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it
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93 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are
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94 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an
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95 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function
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96 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case,
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97 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference.
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98
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99 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though
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100 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function
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101 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}.
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102 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function.
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103 @xref{Interactive Call}.
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104
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105 @item keystroke command
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106 @cindex keystroke command
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107 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence
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108 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here
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109 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs
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110 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant.
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111
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112 @item byte-code function
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113 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the
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114 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}.
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115 @end table
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116
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117 @defun functionp object
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118 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of
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119 function, or a special form, or, recursively, a symbol whose function
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120 definition is a function or special form. (This does not include
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121 macros.)
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122 @end defun
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123
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124 Unlike @code{functionp}, the next three functions do @emph{not}
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125 treat a symbol as its function definition.
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126
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127 @defun subrp object
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128 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function
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129 (i.e., a Lisp primitive).
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130
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131 @example
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132 @group
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133 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,}
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134 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.}
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135 @end group
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136 @group
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137 (subrp (symbol-function 'message))
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138 @result{} t
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139 @end group
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140 @end example
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141 @end defun
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142
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143 @defun byte-code-function-p object
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144 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code
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145 function. For example:
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146
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147 @example
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148 @group
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149 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line))
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150 @result{} t
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151 @end group
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152 @end example
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153 @end defun
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154
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155 @defun subr-arity subr
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156 This function provides information about the argument list of a
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157 primitive, @var{subr}. The returned value is a pair
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158 @code{(@var{min} . @var{max})}. @var{min} is the minimum number of
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159 args. @var{max} is the maximum number or the symbol @code{many}, for a
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160 function with @code{&rest} arguments, or the symbol @code{unevalled} if
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161 @var{subr} is a special form.
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162 @end defun
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163
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164 @node Lambda Expressions
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165 @section Lambda Expressions
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166 @cindex lambda expression
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167
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168 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this:
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169
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170 @example
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171 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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172 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]}
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173 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]}
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174 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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175 @end example
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176
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177 @noindent
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178 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it
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179 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some
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180 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at
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181 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an
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182 expression, but to be called as a function.
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183
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184 @menu
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185 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression.
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186 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example.
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187 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists.
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188 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function.
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189 @end menu
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190
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191 @node Lambda Components
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192 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression
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193
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194 @ifnottex
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195
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196 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that
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197 looks like this:
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198
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199 @example
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200 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{})
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201 [@var{documentation-string}]
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202 [@var{interactive-declaration}]
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203 @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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204 @end example
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205 @end ifnottex
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206
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207 @cindex lambda list
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208 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol
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209 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The
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210 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that
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211 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as
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212 functions.
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213
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214 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names.
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215 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called,
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216 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda
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217 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided.
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218 @xref{Local Variables}.
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219
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220 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the
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221 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help
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222 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}.
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223
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224 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive
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225 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the
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226 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called
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227 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key.
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228 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive
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229 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive
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230 declaration.
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231
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232 @cindex body of function
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233 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp
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234 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say,
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235 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the
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236 function is the value returned by the last element of the body.
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237
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238 @node Simple Lambda
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239 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example
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240
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241 Consider for example the following function:
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242
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243 @example
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244 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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245 @end example
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246
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247 @noindent
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248 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an
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249 expression, like this:
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250
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251 @example
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252 @group
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253 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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254 1 2 3)
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255 @end group
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256 @end example
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257
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258 @noindent
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259 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable
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260 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3.
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261 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6;
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262 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6.
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263
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264 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in
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265 this example:
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266
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267 @example
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268 @group
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269 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
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270 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4))
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271 @end group
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272 @end example
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273
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274 @noindent
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275 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5
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276 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the
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277 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8.
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278
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279 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of
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280 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local
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281 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let}
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282 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use.
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283 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function
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284 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as
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285 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}).
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286
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287 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the
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288 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At
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289 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local
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290 variables.
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291
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292 @node Argument List
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293 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists
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294 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments
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295 @cindex argument binding
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296 @cindex binding arguments
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297 @cindex argument lists, features
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298
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299 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))},
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300 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three
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301 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four
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302 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error.
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303
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304 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain
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305 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring}
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306 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end
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307 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the
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308 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to
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309 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list}
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310 and @code{+} do.
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311
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312 @cindex optional arguments
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313 @cindex rest arguments
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314 @kindex &optional
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315 @kindex &rest
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316 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function
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317 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional
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318 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the
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319 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument.
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320
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321 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows:
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322
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323 @example
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324 @group
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325 (@var{required-vars}@dots{}
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326 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]}
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327 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]})
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328 @end group
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329 @end example
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330
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331 @noindent
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332 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}
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333 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional.
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334
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335 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the
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336 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of
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337 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond
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338 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may
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339 be any number of extra actual arguments.
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340
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341 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted,
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342 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the
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343 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and
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344 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to
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345 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value.
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346 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to
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347 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied.
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348
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349 @cindex CL note---default optional arg
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350 @quotation
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351 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what
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352 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp
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353 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p''
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354 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed.
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355 @end quotation
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356
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357 For example, an argument list that looks like this:
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358
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359 @example
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360 (a b &optional c d &rest e)
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361 @end example
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362
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363 @noindent
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364 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are
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365 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and
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366 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first
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367 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If
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368 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three
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369 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e}
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370 is @code{nil}.
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371
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372 There is no way to have required arguments following optional
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373 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose
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374 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required.
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375 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the
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376 third argument be for? Would it be used for the @var{c}, or for
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377 @var{d}? One can argue for both possibilities. Similarly, it makes
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378 no sense to have any more arguments (either required or optional)
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379 after a @code{&rest} argument.
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380
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381 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls:
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382
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383 @smallexample
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384 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:}
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385 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.}
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386 @result{} 2
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387 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:}
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388 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.}
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389 1 2)
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390 @result{} 3
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391 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:}
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392 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.}
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393 1 2 3 4 5)
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394 @result{} 15
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395 @end smallexample
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396
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397 @node Function Documentation
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398 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions
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399 @cindex documentation of function
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400
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401 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just
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402 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the
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403 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which
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404 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help
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405 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is
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406 accessed.
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407
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408 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the
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409 functions in your program, even those that are called only from within
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410 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they
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411 are easier to access.
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412
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413 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own,
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414 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist
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415 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose.
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416
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417 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the
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418 source file, but since these spaces come before the starting
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419 double-quote, they are not part of the string. Some people make a
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420 practice of indenting any additional lines of the string so that the
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421 text lines up in the program source. @emph{That is a mistake.} The
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422 indentation of the following lines is inside the string; what looks
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423 nice in the source code will look ugly when displayed by the help
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424 commands.
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425
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426 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since
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427 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body).
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428 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects,
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429 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in
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430 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the
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431 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both
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432 as the return value and as the documentation.
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433
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434 The last line of the documentation string can specify calling
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435 conventions different from the actual function arguments. Write
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436 text like this:
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437
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438 @example
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439 \(fn @var{arglist})
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440 @end example
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441
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442 @noindent
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443 following a blank line, at the beginning of the line, with no newline
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444 following it inside the documentation string. (The @samp{\} is used
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445 to avoid confusing the Emacs motion commands.) The calling convention
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446 specified in this way appears in help messages in place of the one
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447 derived from the actual arguments of the function.
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448
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449 This feature is particularly useful for macro definitions, since the
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450 arguments written in a macro definition often do not correspond to the
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451 way users think of the parts of the macro call.
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452
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453 @node Function Names
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454 @section Naming a Function
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455 @cindex function definition
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456 @cindex named function
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457 @cindex function name
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458
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459 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a
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460 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the
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461 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is
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462 @code{lambda}, a byte-code function object, or a primitive subr-object.
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463
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464 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens
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465 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell}
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466 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid,
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467 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its
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468 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also
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469 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a
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470 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called
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471 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}.
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472
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473 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and
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474 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works
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475 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object
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476 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell.
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477
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478 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by
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479 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as
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480 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there
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481 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the
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482 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda
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483 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can
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484 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much
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485 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself
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486 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in
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487 practice).
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488
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489 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For
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490 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car},'' not
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491 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive
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492 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, the
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493 distinction is not important.
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494
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495 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While
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496 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only
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497 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store
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498 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is
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499 equally well a name for the same function.
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500
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501 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; these
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502 two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. (Some Lisp
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503 dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a symbol's value
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504 and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable is also its
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505 function definition.) If you have not given a symbol a function
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506 definition, you cannot use it as a function; whether the symbol has a
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507 value as a variable makes no difference to this.
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508
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509 @node Defining Functions
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diff changeset
510 @section Defining Functions
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511 @cindex defining a function
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512
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513 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This
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514 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the
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diff changeset
515 @code{defun} special form.
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516
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517 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms
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518 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It
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diff changeset
519 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this:
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520
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521 @example
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diff changeset
522 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms})
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523 @end example
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524
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diff changeset
525 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of
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parents:
diff changeset
526 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this
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diff changeset
527 value.
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diff changeset
528
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529 As described previously, @var{argument-list} is a list of argument
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diff changeset
530 names and may include the keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}
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diff changeset
531 (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}). Also, the first two of the
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diff changeset
532 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive
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533 declaration.
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534
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diff changeset
535 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a
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parents:
diff changeset
536 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function
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parents:
diff changeset
537 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}.
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parents:
diff changeset
538
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539 Here are some examples:
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parents:
diff changeset
540
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parents:
diff changeset
541 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
542 @group
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diff changeset
543 (defun foo () 5)
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diff changeset
544 @result{} foo
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545 @end group
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diff changeset
546 @group
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547 (foo)
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548 @result{} 5
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549 @end group
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550
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551 @group
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552 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c)
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diff changeset
553 (list a b c))
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554 @result{} bar
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555 @end group
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diff changeset
556 @group
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diff changeset
557 (bar 1 2 3 4 5)
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diff changeset
558 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5))
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559 @end group
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diff changeset
560 @group
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561 (bar 1)
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diff changeset
562 @result{} (1 nil nil)
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563 @end group
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564 @group
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diff changeset
565 (bar)
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diff changeset
566 @error{} Wrong number of arguments.
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diff changeset
567 @end group
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568
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diff changeset
569 @group
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diff changeset
570 (defun capitalize-backwards ()
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parents:
diff changeset
571 "Upcase the last letter of a word."
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572 (interactive)
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diff changeset
573 (backward-word 1)
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diff changeset
574 (forward-word 1)
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parents:
diff changeset
575 (backward-char 1)
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diff changeset
576 (capitalize-word 1))
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diff changeset
577 @result{} capitalize-backwards
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diff changeset
578 @end group
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diff changeset
579 @end example
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580
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parents:
diff changeset
581 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally.
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diff changeset
582 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car}
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diff changeset
583 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already
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diff changeset
584 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish
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diff changeset
585 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition.
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586 @end defspec
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587
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588 @cindex function aliases
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parents:
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589 @defun defalias name definition &optional docstring
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diff changeset
590 @anchor{Definition of defalias}
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diff changeset
591 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with
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592 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function).
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593 It returns @var{definition}.
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diff changeset
594
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595 If @var{docstring} is non-@code{nil}, it becomes the function
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diff changeset
596 documentation of @var{name}. Otherwise, any documentation provided by
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diff changeset
597 @var{definition} is used.
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diff changeset
598
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diff changeset
599 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function
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diff changeset
600 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in
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diff changeset
601 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records
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parents:
diff changeset
602 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun}
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diff changeset
603 (@pxref{Unloading}).
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diff changeset
604
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605 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other
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diff changeset
606 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such
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diff changeset
607 records. @xref{Function Cells}.
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diff changeset
608 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
609
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diff changeset
610 You cannot create a new primitive function with @code{defun} or
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diff changeset
611 @code{defalias}, but you can use them to change the function definition of
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diff changeset
612 any symbol, even one such as @code{car} or @code{x-popup-menu} whose
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parents:
diff changeset
613 normal definition is a primitive. However, this is risky: for
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parents:
diff changeset
614 instance, it is next to impossible to redefine @code{car} without
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parents:
diff changeset
615 breaking Lisp completely. Redefining an obscure function such as
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parents:
diff changeset
616 @code{x-popup-menu} is less dangerous, but it still may not work as
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parents:
diff changeset
617 you expect. If there are calls to the primitive from C code, they
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diff changeset
618 call the primitive's C definition directly, so changing the symbol's
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parents:
diff changeset
619 definition will have no effect on them.
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diff changeset
620
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diff changeset
621 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun}
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622 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}.
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parents:
diff changeset
623
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diff changeset
624 @node Calling Functions
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625 @section Calling Functions
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626 @cindex function invocation
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627 @cindex calling a function
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628
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629 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do
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630 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a
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diff changeset
631 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}.
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632
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633 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list.
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634 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the
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635 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}.
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636 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation.
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637
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638 When you write a list as an expression in your program, you specify
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diff changeset
639 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, in the text
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640 of the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you
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641 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use
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diff changeset
642 the function @code{funcall}. When you also need to determine at run
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diff changeset
643 time how many arguments to pass, use @code{apply}.
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644
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645 @defun funcall function &rest arguments
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diff changeset
646 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns
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647 whatever @var{function} returns.
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648
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649 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including
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diff changeset
650 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This
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651 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be
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652 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the
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diff changeset
653 expressions you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values.
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654 These values are @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of
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diff changeset
655 calling @var{function}; the operation of @code{funcall} is like the
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diff changeset
656 normal procedure for calling a function, once its arguments have
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diff changeset
657 already been evaluated.
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658
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diff changeset
659 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a
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diff changeset
660 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because
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diff changeset
661 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument
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diff changeset
662 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw
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diff changeset
663 above, it never knows them in the first place.
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diff changeset
664
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665 @example
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diff changeset
666 @group
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diff changeset
667 (setq f 'list)
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diff changeset
668 @result{} list
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parents:
diff changeset
669 @end group
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diff changeset
670 @group
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diff changeset
671 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z)
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diff changeset
672 @result{} (x y z)
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diff changeset
673 @end group
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diff changeset
674 @group
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diff changeset
675 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z))
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diff changeset
676 @result{} (x y (z))
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diff changeset
677 @end group
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diff changeset
678 @group
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diff changeset
679 (funcall 'and t nil)
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diff changeset
680 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and>
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681 @end group
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diff changeset
682 @end example
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diff changeset
683
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diff changeset
684 Compare these examples with the examples of @code{apply}.
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diff changeset
685 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
686
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diff changeset
687 @defun apply function &rest arguments
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diff changeset
688 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like
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parents:
diff changeset
689 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a
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parents:
diff changeset
690 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate
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diff changeset
691 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply}
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parents:
diff changeset
692 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an
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parents:
diff changeset
693 argument.
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parents:
diff changeset
694
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diff changeset
695 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with
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parents:
diff changeset
696 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a
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diff changeset
697 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in
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diff changeset
698 @code{apply}.
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diff changeset
699
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diff changeset
700 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
701 @group
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diff changeset
702 (setq f 'list)
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parents:
diff changeset
703 @result{} list
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parents:
diff changeset
704 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
705 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
706 (apply f 'x 'y 'z)
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parents:
diff changeset
707 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z
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diff changeset
708 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
709 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
710 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4))
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parents:
diff changeset
711 @result{} 10
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diff changeset
712 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
713 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
714 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4))
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parents:
diff changeset
715 @result{} 10
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parents:
diff changeset
716 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
717
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parents:
diff changeset
718 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
719 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil))
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parents:
diff changeset
720 @result{} (a b c x y z)
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parents:
diff changeset
721 @end group
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diff changeset
722 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
723
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parents:
diff changeset
724 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see @ref{Definition
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parents:
diff changeset
725 of mapcar}.
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parents:
diff changeset
726 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
727
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parents:
diff changeset
728 @cindex functionals
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parents:
diff changeset
729 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or
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parents:
diff changeset
730 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property
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parents:
diff changeset
731 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions
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parents:
diff changeset
732 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}.
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parents:
diff changeset
733
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parents:
diff changeset
734 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op
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parents:
diff changeset
735 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op
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parents:
diff changeset
736 function:
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diff changeset
737
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parents:
diff changeset
738 @defun identity arg
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parents:
diff changeset
739 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects.
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diff changeset
740 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
741
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parents:
diff changeset
742 @defun ignore &rest args
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parents:
diff changeset
743 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}.
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744 @end defun
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diff changeset
745
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diff changeset
746 @node Mapping Functions
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parents:
diff changeset
747 @section Mapping Functions
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diff changeset
748 @cindex mapping functions
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parents:
diff changeset
749
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750 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function (@emph{not} a
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parents:
diff changeset
751 special form or macro) to each element of a list or other collection.
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diff changeset
752 Emacs Lisp has several such functions; @code{mapcar} and
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parents:
diff changeset
753 @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described here.
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diff changeset
754 @xref{Definition of mapatoms}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which
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parents:
diff changeset
755 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Definition of maphash},
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parents:
diff changeset
756 for the function @code{maphash} which maps over key/value associations
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diff changeset
757 in a hash table.
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diff changeset
758
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diff changeset
759 These mapping functions do not allow char-tables because a char-table
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diff changeset
760 is a sparse array whose nominal range of indices is very large. To map
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diff changeset
761 over a char-table in a way that deals properly with its sparse nature,
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parents:
diff changeset
762 use the function @code{map-char-table} (@pxref{Char-Tables}).
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diff changeset
763
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diff changeset
764 @defun mapcar function sequence
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diff changeset
765 @anchor{Definition of mapcar}
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diff changeset
766 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence}
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diff changeset
767 in turn, and returns a list of the results.
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parents:
diff changeset
768
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diff changeset
769 The argument @var{sequence} can be any kind of sequence except a
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diff changeset
770 char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a bool-vector, or a string. The
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diff changeset
771 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the
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diff changeset
772 length of @var{sequence}. For example:
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parents:
diff changeset
773
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parents:
diff changeset
774 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
775 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
776 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f)))
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parents:
diff changeset
777 @result{} (a c e)
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parents:
diff changeset
778 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3])
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parents:
diff changeset
779 @result{} (2 3 4)
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diff changeset
780 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc")
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
781 @result{} ("a" "b" "c")
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parents:
diff changeset
782 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
783
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
784 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
785 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
786 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks)
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parents:
diff changeset
787 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
788
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parents:
diff changeset
789 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
790 (defun mapcar* (function &rest args)
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parents:
diff changeset
791 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS.
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parents:
diff changeset
792 Return the list of results."
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parents:
diff changeset
793 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,}
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parents:
diff changeset
794 (if (not (memq nil args))
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parents:
diff changeset
795 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{car}s.}
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parents:
diff changeset
796 (cons (apply function (mapcar 'car args))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
797 (apply 'mapcar* function
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parents:
diff changeset
798 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.}
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parents:
diff changeset
799 (mapcar 'cdr args)))))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
800 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
801
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parents:
diff changeset
802 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
803 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
804 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3))
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parents:
diff changeset
805 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
806 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
807 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
808
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parents:
diff changeset
809 @defun mapc function sequence
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parents:
diff changeset
810 @code{mapc} is like @code{mapcar} except that @var{function} is used for
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parents:
diff changeset
811 side-effects only---the values it returns are ignored, not collected
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parents:
diff changeset
812 into a list. @code{mapc} always returns @var{sequence}.
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parents:
diff changeset
813 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
814
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parents:
diff changeset
815 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator
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parents:
diff changeset
816 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of
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parents:
diff changeset
817 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated.
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parents:
diff changeset
818 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
819 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or
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parents:
diff changeset
820 other suitable punctuation.
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parents:
diff changeset
821
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parents:
diff changeset
822 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one
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parents:
diff changeset
823 argument and return a string. The argument @var{sequence} can be any
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
824 kind of sequence except a char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
825 bool-vector, or a string.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
826
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parents:
diff changeset
827 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
828 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
829 (mapconcat 'symbol-name
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parents:
diff changeset
830 '(The cat in the hat)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
831 " ")
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parents:
diff changeset
832 @result{} "The cat in the hat"
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parents:
diff changeset
833 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
834
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parents:
diff changeset
835 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
836 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x))))
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parents:
diff changeset
837 "HAL-8000"
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parents:
diff changeset
838 "")
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parents:
diff changeset
839 @result{} "IBM.9111"
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parents:
diff changeset
840 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
841 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
842 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
843
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parents:
diff changeset
844 @node Anonymous Functions
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parents:
diff changeset
845 @section Anonymous Functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
846 @cindex anonymous function
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
847
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
849 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
850 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra.'' Although usually functions
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parents:
diff changeset
851 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
852 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
853 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
854
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
855 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
856
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
857 @smallexample
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
858 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
859 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x))))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
860 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
861 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
862 @end smallexample
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
863
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
864 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
865 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
866 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
867 @code{silly}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
868
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
869 Here is how we might call this function:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
870
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
871 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
872 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
873 (funcall silly 1)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874 @result{} 13
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
875 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
878 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
879 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
880 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
881 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.)
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
882
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
884 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
885 the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
886 element of a list.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
887
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
888 Here we define a function @code{change-property} which
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
889 uses a function as its third argument:
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
890
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
891 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
892 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
893 (defun change-property (symbol prop function)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
894 (let ((value (get symbol prop)))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
895 (put symbol prop (funcall function value))))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
896 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
897 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
898
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
899 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
900 Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property},
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
901 passing it a function to double a number:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
902
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
903 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
904 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
905 (defun double-property (symbol prop)
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parents:
diff changeset
906 (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x))))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
907 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
908 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
909
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
910 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
911 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead
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parents:
diff changeset
912 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
913
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parents:
diff changeset
914 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
915 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
916 (defun double-property (symbol prop)
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parents:
diff changeset
917 (change-property symbol prop
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
918 (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
919 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
920 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
921
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parents:
diff changeset
922 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you
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parents:
diff changeset
923 compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you
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parents:
diff changeset
924 compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
925 function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first
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parents:
diff changeset
926 definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to
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parents:
diff changeset
927 @code{change-property} is the precise list shown:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
928
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parents:
diff changeset
929 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
930 (lambda (x) (* x 2))
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parents:
diff changeset
931 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
932
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parents:
diff changeset
933 @noindent
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parents:
diff changeset
934 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
935 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
936 do with the list. Perhaps it will check whether the @sc{car} of the third
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parents:
diff changeset
937 element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
938 compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
939
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parents:
diff changeset
940 Nowadays it is possible to omit @code{function} entirely, like this:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
941
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
942 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
943 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
944 (defun double-property (symbol prop)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
945 (change-property symbol prop (lambda (x) (* 2 x))))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
946 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
947 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
948
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
949 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
950 This is because @code{lambda} itself implies @code{function}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
951
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
952 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
953 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
954 comment:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
955
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
956 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
957 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
958 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
959
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
960 @cindex @samp{#'} syntax
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
961 The read syntax @code{#'} is a short-hand for using @code{function}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
962 For example,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
963
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
964 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
965 #'(lambda (x) (* x x))
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parents:
diff changeset
966 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
967
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
968 @noindent
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
969 is equivalent to
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
970
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
971 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
972 (function (lambda (x) (* x x)))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
973 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
974
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
975 @defspec function function-object
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
976 @cindex function quoting
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
977 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
978 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
979 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
980 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
981 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
982 @end defspec
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
983
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
984 @xref{describe-symbols example}, for a realistic example using
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
985 @code{function} and an anonymous function.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
986
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
987 @node Function Cells
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
988 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
989
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
990 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
991 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
992 and set the function cell of symbols.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
993
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
994 See also the function @code{indirect-function}. @xref{Definition of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
995 indirect-function}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
996
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parents:
diff changeset
997 @defun symbol-function symbol
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
998 @kindex void-function
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
999 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1000 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1001 signaled.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1002
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1003 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1004 function.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1005
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1006 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1007 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1008 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1009 @result{} bar
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1010 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1011 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1012 (symbol-function 'bar)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1013 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1014 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1015 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1016 (fset 'baz 'bar)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1017 @result{} bar
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1018 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1019 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1020 (symbol-function 'baz)
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1021 @result{} bar
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1022 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1023 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1024 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1025
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1026 @cindex void function cell
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1027 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1028 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1029 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1030 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1031
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1032 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1033 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1034 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1035 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1036 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1037
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1038 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1039 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1040 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1041
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1042 @defun fboundp symbol
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1043 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1044 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1045 is a legitimate function.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1046 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1047
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1048 @defun fmakunbound symbol
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1049 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1050 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1051 @code{void-function} error. It returns @var{symbol}. (See also
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1052 @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Void Variables}.)
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1053
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1054 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1055 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1056 (defun foo (x) x)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1057 @result{} foo
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1058 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1059 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1060 (foo 1)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1061 @result{}1
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1062 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1063 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1064 (fmakunbound 'foo)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1065 @result{} foo
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1066 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1067 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1068 (foo 1)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1069 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1070 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1071 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1072 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1073
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1074 @defun fset symbol definition
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1075 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1076 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1077 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1078 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1079 argument.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1080
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1081 There are three normal uses of this function:
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1082
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1083 @itemize @bullet
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1084 @item
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1085 Copying one symbol's function definition to another---in other words,
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1086 making an alternate name for a function. (If you think of this as the
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1087 definition of the new name, you should use @code{defalias} instead of
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1088 @code{fset}; see @ref{Definition of defalias}.)
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1089
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1090 @item
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1091 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1092 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset}
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1093 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1094 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1095 @code{s2} presently has. (Once again use @code{defalias} instead of
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1096 @code{fset} if you think of this as the definition of @code{s1}.)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1097
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1098 @item
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1099 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1100 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1101 @code{fset}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1102 @end itemize
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1103
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1104 Here are examples of these uses:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1105
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1106 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1107 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1108 ;; @r{Save @code{foo}'s definition in @code{old-foo}.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1109 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1110 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1111
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1112 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1113 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1114 ;; @r{(Most likely, @code{defalias} would be better than @code{fset} here.)}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1115 (fset 'xfirst 'car)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1116 @result{} car
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1117 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1118 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1119 (xfirst '(1 2 3))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1120 @result{} 1
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1121 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1122 @group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1123 (symbol-function 'xfirst)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1124 @result{} car
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1125 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1126 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1127 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1128 @result{} #<subr car>
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1129 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1130
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parents:
diff changeset
1131 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1132 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1133 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k")
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1134 @result{} "\^u2\^k"
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1135 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1136
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parents:
diff changeset
1137 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1138 ;; @r{Here is a function that alters other functions.}
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1139 (defun copy-function-definition (new old)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1140 "Define NEW with the same function definition as OLD."
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1141 (fset new (symbol-function old)))
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1142 @end group
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1143 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1144 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1145
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1146 @code{fset} is sometimes used to save the old definition of a
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1147 function before redefining it. That permits the new definition to
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1148 invoke the old definition. But it is unmodular and unclean for a Lisp
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1149 file to redefine a function defined elsewhere. If you want to modify
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1150 a function defined by another package, it is cleaner to use
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1151 @code{defadvice} (@pxref{Advising Functions}).
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1152
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1153 @node Obsolete Functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1154 @section Declaring Functions Obsolete
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1155
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1156 You can use @code{make-obsolete} to declare a function obsolete. This
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1157 indicates that the function may be removed at some stage in the future.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1158
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1159 @defun make-obsolete obsolete-name current-name &optional when
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1160 This function makes the byte compiler warn that the function
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1161 @var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1162 warning message says to use @var{current-name} instead of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1163 @var{obsolete-name}. @var{current-name} does not need to be an alias for
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1164 @var{obsolete-name}; it can be a different function with similar
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1165 functionality. If @var{current-name} is a string, it is the warning
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1166 message.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1167
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1168 If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the function
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1169 was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release number.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1170 @end defun
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1171
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1172 You can define a function as an alias and declare it obsolete at the
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1173 same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-function-alias}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1174
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1175 @defmac define-obsolete-function-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1176 This macro marks the function @var{obsolete-name} obsolete and also
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1177 defines it as an alias for the function @var{current-name}. It is
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1178 equivalent to the following:
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1179
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1180 @example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1181 (defalias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring})
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1182 (make-obsolete @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when})
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1183 @end example
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1184 @end defmac
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1185
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1186 @node Inline Functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1187 @section Inline Functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1188 @cindex inline functions
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1189
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1190 @findex defsubst
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1191 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1192 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1193 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1194 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1195
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1196 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1197 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1198 change the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1199 the old definition until you recompile them.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1200
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1201 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1202 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1203 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1204 generally should not make large functions inline.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1205
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1206 Also, inline functions do not behave well with respect to debugging,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1207 tracing, and advising (@pxref{Advising Functions}). Since ease of
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1208 debugging and the flexibility of redefining functions are important
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1209 features of Emacs, you should not make a function inline, even if it's
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1210 small, unless its speed is really crucial, and you've timed the code
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1211 to verify that using @code{defun} actually has performance problems.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1212
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1213 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1214 inline function would execute. (@xref{Macros}.) But the macro would be
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1215 limited to direct use in expressions---a macro cannot be called with
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1216 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1217 convert an ordinary function into a macro. To convert it into an inline
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1218 function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} with @code{defsubst}.
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1219 Since each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1220 needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1221 do for macros. (@xref{Argument Evaluation}.)
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1222
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1223 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file,
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1224 following the definition, just like macros.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1225
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1226 @node Declaring Functions
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1227 @section Telling the Compiler that a Function is Defined
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1228 @cindex function declaration
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1229 @cindex declaring functions
86826
9b003519e0dd (Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86447
diff changeset
1230 @findex declare-function
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1231
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1232 Byte-compiling a file often produces warnings about functions that the
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1233 compiler doesn't know about (@pxref{Compiler Errors}). Sometimes this
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1234 indicates a real problem, but usually the functions in question are
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1235 defined in other files which would be loaded if that code is run. For
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1236 example, byte-compiling @file{fortran.el} used to warn:
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1237
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1238 @smallexample
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1239 In end of data:
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1240 fortran.el:2152:1:Warning: the function `gud-find-c-expr' is not known to be defined.
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1241 @end smallexample
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1242
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1243 In fact, @code{gud-find-c-expr} is only used in the function that
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1244 Fortran mode uses for the local value of
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1245 @code{gud-find-expr-function}, which is a callback from GUD; if it is
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1246 called, the GUD functions will be loaded. When you know that such a
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1247 warning does not indicate a real problem, it is good to suppress the
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1248 warning. That makes new warnings which might mean real problems more
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1249 visible. You do that with @code{declare-function}.
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1250
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1251 All you need to do is add a @code{declare-function} statement before the
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1252 first use of the function in question:
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1253
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1254 @smallexample
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1255 (declare-function gud-find-c-expr "gud.el" nil)
86447
598f0ef502b4 (Declaring Functions): Fix typo in directive.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 86408
diff changeset
1256 @end smallexample
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1257
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1258 This says that @code{gud-find-c-expr} is defined in @file{gud.el} (the
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1259 @samp{.el} can be omitted). The compiler takes for granted that that file
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1260 really defines the function, and does not check.
86447
598f0ef502b4 (Declaring Functions): Fix typo in directive.
Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com>
parents: 86408
diff changeset
1261
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1262 The optional third argument specifies the argument list of
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1263 @code{gud-find-c-expr}. In this case, it takes no arguments
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1264 (@code{nil} is different from not specifying a value). In other
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1265 cases, this might be something like @code{(file &optional overwrite)}.
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1266 You don't have to specify the argument list, but if you do the
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1267 byte compiler can check that the calls match the declaration.
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1268
86845
62955c80c79b (Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86826
diff changeset
1269 @defmac declare-function function file &optional arglist fileonly
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1270 Tell the byte compiler to assume that @var{function} is defined, with
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1271 arguments @var{arglist}, and that the definition should come from
86845
62955c80c79b (Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86826
diff changeset
1272 the file @var{file}. @var{fileonly} non-nil means only check that
62955c80c79b (Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86826
diff changeset
1273 @var{file} exists, not that it actually defines @var{function}.
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1274 @end defmac
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1275
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1276 To verify that these functions really are declared where
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1277 @code{declare-function} says they are, use @code{check-declare-file}
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1278 to check all @code{declare-function} calls in one source file, or use
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1279 @code{check-declare-directory} check all the files in and under a
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1280 certain directory.
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1281
86408
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1282 These commands find the file that ought to contain a function's
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1283 definition using @code{locate-library}; if that finds no file, they
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1284 expand the definition file name relative to the directory of the file
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1285 that contains the @code{declare-function} call.
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1286
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1287 You can also say that a function is defined by C code by specifying
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1288 a file name ending in @samp{.c}. @code{check-declare-file} looks for
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1289 these files in the C source code directory. This is useful only when
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1290 you call a function that is defined only on certain systems. Most
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1291 of the primitive functions of Emacs are always defined so they will
c4f8d28a93e7 (Declaring Functions): Clarify previous change.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 86383
diff changeset
1292 never give you a warning.
86383
382d8b0539b2 (Declaring Functions): New section.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 85688
diff changeset
1293
86826
9b003519e0dd (Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86447
diff changeset
1294 Sometimes a file will optionally use functions from an external package.
9b003519e0dd (Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86447
diff changeset
1295 If you prefix the filename in the @code{declare-function} statement with
9b003519e0dd (Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86447
diff changeset
1296 @samp{ext:}, then it will be checked if it is found, otherwise skipped
9b003519e0dd (Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86447
diff changeset
1297 without error.
9b003519e0dd (Declaring Functions): Add findex. Mention `external' files.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86447
diff changeset
1298
86845
62955c80c79b (Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86826
diff changeset
1299 There are some function definitions that @samp{check-declare} does not
62955c80c79b (Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86826
diff changeset
1300 understand (e.g. @code{defstruct} and some other macros). In such cases,
86884
bcf9ca31cd6d (Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86845
diff changeset
1301 you can pass a non-@code{nil} @var{fileonly} argument to
bcf9ca31cd6d (Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86845
diff changeset
1302 @code{declare-function}, meaning to only check that the file exists, not
bcf9ca31cd6d (Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86845
diff changeset
1303 that it actually defines the function. Note that to do this without
bcf9ca31cd6d (Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86845
diff changeset
1304 having to specify an argument list, you should set the @var{arglist}
bcf9ca31cd6d (Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86845
diff changeset
1305 argument to @code{t} (because @code{nil} means an empty argument list, as
bcf9ca31cd6d (Declaring Functions): Improve previous change (arguments by name, not number).
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86845
diff changeset
1306 opposed to an unspecified one).
86845
62955c80c79b (Declaring Functions): Add optional fourth
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents: 86826
diff changeset
1307
84070
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1308 @node Function Safety
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1309 @section Determining whether a Function is Safe to Call
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1310 @cindex function safety
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1311 @cindex safety of functions
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1312
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1313 Some major modes such as SES call functions that are stored in user
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1314 files. (@inforef{Top, ,ses}, for more information on SES.) User
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1315 files sometimes have poor pedigrees---you can get a spreadsheet from
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1316 someone you've just met, or you can get one through email from someone
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1317 you've never met. So it is risky to call a function whose source code
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1318 is stored in a user file until you have determined that it is safe.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1319
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1320 @defun unsafep form &optional unsafep-vars
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1321 Returns @code{nil} if @var{form} is a @dfn{safe} Lisp expression, or
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1322 returns a list that describes why it might be unsafe. The argument
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1323 @var{unsafep-vars} is a list of symbols known to have temporary
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1324 bindings at this point; it is mainly used for internal recursive
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1325 calls. The current buffer is an implicit argument, which provides a
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1326 list of buffer-local bindings.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1327 @end defun
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1328
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1329 Being quick and simple, @code{unsafep} does a very light analysis and
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1330 rejects many Lisp expressions that are actually safe. There are no
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1331 known cases where @code{unsafep} returns @code{nil} for an unsafe
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1332 expression. However, a ``safe'' Lisp expression can return a string
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1333 with a @code{display} property, containing an associated Lisp
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1334 expression to be executed after the string is inserted into a buffer.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1335 This associated expression can be a virus. In order to be safe, you
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1336 must delete properties from all strings calculated by user code before
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1337 inserting them into buffers.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1338
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1339 @ignore
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1340 What is a safe Lisp expression? Basically, it's an expression that
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1341 calls only built-in functions with no side effects (or only innocuous
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1342 ones). Innocuous side effects include displaying messages and
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1343 altering non-risky buffer-local variables (but not global variables).
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1344
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1345 @table @dfn
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1346 @item Safe expression
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1347 @itemize
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1348 @item
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1349 An atom or quoted thing.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1350 @item
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1351 A call to a safe function (see below), if all its arguments are
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1352 safe expressions.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1353 @item
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1354 One of the special forms @code{and}, @code{catch}, @code{cond},
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1355 @code{if}, @code{or}, @code{prog1}, @code{prog2}, @code{progn},
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1356 @code{while}, and @code{unwind-protect}], if all its arguments are
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1357 safe.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1358 @item
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1359 A form that creates temporary bindings (@code{condition-case},
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1360 @code{dolist}, @code{dotimes}, @code{lambda}, @code{let}, or
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1361 @code{let*}), if all args are safe and the symbols to be bound are not
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1362 explicitly risky (see @pxref{File Local Variables}).
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1363 @item
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1364 An assignment using @code{add-to-list}, @code{setq}, @code{push}, or
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1365 @code{pop}, if all args are safe and the symbols to be assigned are
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1366 not explicitly risky and they already have temporary or buffer-local
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1367 bindings.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1368 @item
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1369 One of [apply, mapc, mapcar, mapconcat] if the first argument is a
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1370 safe explicit lambda and the other args are safe expressions.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1371 @end itemize
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1372
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1373 @item Safe function
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1374 @itemize
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1375 @item
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1376 A lambda containing safe expressions.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1377 @item
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1378 A symbol on the list @code{safe-functions}, so the user says it's safe.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1379 @item
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1380 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{side-effect-free} property.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1381 @item
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1382 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-function} property. Value t
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Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1383 indicates a function that is safe but has innocuous side effects.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1384 Other values will someday indicate functions with classes of side
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1385 effects that are not always safe.
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1386 @end itemize
e8dbeb25dd6d Move here from ../../lispref
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1387
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1388 The @code{side-effect-free} and @code{safe-function} properties are
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1389 provided for built-in functions and for low-level functions and macros
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1390 defined in @file{subr.el}. You can assign these properties for the
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1391 functions you write.
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1392 @end table
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1393 @end ignore
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1394
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1395 @node Related Topics
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1396 @section Other Topics Related to Functions
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1397
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1398 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to
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1399 function calling and function definitions. They are documented
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1400 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here.
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1401
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1402 @table @code
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1403 @item apply
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1404 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1405
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1406 @item autoload
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1407 See @ref{Autoload}.
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1408
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1409 @item call-interactively
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1410 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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1411
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parents: 84116
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1412 @item called-interactively-p
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parents: 84116
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1413 See @ref{Distinguish Interactive}.
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Miles Bader <miles@gnu.org>
parents: 84116
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1414
84070
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1415 @item commandp
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1416 See @ref{Interactive Call}.
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1417
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1418 @item documentation
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1419 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}.
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1420
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1421 @item eval
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1422 See @ref{Eval}.
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1423
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1424 @item funcall
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parents:
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1425 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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parents:
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1426
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1427 @item function
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parents:
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1428 See @ref{Anonymous Functions}.
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parents:
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1429
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1430 @item ignore
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1431 See @ref{Calling Functions}.
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1432
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1433 @item indirect-function
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parents:
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1434 See @ref{Function Indirection}.
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1435
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1436 @item interactive
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1437 See @ref{Using Interactive}.
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1438
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1439 @item interactive-p
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parents: 84116
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1440 See @ref{Distinguish Interactive}.
84070
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1441
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1442 @item mapatoms
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parents:
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1443 See @ref{Creating Symbols}.
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1444
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1445 @item mapcar
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parents:
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1446 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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1447
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1448 @item map-char-table
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1449 See @ref{Char-Tables}.
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1450
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1451 @item mapconcat
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1452 See @ref{Mapping Functions}.
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1453
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1454 @item undefined
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1455 See @ref{Functions for Key Lookup}.
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1456 @end table
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1457
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1458 @ignore
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1459 arch-tag: 39100cdf-8a55-4898-acba-595db619e8e2
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1460 @end ignore