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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Sun, 26 Apr 1998 04:19:28 +0000 |
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6447 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6447 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/objects | |
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6 @node Lisp Data Types, Numbers, Introduction, Top |
6447 | 7 @chapter Lisp Data Types |
8 @cindex object | |
9 @cindex Lisp object | |
10 @cindex type | |
11 @cindex data type | |
12 | |
13 A Lisp @dfn{object} is a piece of data used and manipulated by Lisp | |
14 programs. For our purposes, a @dfn{type} or @dfn{data type} is a set of | |
15 possible objects. | |
16 | |
17 Every object belongs to at least one type. Objects of the same type | |
18 have similar structures and may usually be used in the same contexts. | |
19 Types can overlap, and objects can belong to two or more types. | |
20 Consequently, we can ask whether an object belongs to a particular type, | |
21 but not for ``the'' type of an object. | |
22 | |
23 @cindex primitive type | |
24 A few fundamental object types are built into Emacs. These, from | |
25 which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive | |
26 types}. Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These | |
27 types include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, | |
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28 @dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{subr}, @dfn{byte-code function}, plus |
6447 | 29 several special types, such as @dfn{buffer}, that are related to |
30 editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) | |
31 | |
32 Each primitive type has a corresponding Lisp function that checks | |
33 whether an object is a member of that type. | |
34 | |
35 Note that Lisp is unlike many other languages in that Lisp objects are | |
36 @dfn{self-typing}: the primitive type of the object is implicit in the | |
37 object itself. For example, if an object is a vector, nothing can treat | |
38 it as a number; Lisp knows it is a vector, not a number. | |
39 | |
40 In most languages, the programmer must declare the data type of each | |
41 variable, and the type is known by the compiler but not represented in | |
42 the data. Such type declarations do not exist in Emacs Lisp. A Lisp | |
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43 variable can have any type of value, and it remembers whatever value |
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44 you store in it, type and all. |
6447 | 45 |
46 This chapter describes the purpose, printed representation, and read | |
47 syntax of each of the standard types in GNU Emacs Lisp. Details on how | |
48 to use these types can be found in later chapters. | |
49 | |
50 @menu | |
51 * Printed Representation:: How Lisp objects are represented as text. | |
52 * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. | |
53 * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. | |
54 * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. | |
55 * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. | |
56 * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. | |
57 @end menu | |
58 | |
59 @node Printed Representation | |
60 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
61 @section Printed Representation and Read Syntax | |
62 @cindex printed representation | |
63 @cindex read syntax | |
64 | |
65 The @dfn{printed representation} of an object is the format of the | |
66 output generated by the Lisp printer (the function @code{prin1}) for | |
67 that object. The @dfn{read syntax} of an object is the format of the | |
68 input accepted by the Lisp reader (the function @code{read}) for that | |
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69 object. @xref{Read and Print}. |
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70 |
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71 Most objects have more than one possible read syntax. Some types of |
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72 object have no read syntax, since it may not make sense to enter objects |
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73 of these types directly in a Lisp program. Except for these cases, the |
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74 printed representation of an object is also a read syntax for it. |
6447 | 75 |
76 In other languages, an expression is text; it has no other form. In | |
77 Lisp, an expression is primarily a Lisp object and only secondarily the | |
78 text that is the object's read syntax. Often there is no need to | |
79 emphasize this distinction, but you must keep it in the back of your | |
80 mind, or you will occasionally be very confused. | |
81 | |
82 @cindex hash notation | |
83 Every type has a printed representation. Some types have no read | |
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84 syntax---for example, the buffer type has none. Objects of these types |
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85 are printed in @dfn{hash notation}: the characters @samp{#<} followed by |
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86 a descriptive string (typically the type name followed by the name of |
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87 the object), and closed with a matching @samp{>}. Hash notation cannot |
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88 be read at all, so the Lisp reader signals the error |
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89 @code{invalid-read-syntax} whenever it encounters @samp{#<}. |
6447 | 90 @kindex invalid-read-syntax |
91 | |
92 @example | |
93 (current-buffer) | |
94 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
95 @end example | |
96 | |
97 When you evaluate an expression interactively, the Lisp interpreter | |
98 first reads the textual representation of it, producing a Lisp object, | |
99 and then evaluates that object (@pxref{Evaluation}). However, | |
100 evaluation and reading are separate activities. Reading returns the | |
101 Lisp object represented by the text that is read; the object may or may | |
102 not be evaluated later. @xref{Input Functions}, for a description of | |
103 @code{read}, the basic function for reading objects. | |
104 | |
105 @node Comments | |
106 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
107 @section Comments | |
108 @cindex comments | |
109 @cindex @samp{;} in comment | |
110 | |
111 A @dfn{comment} is text that is written in a program only for the sake | |
112 of humans that read the program, and that has no effect on the meaning | |
113 of the program. In Lisp, a semicolon (@samp{;}) starts a comment if it | |
114 is not within a string or character constant. The comment continues to | |
115 the end of line. The Lisp reader discards comments; they do not become | |
116 part of the Lisp objects which represent the program within the Lisp | |
117 system. | |
118 | |
12098 | 119 The @samp{#@@@var{count}} construct, which skips the next @var{count} |
120 characters, is useful for program-generated comments containing binary | |
121 data. The Emacs Lisp byte compiler uses this in its output files | |
122 (@pxref{Byte Compilation}). It isn't meant for source files, however. | |
123 | |
6447 | 124 @xref{Comment Tips}, for conventions for formatting comments. |
125 | |
126 @node Programming Types | |
127 @section Programming Types | |
128 @cindex programming types | |
129 | |
130 There are two general categories of types in Emacs Lisp: those having | |
131 to do with Lisp programming, and those having to do with editing. The | |
132 former exist in many Lisp implementations, in one form or another. The | |
133 latter are unique to Emacs Lisp. | |
134 | |
135 @menu | |
136 * Integer Type:: Numbers without fractional parts. | |
137 * Floating Point Type:: Numbers with fractional parts and with a large range. | |
138 * Character Type:: The representation of letters, numbers and | |
139 control characters. | |
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140 * Symbol Type:: A multi-use object that refers to a function, |
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141 variable, or property list, and has a unique identity. |
6447 | 142 * Sequence Type:: Both lists and arrays are classified as sequences. |
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143 * Cons Cell Type:: Cons cells, and lists (which are made from cons cells). |
6447 | 144 * Array Type:: Arrays include strings and vectors. |
145 * String Type:: An (efficient) array of characters. | |
146 * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. | |
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147 * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. |
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148 * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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149 * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. |
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150 * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another |
6447 | 151 expression, more fundamental but less pretty. |
152 * Primitive Function Type:: A function written in C, callable from Lisp. | |
153 * Byte-Code Type:: A function written in Lisp, then compiled. | |
154 * Autoload Type:: A type used for automatically loading seldom-used | |
155 functions. | |
156 @end menu | |
157 | |
158 @node Integer Type | |
159 @subsection Integer Type | |
160 | |
10559 | 161 The range of values for integers in Emacs Lisp is @minus{}134217728 to |
162 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., | |
6447 | 163 @ifinfo |
10559 | 164 -2**27 |
6447 | 165 @end ifinfo |
166 @tex | |
10559 | 167 $-2^{27}$ |
6447 | 168 @end tex |
169 to | |
170 @ifinfo | |
10559 | 171 2**27 - 1) |
6447 | 172 @end ifinfo |
173 @tex | |
10559 | 174 $2^{28}-1$) |
6447 | 175 @end tex |
10559 | 176 on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is |
177 important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check | |
178 for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} is @minus{}134217728 on most | |
179 machines. | |
6447 | 180 |
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181 The read syntax for integers is a sequence of (base ten) digits with an |
6447 | 182 optional sign at the beginning and an optional period at the end. The |
183 printed representation produced by the Lisp interpreter never has a | |
184 leading @samp{+} or a final @samp{.}. | |
185 | |
186 @example | |
187 @group | |
188 -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} | |
189 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
190 1. ; @r{Also The integer 1.} | |
191 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
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192 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 28-bit implementation.} |
6447 | 193 @end group |
194 @end example | |
195 | |
196 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
197 | |
198 @node Floating Point Type | |
199 @subsection Floating Point Type | |
200 | |
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201 Emacs supports floating point numbers (though there is a compilation |
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202 option to disable them). The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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203 machine-specific. |
6447 | 204 |
205 The printed representation for floating point numbers requires either | |
206 a decimal point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or | |
207 both. For example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, | |
208 @samp{1.5e3}, and @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point | |
209 number whose value is 1500. They are all equivalent. | |
210 | |
211 @xref{Numbers}, for more information. | |
212 | |
213 @node Character Type | |
214 @subsection Character Type | |
215 @cindex @sc{ASCII} character codes | |
216 | |
217 A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In | |
218 other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For | |
219 example, the character @kbd{A} is represented as the @w{integer 65}. | |
220 | |
221 Individual characters are not often used in programs. It is far more | |
222 common to work with @emph{strings}, which are sequences composed of | |
223 characters. @xref{String Type}. | |
224 | |
225 Characters in strings, buffers, and files are currently limited to the | |
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226 range of 0 to 524287---nineteen bits. But not all values in that range |
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227 are valid character codes. Codes 0 through 127 are ASCII codes; the |
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228 rest are non-ASCII (@pxref{Non-ASCII Characters}). Characters that represent |
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229 keyboard input have a much wider range, to encode modifier keys such as |
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230 Control, Meta and Shift. |
6447 | 231 |
232 @cindex read syntax for characters | |
233 @cindex printed representation for characters | |
234 @cindex syntax for characters | |
235 Since characters are really integers, the printed representation of a | |
236 character is a decimal number. This is also a possible read syntax for | |
237 a character, but writing characters that way in Lisp programs is a very | |
238 bad idea. You should @emph{always} use the special read syntax formats | |
239 that Emacs Lisp provides for characters. These syntax formats start | |
240 with a question mark. | |
241 | |
242 The usual read syntax for alphanumeric characters is a question mark | |
243 followed by the character; thus, @samp{?A} for the character | |
244 @kbd{A}, @samp{?B} for the character @kbd{B}, and @samp{?a} for the | |
245 character @kbd{a}. | |
246 | |
247 For example: | |
248 | |
249 @example | |
250 ?Q @result{} 81 ?q @result{} 113 | |
251 @end example | |
252 | |
253 You can use the same syntax for punctuation characters, but it is | |
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254 often a good idea to add a @samp{\} so that the Emacs commands for |
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255 editing Lisp code don't get confused. For example, @samp{?\ } is the |
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256 way to write the space character. If the character is @samp{\}, you |
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257 @emph{must} use a second @samp{\} to quote it: @samp{?\\}. |
6447 | 258 |
259 @cindex whitespace | |
260 @cindex bell character | |
261 @cindex @samp{\a} | |
262 @cindex backspace | |
263 @cindex @samp{\b} | |
264 @cindex tab | |
265 @cindex @samp{\t} | |
266 @cindex vertical tab | |
267 @cindex @samp{\v} | |
268 @cindex formfeed | |
269 @cindex @samp{\f} | |
270 @cindex newline | |
271 @cindex @samp{\n} | |
272 @cindex return | |
273 @cindex @samp{\r} | |
274 @cindex escape | |
275 @cindex @samp{\e} | |
276 You can express the characters Control-g, backspace, tab, newline, | |
277 vertical tab, formfeed, return, and escape as @samp{?\a}, @samp{?\b}, | |
278 @samp{?\t}, @samp{?\n}, @samp{?\v}, @samp{?\f}, @samp{?\r}, @samp{?\e}, | |
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279 respectively. Thus, |
6447 | 280 |
281 @example | |
282 ?\a @result{} 7 ; @r{@kbd{C-g}} | |
283 ?\b @result{} 8 ; @r{backspace, @key{BS}, @kbd{C-h}} | |
284 ?\t @result{} 9 ; @r{tab, @key{TAB}, @kbd{C-i}} | |
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285 ?\n @result{} 10 ; @r{newline, @kbd{C-j}} |
6447 | 286 ?\v @result{} 11 ; @r{vertical tab, @kbd{C-k}} |
287 ?\f @result{} 12 ; @r{formfeed character, @kbd{C-l}} | |
288 ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} | |
289 ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} | |
290 ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} | |
291 @end example | |
292 | |
293 @cindex escape sequence | |
294 These sequences which start with backslash are also known as | |
295 @dfn{escape sequences}, because backslash plays the role of an escape | |
296 character; this usage has nothing to do with the character @key{ESC}. | |
297 | |
298 @cindex control characters | |
299 Control characters may be represented using yet another read syntax. | |
300 This consists of a question mark followed by a backslash, caret, and the | |
301 corresponding non-control character, in either upper or lower case. For | |
302 example, both @samp{?\^I} and @samp{?\^i} are valid read syntax for the | |
303 character @kbd{C-i}, the character whose value is 9. | |
304 | |
305 Instead of the @samp{^}, you can use @samp{C-}; thus, @samp{?\C-i} is | |
306 equivalent to @samp{?\^I} and to @samp{?\^i}: | |
307 | |
308 @example | |
309 ?\^I @result{} 9 ?\C-I @result{} 9 | |
310 @end example | |
311 | |
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312 In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those |
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313 that exist in @sc{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn |
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314 any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character |
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315 codes for these non-@sc{ASCII} control characters include the |
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316 @tex |
12098 | 317 $2^{26}$ |
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318 @end tex |
12098 | 319 @ifinfo |
320 2**26 | |
321 @end ifinfo | |
322 bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control | |
6447 | 323 character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ASCII} |
324 control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using an | |
325 X terminal. | |
326 | |
12098 | 327 For historical reasons, Emacs treats the @key{DEL} character as |
328 the control equivalent of @kbd{?}: | |
6447 | 329 |
330 @example | |
331 ?\^? @result{} 127 ?\C-? @result{} 127 | |
332 @end example | |
333 | |
12098 | 334 @noindent |
335 As a result, it is currently not possible to represent the character | |
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336 @kbd{Control-?}, which is a meaningful input character under X, using |
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337 @samp{\C-}. It is not easy to change this, as various Lisp files refer |
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338 to @key{DEL} in this way. |
12098 | 339 |
6447 | 340 For representing control characters to be found in files or strings, |
341 we recommend the @samp{^} syntax; for control characters in keyboard | |
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342 input, we prefer the @samp{C-} syntax. Which one you use does not |
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343 affect the meaning of the program, but may guide the understanding of |
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344 people who read it. |
6447 | 345 |
346 @cindex meta characters | |
347 A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} | |
348 modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the | |
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349 @tex |
12098 | 350 $2^{27}$ |
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351 @end tex |
12098 | 352 @ifinfo |
353 2**27 | |
354 @end ifinfo | |
355 bit set (which on most machines makes it a negative number). We | |
6447 | 356 use high bits for this and other modifiers to make possible a wide range |
357 of basic character codes. | |
358 | |
12098 | 359 In a string, the |
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360 @tex |
12098 | 361 $2^{7}$ |
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362 @end tex |
12098 | 363 @ifinfo |
364 2**7 | |
365 @end ifinfo | |
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366 bit attached to an ASCII character indicates a meta character; thus, the |
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367 meta characters that can fit in a string have codes in the range from |
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368 128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ASCII} |
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369 characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, this convention was used |
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370 for characters outside of strings as well.) |
6447 | 371 |
372 The read syntax for meta characters uses @samp{\M-}. For example, | |
373 @samp{?\M-A} stands for @kbd{M-A}. You can use @samp{\M-} together with | |
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374 octal character codes (see below), with @samp{\C-}, or with any other |
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375 syntax for a character. Thus, you can write @kbd{M-A} as @samp{?\M-A}, |
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376 or as @samp{?\M-\101}. Likewise, you can write @kbd{C-M-b} as |
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377 @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. |
6447 | 378 |
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379 The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; |
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380 for example, @sc{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} |
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381 and @samp{A}. But @sc{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control |
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382 character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the |
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383 @tex |
12098 | 384 $2^{25}$ |
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385 @end tex |
12098 | 386 @ifinfo |
387 2**25 | |
388 @end ifinfo | |
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389 bit to indicate that the shift key was used in typing a control |
12098 | 390 character. This distinction is possible only when you use X terminals |
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391 or other special terminals; ordinary terminals do not report the |
12098 | 392 distinction to the computer in any way. |
6447 | 393 |
394 @cindex hyper characters | |
395 @cindex super characters | |
396 @cindex alt characters | |
397 The X Window System defines three other modifier bits that can be set | |
398 in a character: @dfn{hyper}, @dfn{super} and @dfn{alt}. The syntaxes | |
399 for these bits are @samp{\H-}, @samp{\s-} and @samp{\A-}. Thus, | |
12098 | 400 @samp{?\H-\M-\A-x} represents @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. |
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401 @tex |
12098 | 402 Numerically, the |
403 bit values are $2^{22}$ for alt, $2^{23}$ for super and $2^{24}$ for hyper. | |
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404 @end tex |
12098 | 405 @ifinfo |
406 Numerically, the | |
407 bit values are 2**22 for alt, 2**23 for super and 2**24 for hyper. | |
408 @end ifinfo | |
6447 | 409 |
410 @cindex @samp{?} in character constant | |
411 @cindex question mark in character constant | |
412 @cindex @samp{\} in character constant | |
413 @cindex backslash in character constant | |
414 @cindex octal character code | |
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415 Finally, the most general read syntax for a character represents the |
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416 character code in either octal or hex. To use octal, write a question |
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417 mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three |
6447 | 418 octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, |
419 @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the | |
420 character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ASCII} | |
421 character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more | |
422 important than the @sc{ASCII} representation. | |
423 | |
424 @example | |
425 @group | |
426 ?\012 @result{} 10 ?\n @result{} 10 ?\C-j @result{} 10 | |
427 ?\101 @result{} 65 ?A @result{} 65 | |
428 @end group | |
429 @end example | |
430 | |
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431 To use hex, write a question mark followed by a backslash, @samp{x}, |
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432 and the hexadecimal character code. You can use any number of hex |
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433 digits, so you can represent any character code in this way. |
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434 Thus, @samp{?\x41} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\x1} for the |
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435 character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\x8c0} for the character |
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436 @iftex |
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437 @samp{@`a}. |
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438 @end iftex |
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439 @ifinfo |
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440 @samp{a} with grave accent. |
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441 @end ifinfo |
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442 |
6447 | 443 A backslash is allowed, and harmless, preceding any character without |
444 a special escape meaning; thus, @samp{?\+} is equivalent to @samp{?+}. | |
445 There is no reason to add a backslash before most characters. However, | |
446 you should add a backslash before any of the characters | |
447 @samp{()\|;'`"#.,} to avoid confusing the Emacs commands for editing | |
448 Lisp code. Also add a backslash before whitespace characters such as | |
449 space, tab, newline and formfeed. However, it is cleaner to use one of | |
450 the easily readable escape sequences, such as @samp{\t}, instead of an | |
451 actual whitespace character such as a tab. | |
452 | |
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453 @node Symbol Type |
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454 @subsection Symbol Type |
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455 |
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456 A @dfn{symbol} in GNU Emacs Lisp is an object with a name. The symbol |
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457 name serves as the printed representation of the symbol. In ordinary |
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458 use, the name is unique---no two symbols have the same name. |
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459 |
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460 A symbol can serve as a variable, as a function name, or to hold a |
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461 property list. Or it may serve only to be distinct from all other Lisp |
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462 objects, so that its presence in a data structure may be recognized |
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463 reliably. In a given context, usually only one of these uses is |
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464 intended. But you can use one symbol in all of these ways, |
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465 independently. |
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466 |
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467 @cindex @samp{\} in symbols |
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468 @cindex backslash in symbols |
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469 A symbol name can contain any characters whatever. Most symbol names |
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470 are written with letters, digits, and the punctuation characters |
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471 @samp{-+=*/}. Such names require no special punctuation; the characters |
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472 of the name suffice as long as the name does not look like a number. |
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473 (If it does, write a @samp{\} at the beginning of the name to force |
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474 interpretation as a symbol.) The characters @samp{_~!@@$%^&:<>@{@}} are |
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475 less often used but also require no special punctuation. Any other |
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476 characters may be included in a symbol's name by escaping them with a |
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477 backslash. In contrast to its use in strings, however, a backslash in |
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478 the name of a symbol simply quotes the single character that follows the |
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479 backslash. For example, in a string, @samp{\t} represents a tab |
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480 character; in the name of a symbol, however, @samp{\t} merely quotes the |
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481 letter @samp{t}. To have a symbol with a tab character in its name, you |
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482 must actually use a tab (preceded with a backslash). But it's rare to |
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483 do such a thing. |
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484 |
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485 @cindex CL note---case of letters |
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486 @quotation |
7734 | 487 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, lower case letters are always |
12098 | 488 ``folded'' to upper case, unless they are explicitly escaped. In Emacs |
489 Lisp, upper case and lower case letters are distinct. | |
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490 @end quotation |
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491 |
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492 Here are several examples of symbol names. Note that the @samp{+} in |
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493 the fifth example is escaped to prevent it from being read as a number. |
12098 | 494 This is not necessary in the sixth example because the rest of the name |
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495 makes it invalid as a number. |
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496 |
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497 @example |
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498 @group |
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499 foo ; @r{A symbol named @samp{foo}.} |
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500 FOO ; @r{A symbol named @samp{FOO}, different from @samp{foo}.} |
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501 char-to-string ; @r{A symbol named @samp{char-to-string}.} |
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502 @end group |
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503 @group |
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504 1+ ; @r{A symbol named @samp{1+}} |
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505 ; @r{(not @samp{+1}, which is an integer).} |
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506 @end group |
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507 @group |
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508 \+1 ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+1}} |
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509 ; @r{(not a very readable name).} |
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510 @end group |
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511 @group |
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512 \(*\ 1\ 2\) ; @r{A symbol named @samp{(* 1 2)} (a worse name).} |
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513 @c the @'s in this next line use up three characters, hence the |
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514 @c apparent misalignment of the comment. |
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515 +-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@} ; @r{A symbol named @samp{+-*/_~!@@$%^&=:<>@{@}}.} |
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516 ; @r{These characters need not be escaped.} |
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517 @end group |
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518 @end example |
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519 |
6447 | 520 @node Sequence Type |
521 @subsection Sequence Types | |
522 | |
523 A @dfn{sequence} is a Lisp object that represents an ordered set of | |
524 elements. There are two kinds of sequence in Emacs Lisp, lists and | |
525 arrays. Thus, an object of type list or of type array is also | |
526 considered a sequence. | |
527 | |
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528 Arrays are further subdivided into strings, vectors, char-tables and |
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529 bool-vectors. Vectors can hold elements of any type, but string |
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530 elements must be characters, and bool-vector elements must be @code{t} |
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531 or @code{nil}. The characters in a string can have text properties like |
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532 characters in a buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}); vectors and |
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533 bool-vectors do not support text properties even when their elements |
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534 happen to be characters. Char-tables are like vectors except that they |
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535 are indexed by any valid character code. |
6447 | 536 |
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537 Lists, strings and the other array types are different, but they have |
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538 important similarities. For example, all have a length @var{l}, and all |
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539 have elements which can be indexed from zero to @var{l} minus one. |
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540 Several functions, called sequence functions, accept any kind of |
6447 | 541 sequence. For example, the function @code{elt} can be used to extract |
542 an element of a sequence, given its index. @xref{Sequences Arrays | |
543 Vectors}. | |
544 | |
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545 It is generally impossible to read the same sequence twice, since |
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546 sequences are always created anew upon reading. If you read the read |
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547 syntax for a sequence twice, you get two sequences with equal contents. |
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548 There is one exception: the empty list @code{()} always stands for the |
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549 same object, @code{nil}. |
6447 | 550 |
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551 @node Cons Cell Type |
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552 @subsection Cons Cell and List Types |
6447 | 553 @cindex address field of register |
554 @cindex decrement field of register | |
555 | |
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556 A @dfn{cons cell} is an object comprising two pointers named the |
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557 @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr}. Each of them can point to any Lisp object. |
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558 |
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559 A @dfn{list} is a series of cons cells, linked together so that the |
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560 @sc{cdr} of each cons cell points either to another cons cell or to the |
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561 empty list. @xref{Lists}, for functions that work on lists. Because |
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562 most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase @dfn{list |
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563 structure} has come to refer to any structure made out of cons cells. |
6447 | 564 |
565 The names @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} have only historical meaning now. The | |
566 original Lisp implementation ran on an @w{IBM 704} computer which | |
567 divided words into two parts, called the ``address'' part and the | |
568 ``decrement''; @sc{car} was an instruction to extract the contents of | |
569 the address part of a register, and @sc{cdr} an instruction to extract | |
570 the contents of the decrement. By contrast, ``cons cells'' are named | |
571 for the function @code{cons} that creates them, which in turn is named | |
572 for its purpose, the construction of cells. | |
573 | |
574 @cindex atom | |
575 Because cons cells are so central to Lisp, we also have a word for | |
576 ``an object which is not a cons cell''. These objects are called | |
577 @dfn{atoms}. | |
578 | |
579 @cindex parenthesis | |
580 The read syntax and printed representation for lists are identical, and | |
581 consist of a left parenthesis, an arbitrary number of elements, and a | |
582 right parenthesis. | |
583 | |
584 Upon reading, each object inside the parentheses becomes an element | |
585 of the list. That is, a cons cell is made for each element. The | |
586 @sc{car} of the cons cell points to the element, and its @sc{cdr} points | |
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587 to the next cons cell of the list, which holds the next element in the |
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588 list. The @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell is set to point to @code{nil}. |
6447 | 589 |
590 @cindex box diagrams, for lists | |
591 @cindex diagrams, boxed, for lists | |
592 A list can be illustrated by a diagram in which the cons cells are | |
593 shown as pairs of boxes. (The Lisp reader cannot read such an | |
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594 illustration; unlike the textual notation, which can be understood by |
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595 both humans and computers, the box illustrations can be understood only |
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596 by humans.) The following represents the three-element list @code{(rose |
6447 | 597 violet buttercup)}: |
598 | |
599 @example | |
600 @group | |
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601 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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602 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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603 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 604 | | | |
605 | | | | |
606 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
607 @end group | |
608 @end example | |
609 | |
610 In this diagram, each box represents a slot that can refer to any Lisp | |
611 object. Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each arrow is a | |
612 reference to a Lisp object, either an atom or another cons cell. | |
613 | |
614 In this example, the first box, the @sc{car} of the first cons cell, | |
615 refers to or ``contains'' @code{rose} (a symbol). The second box, the | |
616 @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell, refers to the next pair of boxes, the | |
617 second cons cell. The @sc{car} of the second cons cell refers to | |
618 @code{violet} and the @sc{cdr} refers to the third cons cell. The | |
619 @sc{cdr} of the third (and last) cons cell refers to @code{nil}. | |
620 | |
621 Here is another diagram of the same list, @code{(rose violet | |
622 buttercup)}, sketched in a different manner: | |
623 | |
624 @smallexample | |
625 @group | |
626 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
627 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
628 | rose | o-------->| violet | o-------->| buttercup | nil | | |
629 | | | | | | | | | | |
630 --------------- ---------------- ------------------- | |
631 @end group | |
632 @end smallexample | |
633 | |
634 @cindex @samp{(@dots{})} in lists | |
635 @cindex @code{nil} in lists | |
636 @cindex empty list | |
637 A list with no elements in it is the @dfn{empty list}; it is identical | |
638 to the symbol @code{nil}. In other words, @code{nil} is both a symbol | |
639 and a list. | |
640 | |
641 Here are examples of lists written in Lisp syntax: | |
642 | |
643 @example | |
644 (A 2 "A") ; @r{A list of three elements.} | |
645 () ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
646 nil ; @r{A list of no elements (the empty list).} | |
647 ("A ()") ; @r{A list of one element: the string @code{"A ()"}.} | |
648 (A ()) ; @r{A list of two elements: @code{A} and the empty list.} | |
649 (A nil) ; @r{Equivalent to the previous.} | |
650 ((A B C)) ; @r{A list of one element} | |
651 ; @r{(which is a list of three elements).} | |
652 @end example | |
653 | |
654 Here is the list @code{(A ())}, or equivalently @code{(A nil)}, | |
655 depicted with boxes and arrows: | |
656 | |
657 @example | |
658 @group | |
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659 --- --- --- --- |
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660 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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661 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 662 | | |
663 | | | |
664 --> A --> nil | |
665 @end group | |
666 @end example | |
667 | |
668 @menu | |
669 * Dotted Pair Notation:: An alternative syntax for lists. | |
670 * Association List Type:: A specially constructed list. | |
671 @end menu | |
672 | |
673 @node Dotted Pair Notation | |
674 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
675 @subsubsection Dotted Pair Notation | |
676 @cindex dotted pair notation | |
677 @cindex @samp{.} in lists | |
678 | |
679 @dfn{Dotted pair notation} is an alternative syntax for cons cells | |
680 that represents the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} explicitly. In this syntax, | |
681 @code{(@var{a} .@: @var{b})} stands for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is | |
682 the object @var{a}, and whose @sc{cdr} is the object @var{b}. Dotted | |
683 pair notation is therefore more general than list syntax. In the dotted | |
684 pair notation, the list @samp{(1 2 3)} is written as @samp{(1 . (2 . (3 | |
685 . nil)))}. For @code{nil}-terminated lists, the two notations produce | |
686 the same result, but list notation is usually clearer and more | |
687 convenient when it is applicable. When printing a list, the dotted pair | |
688 notation is only used if the @sc{cdr} of a cell is not a list. | |
689 | |
690 Here's how box notation can illustrate dotted pairs. This example | |
691 shows the pair @code{(rose . violet)}: | |
692 | |
693 @example | |
694 @group | |
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695 --- --- |
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696 | | |--> violet |
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697 --- --- |
6447 | 698 | |
699 | | |
700 --> rose | |
701 @end group | |
702 @end example | |
703 | |
704 Dotted pair notation can be combined with list notation to represent a | |
705 chain of cons cells with a non-@code{nil} final @sc{cdr}. For example, | |
706 @code{(rose violet . buttercup)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet | |
707 . buttercup))}. The object looks like this: | |
708 | |
709 @example | |
710 @group | |
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711 --- --- --- --- |
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712 | | |--> | | |--> buttercup |
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713 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 714 | | |
715 | | | |
716 --> rose --> violet | |
717 @end group | |
718 @end example | |
719 | |
720 These diagrams make it evident why @w{@code{(rose .@: violet .@: | |
721 buttercup)}} is invalid syntax; it would require a cons cell that has | |
722 three parts rather than two. | |
723 | |
724 The list @code{(rose violet)} is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet))} | |
725 and looks like this: | |
726 | |
727 @example | |
728 @group | |
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729 --- --- --- --- |
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730 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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731 --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 732 | | |
733 | | | |
734 --> rose --> violet | |
735 @end group | |
736 @end example | |
737 | |
738 Similarly, the three-element list @code{(rose violet buttercup)} | |
739 is equivalent to @code{(rose . (violet . (buttercup)))}. | |
740 @ifinfo | |
741 It looks like this: | |
742 | |
743 @example | |
744 @group | |
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745 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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746 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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747 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6447 | 748 | | | |
749 | | | | |
750 --> rose --> violet --> buttercup | |
751 @end group | |
752 @end example | |
753 @end ifinfo | |
754 | |
755 @node Association List Type | |
756 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
757 @subsubsection Association List Type | |
758 | |
759 An @dfn{association list} or @dfn{alist} is a specially-constructed | |
760 list whose elements are cons cells. In each element, the @sc{car} is | |
761 considered a @dfn{key}, and the @sc{cdr} is considered an | |
762 @dfn{associated value}. (In some cases, the associated value is stored | |
763 in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr}.) Association lists are often used as | |
764 stacks, since it is easy to add or remove associations at the front of | |
765 the list. | |
766 | |
767 For example, | |
768 | |
769 @example | |
770 (setq alist-of-colors | |
771 '((rose . red) (lily . white) (buttercup . yellow))) | |
772 @end example | |
773 | |
774 @noindent | |
775 sets the variable @code{alist-of-colors} to an alist of three elements. In the | |
776 first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. | |
777 | |
778 @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for | |
779 functions that work on alists. | |
780 | |
781 @node Array Type | |
782 @subsection Array Type | |
783 | |
784 An @dfn{array} is composed of an arbitrary number of slots for | |
785 referring to other Lisp objects, arranged in a contiguous block of | |
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786 memory. Accessing any element of an array takes approximately the same |
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787 amount of time. In contrast, accessing an element of a list requires |
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788 time proportional to the position of the element in the list. (Elements |
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789 at the end of a list take longer to access than elements at the |
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790 beginning of a list.) |
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791 |
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792 Emacs defines four types of array: strings, vectors, bool-vectors, and |
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793 char-tables. |
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794 |
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795 A string is an array of characters and a vector is an array of |
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796 arbitrary objects. A bool-vector can hold only @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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797 These kinds of array may have any length up to the largest integer. |
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798 Char-tables are sparse arrays indexed by any valid character code; they |
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799 can hold arbitrary objects. |
6447 | 800 |
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801 The first element of an array has index zero, the second element has |
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802 index 1, and so on. This is called @dfn{zero-origin} indexing. For |
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803 example, an array of four elements has indices 0, 1, 2, @w{and 3}. The |
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804 largest possible index value is one less than the length of the array. |
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805 Once an array is created, its length is fixed. |
6447 | 806 |
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807 All Emacs Lisp arrays are one-dimensional. (Most other programming |
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808 languages support multidimensional arrays, but they are not essential; |
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809 you can get the same effect with an array of arrays.) Each type of |
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810 array has its own read syntax; see the following sections for details. |
6447 | 811 |
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812 The array type is contained in the sequence type and |
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813 contains the string type, the vector type, the bool-vector type, and the |
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814 char-table type. |
6447 | 815 |
816 @node String Type | |
817 @subsection String Type | |
818 | |
819 A @dfn{string} is an array of characters. Strings are used for many | |
820 purposes in Emacs, as can be expected in a text editor; for example, as | |
821 the names of Lisp symbols, as messages for the user, and to represent | |
822 text extracted from buffers. Strings in Lisp are constants: evaluation | |
823 of a string returns the same string. | |
824 | |
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825 @xref{Strings and Characters}, for functions that operate on strings. |
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826 |
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827 @menu |
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828 * Syntax for Strings:: |
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829 * Non-ASCII in Strings:: |
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830 * Nonprinting Characters:: |
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831 * Text Props and Strings:: |
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832 @end menu |
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833 |
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834 @node Syntax for Strings |
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835 @subsubsection Syntax for Strings |
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836 |
6447 | 837 @cindex @samp{"} in strings |
838 @cindex double-quote in strings | |
839 @cindex @samp{\} in strings | |
840 @cindex backslash in strings | |
841 The read syntax for strings is a double-quote, an arbitrary number of | |
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842 characters, and another double-quote, @code{"like this"}. To include a |
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843 double-quote in a string, precede it with a backslash; thus, @code{"\""} |
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844 is a string containing just a single double-quote character. Likewise, |
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845 you can include a backslash by preceding it with another backslash, like |
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846 this: @code{"this \\ is a single embedded backslash"}. |
6447 | 847 |
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848 @cindex newline in strings |
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849 The newline character is not special in the read syntax for strings; |
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850 if you write a new line between the double-quotes, it becomes a |
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851 character in the string. But an escaped newline---one that is preceded |
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852 by @samp{\}---does not become part of the string; i.e., the Lisp reader |
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853 ignores an escaped newline while reading a string. An escaped space |
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854 @w{@samp{\ }} is likewise ignored. |
6447 | 855 |
856 @example | |
857 "It is useful to include newlines | |
858 in documentation strings, | |
859 but the newline is \ | |
860 ignored if escaped." | |
861 @result{} "It is useful to include newlines | |
862 in documentation strings, | |
863 but the newline is ignored if escaped." | |
864 @end example | |
865 | |
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866 @node Non-ASCII in Strings |
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867 @subsubsection Non-ASCII Characters in Strings |
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868 |
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869 You can include a non-@sc{ASCII} international character in a string |
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870 constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations |
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871 for non-@sc{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte |
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872 and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, |
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873 such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as |
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874 multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that |
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875 makes the string multibyte. If the string constant is read from a |
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876 unibyte source, then the character is read as unibyte and that makes the |
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877 string unibyte. |
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878 |
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879 @c ??? Change this? |
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880 You can also represent a multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character with its |
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881 character code, using a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many |
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882 digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character codes are all |
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883 greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit |
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884 terminates this construct. If the character that would follow is a hex |
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885 digit, write @samp{\ } to terminate the hex escape---for example, |
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886 @samp{\x8c0\ } represents one character, @samp{a} with grave accent. |
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887 @samp{\ } in a string constant is just like backslash-newline; it does |
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888 not contribute any character to the string, but it does terminate the |
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889 preceding hex escape. |
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890 |
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891 Using a multibyte hex escape forces the string to multibyte. You can |
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892 represent a unibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character with its character code, |
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893 which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to 255 (0377 octal). |
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894 This forces a unibyte string. |
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895 |
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896 @xref{Text Representations}, for more information about the two |
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897 text representations. |
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898 |
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899 @node Nonprinting Characters |
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900 @subsubsection Nonprinting Characters in Strings |
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901 |
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902 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super, or alt |
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903 modifiers; the only control or meta characters they can hold are the |
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904 @sc{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not distinguish case in |
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905 @sc{ASCII} control characters. |
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906 |
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907 You can use the same backslash escape-sequences in a string constant |
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908 as in character literals (but do not use the question mark that begins a |
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909 character constant). For example, you can write a string containing the |
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910 nonprinting characters tab, @kbd{C-a} and @kbd{M-C-a}, with commas and |
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911 spaces between them, like this: @code{"\t, \C-a, \M-\C-a"}. |
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912 @xref{Character Type}, for a description of the read syntax for |
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913 characters. |
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914 |
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915 If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate a meta character in a |
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916 string constant, this sets the |
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917 @tex |
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918 $2^{7}$ |
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919 @end tex |
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920 @ifinfo |
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921 2**7 |
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922 @end ifinfo |
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923 bit of the character in the string. This construct works only with |
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924 ASCII characters. Note that the same meta characters have a different |
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925 representation when not in a string. @xref{Character Type}. |
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926 |
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927 @node Text Props and Strings |
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928 @subsubsection Text Properties in Strings |
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929 |
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930 A string can hold properties for the characters it contains, in |
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931 addition to the characters themselves. This enables programs that copy |
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932 text between strings and buffers to copy the text's properties with no |
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933 special effort. @xref{Text Properties}, for an explanation of what text |
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934 properties mean. Strings with text properties use a special read and |
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935 print syntax: |
6447 | 936 |
937 @example | |
938 #("@var{characters}" @var{property-data}...) | |
939 @end example | |
940 | |
941 @noindent | |
942 where @var{property-data} consists of zero or more elements, in groups | |
943 of three as follows: | |
944 | |
945 @example | |
946 @var{beg} @var{end} @var{plist} | |
947 @end example | |
948 | |
949 @noindent | |
950 The elements @var{beg} and @var{end} are integers, and together specify | |
951 a range of indices in the string; @var{plist} is the property list for | |
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952 that range. For example, |
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953 |
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954 @example |
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955 #("foo bar" 0 3 (face bold) 3 4 nil 4 7 (face italic)) |
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956 @end example |
6447 | 957 |
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958 @noindent |
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959 represents a string whose textual contents are @samp{foo bar}, in which |
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960 the first three characters have a @code{face} property with value |
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961 @code{bold}, and the last three have a @code{face} property with value |
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962 @code{italic}. (The fourth character has no text properties so its |
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963 property list is @code{nil}.) |
6447 | 964 |
965 @node Vector Type | |
966 @subsection Vector Type | |
967 | |
968 A @dfn{vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type. It | |
969 takes a constant amount of time to access any element of a vector. (In | |
970 a list, the access time of an element is proportional to the distance of | |
971 the element from the beginning of the list.) | |
972 | |
973 The printed representation of a vector consists of a left square | |
974 bracket, the elements, and a right square bracket. This is also the | |
975 read syntax. Like numbers and strings, vectors are considered constants | |
976 for evaluation. | |
977 | |
978 @example | |
979 [1 "two" (three)] ; @r{A vector of three elements.} | |
980 @result{} [1 "two" (three)] | |
981 @end example | |
982 | |
983 @xref{Vectors}, for functions that work with vectors. | |
984 | |
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985 @node Char-Table Type |
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986 @subsection Char-Table Type |
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987 |
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988 A @dfn{char-table} is a one-dimensional array of elements of any type, |
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989 indexed by character codes. Char-tables have certain extra features to |
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990 make them more useful for many jobs that involve assigning information |
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991 to character codes---for example, a char-table can have a parent to |
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992 inherit from, a default value, and a small number of extra slots to use for |
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993 special purposes. A char-table can also specify a single value for |
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994 a whole character set. |
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995 |
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996 The printed representation of a char-table is like a vector |
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997 except that there is an extra @samp{#^} at the beginning. |
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998 |
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999 @xref{Char-Tables}, for special functions to operate on char-tables. |
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1000 Uses of char-tables include: |
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1001 |
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1002 @itemize @bullet |
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1003 @item |
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1004 Case tables (@pxref{Case Tables}). |
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1005 |
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1006 @item |
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1007 Character category tables (@pxref{Categories}). |
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1008 |
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1009 @item |
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1010 Display Tables (@pxref{Display Tables}). |
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1011 |
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1012 @item |
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1013 Syntax tables (@pxref{Syntax Tables}). |
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1014 @end itemize |
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1015 |
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1016 @node Bool-Vector Type |
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1017 @subsection Bool-Vector Type |
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1018 |
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1019 A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that |
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1020 must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
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1021 |
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1022 The printed representation of a Bool-vector is like a string, except |
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1023 that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string |
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1024 constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector |
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1025 as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which |
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1026 specify the next 8 elements of the bool-vector (1 stands for @code{t}, |
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1027 and 0 for @code{nil}). If the length is not a multiple of 8, the |
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1028 printed representation describes extra elements, but these really |
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1029 make no difference. |
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1030 |
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1031 @example |
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1032 (make-bool-vector 3 t) |
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1033 @result{} #&3"\377" |
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1034 (make-bool-vector 3 nil) |
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1035 @result{} #&3"\0"" |
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1036 ;; @r{These are equal since only the first 3 bits are used.} |
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1037 (equal #&3"\377" #&3"\340") |
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1038 @result{} t |
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1039 @end example |
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1040 |
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1041 @node Function Type |
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1042 @subsection Function Type |
6447 | 1043 |
1044 Just as functions in other programming languages are executable, | |
1045 @dfn{Lisp function} objects are pieces of executable code. However, | |
1046 functions in Lisp are primarily Lisp objects, and only secondarily the | |
1047 text which represents them. These Lisp objects are lambda expressions: | |
1048 lists whose first element is the symbol @code{lambda} (@pxref{Lambda | |
1049 Expressions}). | |
1050 | |
1051 In most programming languages, it is impossible to have a function | |
1052 without a name. In Lisp, a function has no intrinsic name. A lambda | |
1053 expression is also called an @dfn{anonymous function} (@pxref{Anonymous | |
1054 Functions}). A named function in Lisp is actually a symbol with a valid | |
1055 function in its function cell (@pxref{Defining Functions}). | |
1056 | |
1057 Most of the time, functions are called when their names are written in | |
1058 Lisp expressions in Lisp programs. However, you can construct or obtain | |
1059 a function object at run time and then call it with the primitive | |
1060 functions @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. @xref{Calling Functions}. | |
1061 | |
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1062 @node Macro Type |
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1063 @subsection Macro Type |
6447 | 1064 |
1065 A @dfn{Lisp macro} is a user-defined construct that extends the Lisp | |
1066 language. It is represented as an object much like a function, but with | |
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1067 different argument-passing semantics. A Lisp macro has the form of a |
6447 | 1068 list whose first element is the symbol @code{macro} and whose @sc{cdr} |
1069 is a Lisp function object, including the @code{lambda} symbol. | |
1070 | |
1071 Lisp macro objects are usually defined with the built-in | |
1072 @code{defmacro} function, but any list that begins with @code{macro} is | |
1073 a macro as far as Emacs is concerned. @xref{Macros}, for an explanation | |
1074 of how to write a macro. | |
1075 | |
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1076 @strong{Warning}: Lisp macros and keyboard macros (@pxref{Keyboard |
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1077 Macros}) are entirely different things. When we use the word ``macro'' |
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1078 without qualification, we mean a Lisp macro, not a keyboard macro. |
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1079 |
6447 | 1080 @node Primitive Function Type |
1081 @subsection Primitive Function Type | |
1082 @cindex special forms | |
1083 | |
1084 A @dfn{primitive function} is a function callable from Lisp but | |
1085 written in the C programming language. Primitive functions are also | |
1086 called @dfn{subrs} or @dfn{built-in functions}. (The word ``subr'' is | |
1087 derived from ``subroutine''.) Most primitive functions evaluate all | |
1088 their arguments when they are called. A primitive function that does | |
1089 not evaluate all its arguments is called a @dfn{special form} | |
1090 (@pxref{Special Forms}).@refill | |
1091 | |
1092 It does not matter to the caller of a function whether the function is | |
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1093 primitive. However, this does matter if you try to redefine a primitive |
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1094 with a function written in Lisp. The reason is that the primitive |
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1095 function may be called directly from C code. Calls to the redefined |
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1096 function from Lisp will use the new definition, but calls from C code |
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1097 may still use the built-in definition. Therefore, @strong{we discourage |
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1098 redefinition of primitive functions}. |
6447 | 1099 |
1100 The term @dfn{function} refers to all Emacs functions, whether written | |
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1101 in Lisp or C. @xref{Function Type}, for information about the |
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1102 functions written in Lisp. |
6447 | 1103 |
1104 Primitive functions have no read syntax and print in hash notation | |
1105 with the name of the subroutine. | |
1106 | |
1107 @example | |
1108 @group | |
1109 (symbol-function 'car) ; @r{Access the function cell} | |
1110 ; @r{of the symbol.} | |
1111 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1112 (subrp (symbol-function 'car)) ; @r{Is this a primitive function?} | |
1113 @result{} t ; @r{Yes.} | |
1114 @end group | |
1115 @end example | |
1116 | |
1117 @node Byte-Code Type | |
1118 @subsection Byte-Code Function Type | |
1119 | |
1120 The byte compiler produces @dfn{byte-code function objects}. | |
1121 Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector; however, | |
1122 the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears as a | |
1123 function to be called. @xref{Byte Compilation}, for information about | |
1124 the byte compiler. | |
1125 | |
12098 | 1126 The printed representation and read syntax for a byte-code function |
1127 object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#} before the | |
1128 opening @samp{[}. | |
6447 | 1129 |
1130 @node Autoload Type | |
1131 @subsection Autoload Type | |
1132 | |
1133 An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol | |
1134 @code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol as | |
1135 a placeholder for the real definition; it says that the real definition | |
1136 is found in a file of Lisp code that should be loaded when necessary. | |
1137 The autoload object contains the name of the file, plus some other | |
1138 information about the real definition. | |
1139 | |
1140 After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function | |
1141 definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then | |
1142 called as if it had been there to begin with. From the user's point of | |
1143 view, the function call works as expected, using the function definition | |
1144 in the loaded file. | |
1145 | |
1146 An autoload object is usually created with the function | |
1147 @code{autoload}, which stores the object in the function cell of a | |
1148 symbol. @xref{Autoload}, for more details. | |
1149 | |
1150 @node Editing Types | |
1151 @section Editing Types | |
1152 @cindex editing types | |
1153 | |
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1154 The types in the previous section used for general programming |
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1155 purposes, and most of them are common to most Lisp dialects. Emacs Lisp |
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1156 provides several additional data types for purposes connected with |
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1157 editing. |
6447 | 1158 |
1159 @menu | |
1160 * Buffer Type:: The basic object of editing. | |
1161 * Marker Type:: A position in a buffer. | |
1162 * Window Type:: Buffers are displayed in windows. | |
1163 * Frame Type:: Windows subdivide frames. | |
1164 * Window Configuration Type:: Recording the way a frame is subdivided. | |
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1165 * Frame Configuration Type:: Recording the status of all frames. |
6447 | 1166 * Process Type:: A process running on the underlying OS. |
1167 * Stream Type:: Receive or send characters. | |
1168 * Keymap Type:: What function a keystroke invokes. | |
1169 * Overlay Type:: How an overlay is represented. | |
1170 @end menu | |
1171 | |
1172 @node Buffer Type | |
1173 @subsection Buffer Type | |
1174 | |
1175 A @dfn{buffer} is an object that holds text that can be edited | |
1176 (@pxref{Buffers}). Most buffers hold the contents of a disk file | |
1177 (@pxref{Files}) so they can be edited, but some are used for other | |
1178 purposes. Most buffers are also meant to be seen by the user, and | |
1179 therefore displayed, at some time, in a window (@pxref{Windows}). But a | |
1180 buffer need not be displayed in any window. | |
1181 | |
1182 The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not | |
1183 used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are | |
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1184 different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an |
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1185 existing buffer, whereas ``inserting'' text into a string requires |
6447 | 1186 concatenating substrings, and the result is an entirely new string |
1187 object. | |
1188 | |
1189 Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} | |
1190 (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current | |
1191 buffer}. Most editing commands act on the contents of the current | |
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1192 buffer in the neighborhood of point. Many of the standard Emacs |
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1193 functions manipulate or test the characters in the current buffer; a |
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1194 whole chapter in this manual is devoted to describing these functions |
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1195 (@pxref{Text}). |
6447 | 1196 |
1197 Several other data structures are associated with each buffer: | |
1198 | |
1199 @itemize @bullet | |
1200 @item | |
1201 a local syntax table (@pxref{Syntax Tables}); | |
1202 | |
1203 @item | |
1204 a local keymap (@pxref{Keymaps}); and, | |
1205 | |
1206 @item | |
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1207 a list of buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local Variables}). |
12098 | 1208 |
1209 @item | |
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1210 overlays (@pxref{Overlays}). |
12098 | 1211 |
1212 @item | |
1213 text properties for the text in the buffer (@pxref{Text Properties}). | |
6447 | 1214 @end itemize |
1215 | |
1216 @noindent | |
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1217 The local keymap and variable list contain entries that individually |
6447 | 1218 override global bindings or values. These are used to customize the |
1219 behavior of programs in different buffers, without actually changing the | |
1220 programs. | |
1221 | |
12098 | 1222 A buffer may be @dfn{indirect}, which means it shares the text |
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1223 of another buffer, but presents it differently. @xref{Indirect Buffers}. |
12098 | 1224 |
1225 Buffers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, showing the | |
6447 | 1226 buffer name. |
1227 | |
1228 @example | |
1229 @group | |
1230 (current-buffer) | |
1231 @result{} #<buffer objects.texi> | |
1232 @end group | |
1233 @end example | |
1234 | |
1235 @node Marker Type | |
1236 @subsection Marker Type | |
1237 | |
1238 A @dfn{marker} denotes a position in a specific buffer. Markers | |
1239 therefore have two components: one for the buffer, and one for the | |
1240 position. Changes in the buffer's text automatically relocate the | |
1241 position value as necessary to ensure that the marker always points | |
1242 between the same two characters in the buffer. | |
1243 | |
1244 Markers have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1245 current character position and the name of the buffer. | |
1246 | |
1247 @example | |
1248 @group | |
1249 (point-marker) | |
1250 @result{} #<marker at 10779 in objects.texi> | |
1251 @end group | |
1252 @end example | |
1253 | |
1254 @xref{Markers}, for information on how to test, create, copy, and move | |
1255 markers. | |
1256 | |
1257 @node Window Type | |
1258 @subsection Window Type | |
1259 | |
1260 A @dfn{window} describes the portion of the terminal screen that Emacs | |
1261 uses to display a buffer. Every window has one associated buffer, whose | |
1262 contents appear in the window. By contrast, a given buffer may appear | |
1263 in one window, no window, or several windows. | |
1264 | |
1265 Though many windows may exist simultaneously, at any time one window | |
1266 is designated the @dfn{selected window}. This is the window where the | |
1267 cursor is (usually) displayed when Emacs is ready for a command. The | |
1268 selected window usually displays the current buffer, but this is not | |
1269 necessarily the case. | |
1270 | |
1271 Windows are grouped on the screen into frames; each window belongs to | |
1272 one and only one frame. @xref{Frame Type}. | |
1273 | |
1274 Windows have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1275 window number and the name of the buffer being displayed. The window | |
1276 numbers exist to identify windows uniquely, since the buffer displayed | |
1277 in any given window can change frequently. | |
1278 | |
1279 @example | |
1280 @group | |
1281 (selected-window) | |
1282 @result{} #<window 1 on objects.texi> | |
1283 @end group | |
1284 @end example | |
1285 | |
1286 @xref{Windows}, for a description of the functions that work on windows. | |
1287 | |
1288 @node Frame Type | |
1289 @subsection Frame Type | |
1290 | |
1291 A @var{frame} is a rectangle on the screen that contains one or more | |
1292 Emacs windows. A frame initially contains a single main window (plus | |
1293 perhaps a minibuffer window) which you can subdivide vertically or | |
1294 horizontally into smaller windows. | |
1295 | |
1296 Frames have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, giving the | |
1297 frame's title, plus its address in core (useful to identify the frame | |
1298 uniquely). | |
1299 | |
1300 @example | |
1301 @group | |
1302 (selected-frame) | |
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1303 @result{} #<frame emacs@@mole.gnu.ai.mit.edu 0xdac80> |
6447 | 1304 @end group |
1305 @end example | |
1306 | |
1307 @xref{Frames}, for a description of the functions that work on frames. | |
1308 | |
1309 @node Window Configuration Type | |
1310 @subsection Window Configuration Type | |
1311 @cindex screen layout | |
1312 | |
1313 A @dfn{window configuration} stores information about the positions, | |
1314 sizes, and contents of the windows in a frame, so you can recreate the | |
1315 same arrangement of windows later. | |
1316 | |
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1317 Window configurations do not have a read syntax; their print syntax |
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1318 looks like @samp{#<window-configuration>}. @xref{Window |
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1319 Configurations}, for a description of several functions related to |
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1320 window configurations. |
6447 | 1321 |
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1322 @node Frame Configuration Type |
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1323 @subsection Frame Configuration Type |
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1324 @cindex screen layout |
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1325 |
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1326 A @dfn{frame configuration} stores information about the positions, |
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1327 sizes, and contents of the windows in all frames. It is actually |
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1328 a list whose @sc{car} is @code{frame-configuration} and whose |
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1329 @sc{cdr} is an alist. Each alist element describes one frame, |
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1330 which appears as the @sc{car} of that element. |
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1331 |
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1332 @xref{Frame Configurations}, for a description of several functions |
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1333 related to frame configurations. |
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1334 |
6447 | 1335 @node Process Type |
1336 @subsection Process Type | |
1337 | |
1338 The word @dfn{process} usually means a running program. Emacs itself | |
1339 runs in a process of this sort. However, in Emacs Lisp, a process is a | |
1340 Lisp object that designates a subprocess created by the Emacs process. | |
1341 Programs such as shells, GDB, ftp, and compilers, running in | |
1342 subprocesses of Emacs, extend the capabilities of Emacs. | |
1343 | |
1344 An Emacs subprocess takes textual input from Emacs and returns textual | |
1345 output to Emacs for further manipulation. Emacs can also send signals | |
1346 to the subprocess. | |
1347 | |
1348 Process objects have no read syntax. They print in hash notation, | |
1349 giving the name of the process: | |
1350 | |
1351 @example | |
1352 @group | |
1353 (process-list) | |
1354 @result{} (#<process shell>) | |
1355 @end group | |
1356 @end example | |
1357 | |
1358 @xref{Processes}, for information about functions that create, delete, | |
1359 return information about, send input or signals to, and receive output | |
1360 from processes. | |
1361 | |
1362 @node Stream Type | |
1363 @subsection Stream Type | |
1364 | |
1365 A @dfn{stream} is an object that can be used as a source or sink for | |
1366 characters---either to supply characters for input or to accept them as | |
1367 output. Many different types can be used this way: markers, buffers, | |
1368 strings, and functions. Most often, input streams (character sources) | |
1369 obtain characters from the keyboard, a buffer, or a file, and output | |
1370 streams (character sinks) send characters to a buffer, such as a | |
1371 @file{*Help*} buffer, or to the echo area. | |
1372 | |
1373 The object @code{nil}, in addition to its other meanings, may be used | |
1374 as a stream. It stands for the value of the variable | |
1375 @code{standard-input} or @code{standard-output}. Also, the object | |
1376 @code{t} as a stream specifies input using the minibuffer | |
1377 (@pxref{Minibuffers}) or output in the echo area (@pxref{The Echo | |
1378 Area}). | |
1379 | |
1380 Streams have no special printed representation or read syntax, and | |
1381 print as whatever primitive type they are. | |
1382 | |
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1383 @xref{Read and Print}, for a description of functions |
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1384 related to streams, including parsing and printing functions. |
6447 | 1385 |
1386 @node Keymap Type | |
1387 @subsection Keymap Type | |
1388 | |
1389 A @dfn{keymap} maps keys typed by the user to commands. This mapping | |
1390 controls how the user's command input is executed. A keymap is actually | |
1391 a list whose @sc{car} is the symbol @code{keymap}. | |
1392 | |
1393 @xref{Keymaps}, for information about creating keymaps, handling prefix | |
1394 keys, local as well as global keymaps, and changing key bindings. | |
1395 | |
1396 @node Overlay Type | |
1397 @subsection Overlay Type | |
1398 | |
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1399 An @dfn{overlay} specifies properties that apply to a part of a |
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1400 buffer. Each overlay applies to a specified range of the buffer, and |
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1401 contains a property list (a list whose elements are alternating property |
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1402 names and values). Overlay properties are used to present parts of the |
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1403 buffer temporarily in a different display style. Overlays have no read |
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1404 syntax, and print in hash notation, giving the buffer name and range of |
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1405 positions. |
6447 | 1406 |
12098 | 1407 @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. |
6447 | 1408 |
1409 @node Type Predicates | |
1410 @section Type Predicates | |
1411 @cindex predicates | |
1412 @cindex type checking | |
1413 @kindex wrong-type-argument | |
1414 | |
1415 The Emacs Lisp interpreter itself does not perform type checking on | |
1416 the actual arguments passed to functions when they are called. It could | |
1417 not do so, since function arguments in Lisp do not have declared data | |
1418 types, as they do in other programming languages. It is therefore up to | |
1419 the individual function to test whether each actual argument belongs to | |
1420 a type that the function can use. | |
1421 | |
1422 All built-in functions do check the types of their actual arguments | |
1423 when appropriate, and signal a @code{wrong-type-argument} error if an | |
1424 argument is of the wrong type. For example, here is what happens if you | |
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1425 pass an argument to @code{+} that it cannot handle: |
6447 | 1426 |
1427 @example | |
1428 @group | |
1429 (+ 2 'a) | |
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1430 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, a |
6447 | 1431 @end group |
1432 @end example | |
1433 | |
1434 @cindex type predicates | |
1435 @cindex testing types | |
12067 | 1436 If you want your program to handle different types differently, you |
1437 must do explicit type checking. The most common way to check the type | |
1438 of an object is to call a @dfn{type predicate} function. Emacs has a | |
1439 type predicate for each type, as well as some predicates for | |
1440 combinations of types. | |
1441 | |
1442 A type predicate function takes one argument; it returns @code{t} if | |
1443 the argument belongs to the appropriate type, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1444 Following a general Lisp convention for predicate functions, most type | |
1445 predicates' names end with @samp{p}. | |
1446 | |
1447 Here is an example which uses the predicates @code{listp} to check for | |
1448 a list and @code{symbolp} to check for a symbol. | |
6447 | 1449 |
12067 | 1450 @example |
1451 (defun add-on (x) | |
1452 (cond ((symbolp x) | |
1453 ;; If X is a symbol, put it on LIST. | |
1454 (setq list (cons x list))) | |
1455 ((listp x) | |
1456 ;; If X is a list, add its elements to LIST. | |
1457 (setq list (append x list))) | |
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1458 @need 3000 |
12067 | 1459 (t |
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1460 ;; We handle only symbols and lists. |
12067 | 1461 (error "Invalid argument %s in add-on" x)))) |
1462 @end example | |
1463 | |
1464 Here is a table of predefined type predicates, in alphabetical order, | |
6447 | 1465 with references to further information. |
1466 | |
1467 @table @code | |
1468 @item atom | |
1469 @xref{List-related Predicates, atom}. | |
1470 | |
1471 @item arrayp | |
1472 @xref{Array Functions, arrayp}. | |
1473 | |
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1474 @item bool-vector-p |
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1475 @xref{Bool-Vectors, bool-vector-p}. |
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1476 |
6447 | 1477 @item bufferp |
1478 @xref{Buffer Basics, bufferp}. | |
1479 | |
1480 @item byte-code-function-p | |
1481 @xref{Byte-Code Type, byte-code-function-p}. | |
1482 | |
1483 @item case-table-p | |
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1484 @xref{Case Tables, case-table-p}. |
6447 | 1485 |
1486 @item char-or-string-p | |
1487 @xref{Predicates for Strings, char-or-string-p}. | |
1488 | |
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1489 @item char-table-p |
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1490 @xref{Char-Tables, char-table-p}. |
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1491 |
6447 | 1492 @item commandp |
1493 @xref{Interactive Call, commandp}. | |
1494 | |
1495 @item consp | |
1496 @xref{List-related Predicates, consp}. | |
1497 | |
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1498 @item display-table-p |
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1499 @xref{Display Tables, display-table-p}. |
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1500 |
6447 | 1501 @item floatp |
1502 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, floatp}. | |
1503 | |
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1504 @item frame-configuration-p |
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1505 @xref{Frame Configurations, frame-configuration-p}. |
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1506 |
6447 | 1507 @item frame-live-p |
1508 @xref{Deleting Frames, frame-live-p}. | |
1509 | |
1510 @item framep | |
1511 @xref{Frames, framep}. | |
1512 | |
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1513 @item functionp |
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1514 @xref{Functions, functionp}. |
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1515 |
6447 | 1516 @item integer-or-marker-p |
1517 @xref{Predicates on Markers, integer-or-marker-p}. | |
1518 | |
1519 @item integerp | |
1520 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, integerp}. | |
1521 | |
1522 @item keymapp | |
1523 @xref{Creating Keymaps, keymapp}. | |
1524 | |
1525 @item listp | |
1526 @xref{List-related Predicates, listp}. | |
1527 | |
1528 @item markerp | |
1529 @xref{Predicates on Markers, markerp}. | |
1530 | |
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1531 @item wholenump |
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1532 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, wholenump}. |
6447 | 1533 |
1534 @item nlistp | |
1535 @xref{List-related Predicates, nlistp}. | |
1536 | |
1537 @item numberp | |
1538 @xref{Predicates on Numbers, numberp}. | |
1539 | |
1540 @item number-or-marker-p | |
1541 @xref{Predicates on Markers, number-or-marker-p}. | |
1542 | |
1543 @item overlayp | |
1544 @xref{Overlays, overlayp}. | |
1545 | |
1546 @item processp | |
1547 @xref{Processes, processp}. | |
1548 | |
1549 @item sequencep | |
1550 @xref{Sequence Functions, sequencep}. | |
1551 | |
1552 @item stringp | |
1553 @xref{Predicates for Strings, stringp}. | |
1554 | |
1555 @item subrp | |
1556 @xref{Function Cells, subrp}. | |
1557 | |
1558 @item symbolp | |
1559 @xref{Symbols, symbolp}. | |
1560 | |
1561 @item syntax-table-p | |
1562 @xref{Syntax Tables, syntax-table-p}. | |
1563 | |
1564 @item user-variable-p | |
1565 @xref{Defining Variables, user-variable-p}. | |
1566 | |
1567 @item vectorp | |
1568 @xref{Vectors, vectorp}. | |
1569 | |
1570 @item window-configuration-p | |
1571 @xref{Window Configurations, window-configuration-p}. | |
1572 | |
1573 @item window-live-p | |
1574 @xref{Deleting Windows, window-live-p}. | |
1575 | |
1576 @item windowp | |
1577 @xref{Basic Windows, windowp}. | |
1578 @end table | |
1579 | |
12067 | 1580 The most general way to check the type of an object is to call the |
1581 function @code{type-of}. Recall that each object belongs to one and | |
1582 only one primitive type; @code{type-of} tells you which one (@pxref{Lisp | |
1583 Data Types}). But @code{type-of} knows nothing about non-primitive | |
1584 types. In most cases, it is more convenient to use type predicates than | |
1585 @code{type-of}. | |
1586 | |
1587 @defun type-of object | |
1588 This function returns a symbol naming the primitive type of | |
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1589 @var{object}. The value is one of the symbols @code{symbol}, |
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1590 @code{integer}, @code{float}, @code{string}, @code{cons}, @code{vector}, |
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1591 @code{char-table}, @code{bool-vector}, @code{subr}, |
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1592 @code{compiled-function}, @code{marker}, @code{overlay}, @code{window}, |
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1593 @code{buffer}, @code{frame}, @code{process}, or |
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1594 @code{window-configuration}. |
12067 | 1595 |
1596 @example | |
1597 (type-of 1) | |
1598 @result{} integer | |
1599 (type-of 'nil) | |
1600 @result{} symbol | |
1601 (type-of '()) ; @r{@code{()} is @code{nil}.} | |
1602 @result{} symbol | |
1603 (type-of '(x)) | |
1604 @result{} cons | |
1605 @end example | |
1606 @end defun | |
1607 | |
6447 | 1608 @node Equality Predicates |
1609 @section Equality Predicates | |
1610 @cindex equality | |
1611 | |
1612 Here we describe two functions that test for equality between any two | |
1613 objects. Other functions test equality between objects of specific | |
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1614 types, e.g., strings. For these predicates, see the appropriate chapter |
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1615 describing the data type. |
6447 | 1616 |
1617 @defun eq object1 object2 | |
1618 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1619 the same object, @code{nil} otherwise. The ``same object'' means that a | |
1620 change in one will be reflected by the same change in the other. | |
1621 | |
1622 @code{eq} returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} are | |
1623 integers with the same value. Also, since symbol names are normally | |
1624 unique, if the arguments are symbols with the same name, they are | |
1625 @code{eq}. For other types (e.g., lists, vectors, strings), two | |
1626 arguments with the same contents or elements are not necessarily | |
1627 @code{eq} to each other: they are @code{eq} only if they are the same | |
1628 object. | |
1629 | |
1630 @example | |
1631 @group | |
1632 (eq 'foo 'foo) | |
1633 @result{} t | |
1634 @end group | |
1635 | |
1636 @group | |
1637 (eq 456 456) | |
1638 @result{} t | |
1639 @end group | |
1640 | |
1641 @group | |
1642 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1643 @result{} nil | |
1644 @end group | |
1645 | |
1646 @group | |
1647 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1648 @result{} nil | |
1649 @end group | |
1650 | |
1651 @group | |
1652 (setq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1653 @result{} (1 (2 (3))) | |
1654 (eq foo foo) | |
1655 @result{} t | |
1656 (eq foo '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1657 @result{} nil | |
1658 @end group | |
1659 | |
1660 @group | |
1661 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1662 @result{} nil | |
1663 @end group | |
1664 | |
1665 @group | |
1666 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1667 @result{} nil | |
1668 @end group | |
1669 @end example | |
1670 | |
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1671 (The @code{make-symbol} function returns an uninterned symbol that is |
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1672 not interned in the standard @code{obarray}. When uninterned symbols |
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1673 are in use, symbol names are no longer unique. Distinct symbols with |
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1674 the same name are not @code{eq}. @xref{Creating Symbols}.) |
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1675 |
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1676 @example |
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1677 @group |
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1678 (eq (make-symbol "foo") 'foo) |
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1679 @result{} nil |
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1680 @end group |
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1681 @end example |
6447 | 1682 @end defun |
1683 | |
1684 @defun equal object1 object2 | |
1685 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object1} and @var{object2} have | |
1686 equal components, @code{nil} otherwise. Whereas @code{eq} tests if its | |
1687 arguments are the same object, @code{equal} looks inside nonidentical | |
1688 arguments to see if their elements are the same. So, if two objects are | |
1689 @code{eq}, they are @code{equal}, but the converse is not always true. | |
1690 | |
1691 @example | |
1692 @group | |
1693 (equal 'foo 'foo) | |
1694 @result{} t | |
1695 @end group | |
1696 | |
1697 @group | |
1698 (equal 456 456) | |
1699 @result{} t | |
1700 @end group | |
1701 | |
1702 @group | |
1703 (equal "asdf" "asdf") | |
1704 @result{} t | |
1705 @end group | |
1706 @group | |
1707 (eq "asdf" "asdf") | |
1708 @result{} nil | |
1709 @end group | |
1710 | |
1711 @group | |
1712 (equal '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1713 @result{} t | |
1714 @end group | |
1715 @group | |
1716 (eq '(1 (2 (3))) '(1 (2 (3)))) | |
1717 @result{} nil | |
1718 @end group | |
1719 | |
1720 @group | |
1721 (equal [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1722 @result{} t | |
1723 @end group | |
1724 @group | |
1725 (eq [(1 2) 3] [(1 2) 3]) | |
1726 @result{} nil | |
1727 @end group | |
1728 | |
1729 @group | |
1730 (equal (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1731 @result{} t | |
1732 @end group | |
1733 | |
1734 @group | |
1735 (eq (point-marker) (point-marker)) | |
1736 @result{} nil | |
1737 @end group | |
1738 @end example | |
1739 | |
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1740 Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of |
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1741 text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. |
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1742 A unibyte string never equals a multibyte string unless the |
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1743 contents are entirely @sc{ASCII} (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6447 | 1744 |
1745 @example | |
1746 @group | |
1747 (equal "asdf" "ASDF") | |
1748 @result{} nil | |
1749 @end group | |
1750 @end example | |
12098 | 1751 |
1752 Two distinct buffers are never @code{equal}, even if their contents | |
1753 are the same. | |
6447 | 1754 @end defun |
1755 | |
1756 The test for equality is implemented recursively, and circular lists may | |
1757 therefore cause infinite recursion (leading to an error). |