annotate lispref/variables.texi @ 7189:c8023bf9c03d

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author Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
date Fri, 29 Apr 1994 04:59:22 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/variables
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6 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top
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7 @chapter Variables
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8 @cindex variable
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9
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10 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value.
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11 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the
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12 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for
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13 symbols.
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14
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15 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented
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16 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp
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17 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable
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18 name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the
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19 symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as
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20 a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}.
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21
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22 The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual
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23 form of the program--it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp
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24 objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program
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25 is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the
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26 variable.
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27
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28 @menu
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29 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere.
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30 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change.
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31 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily.
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32 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values.
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33 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable.
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34 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names
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35 are known only at run time.
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36 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables.
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37 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values.
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38 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer.
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39 @end menu
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40
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41 @node Global Variables
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42 @section Global Variables
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43 @cindex global variable
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44
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45 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that
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46 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect
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47 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains
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48 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the
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49 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable.
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50
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51 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example,
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52
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53 @example
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54 (setq x '(a b))
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55 @end example
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56
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57 @noindent
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58 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that
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59 @code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the
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60 variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value.
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61
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62 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol
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63 by itself as an expression. Thus,
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64
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65 @example
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66 @group
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67 x @result{} (a b)
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68 @end group
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69 @end example
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70
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71 @noindent
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72 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed.
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73
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74 If you do another @code{setq}, the new value replaces the old one:
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75
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76 @example
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77 @group
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78 x
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79 @result{} (a b)
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80 @end group
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81 @group
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82 (setq x 4)
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83 @result{} 4
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84 @end group
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85 @group
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86 x
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87 @result{} 4
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88 @end group
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89 @end example
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90
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91 @node Constant Variables
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92 @section Variables That Never Change
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93 @vindex nil
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94 @vindex t
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95 @kindex setting-constant
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96
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97 Emacs Lisp has two special symbols, @code{nil} and @code{t}, that
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98 always evaluate to themselves. These symbols cannot be rebound, nor can
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99 their value cells be changed. An attempt to change the value of
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100 @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error.
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101
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102 @example
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103 @group
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104 nil @equiv{} 'nil
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105 @result{} nil
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106 @end group
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107 @group
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108 (setq nil 500)
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109 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil
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110 @end group
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111 @end example
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112
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113 @node Local Variables
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114 @section Local Variables
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115 @cindex binding local variables
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116 @cindex local variables
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117 @cindex local binding
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118 @cindex global binding
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119
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120 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded
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121 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that
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122 exist temporarily---only while within a certain part of the program.
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123 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are
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124 called @dfn{local variables}.
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125
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126 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive
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127 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let}
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128 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified
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129 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form.
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130
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131 @cindex shadowing of variables
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132 Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of
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133 one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over,
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134 the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the
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135 previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and
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136 local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}).
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137
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138 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local,
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139 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or
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140 previous local values that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we
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141 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value.
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142
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143 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value.
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144 Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the
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145 local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the
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146 local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value
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147 is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a
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148 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does
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149 not create a new binding.
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150
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151 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where
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152 (conceptually) the global value is kept.
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153
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154 @cindex current binding
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155 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for
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156 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a
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157 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the
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158 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This is called @dfn{dynamic
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159 scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no local bindings,
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160 the variable's global binding is its current binding. We also call the
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161 current binding the @dfn{most-local existing binding}, for emphasis.
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162 Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns the value of its current
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163 binding.
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164
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165 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create
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166 local bindings.
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167
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168 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}
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169 This function binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then
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170 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form
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171 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}.
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172
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173 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case
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174 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form
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175 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is
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176 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form}
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177 is omitted, @code{nil} is used.
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178
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179 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the
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180 order they appear and @emph{before} any of the symbols are bound. Here
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181 is an example of this: @code{Z} is bound to the old value of @code{Y},
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182 which is 2, not the new value, 1.
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183
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184 @example
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185 @group
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186 (setq Y 2)
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187 @result{} 2
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188 @end group
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189 @group
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190 (let ((Y 1)
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191 (Z Y))
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192 (list Y Z))
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193 @result{} (1 2)
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194 @end group
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195 @end example
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196 @end defspec
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197
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198 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}
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199 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right
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200 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for
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201 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can
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202 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*}
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203 form. Compare the following example with the example above for
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204 @code{let}.
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205
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206 @example
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207 @group
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208 (setq Y 2)
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209 @result{} 2
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210 @end group
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211 @group
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212 (let* ((Y 1)
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213 (Z Y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{Y}.}
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214 (list Y Z))
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215 @result{} (1 1)
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216 @end group
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217 @end example
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218 @end defspec
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219
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220 Here is a complete list of the other facilities which create local
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221 bindings:
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222
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223 @itemize @bullet
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224 @item
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225 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}).
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226
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227 @item
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228 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}).
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229
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230 @item
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231 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}).
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232 @end itemize
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233
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234 @defvar max-specpdl-size
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235 @cindex variable limit error
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236 @cindex evaluation error
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237 @cindex infinite recursion
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238 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable
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239 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits})
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240 that are allowed before signaling an error (with data @code{"Variable
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241 binding depth exceeds max-specpdl-size"}).
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242
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243 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way
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244 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function.
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245
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246 The default value is 600.
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247
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248 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting.
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249 @xref{Eval}.
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250 @end defvar
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251
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252 @node Void Variables
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253 @section When a Variable is ``Void''
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254 @kindex void-variable
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255 @cindex void variable
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256
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257 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we
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258 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the
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259 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to
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260 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than
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261 a value.
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262
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263 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol
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264 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any
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265 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not
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266 have any value.
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267
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268 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more
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269 using @code{makunbound}.
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270
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271 @defun makunbound symbol
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272 This function makes the current binding of @var{symbol} void.
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273 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal
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274 the error @code{void-variable}, unless or until you set it again.
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275
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276 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}.
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277
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278 @example
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279 @group
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280 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value}
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281 ; @r{of @code{x} void.}
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282 @result{} x
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283 @end group
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284 @group
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285 x
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286 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x
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287 @end group
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288 @end example
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289
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290 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most
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291 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void
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292 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings
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293 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as
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294 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from
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295 the construct that made it, the previous or global binding is reexposed
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296 as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly reexposed
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297 binding was void all along.
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298
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299 @smallexample
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300 @group
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301 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.}
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302 @result{} 1
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303 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.}
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304 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.}
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305 x)
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306 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x
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307 @end group
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308 @group
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309 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.}
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310 @result{} 1
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311
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312 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.}
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313 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.}
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314 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.}
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315 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.}
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316 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x
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317 @end group
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318
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319 @group
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320 (let ((x 2))
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321 (let ((x 3))
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322 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.}
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323 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.}
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324 @result{} 2
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325 @end group
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326 @end smallexample
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327 @end defun
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328
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329 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is
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330 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has
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331 always been void.
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332
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333 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is
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334 currently void.
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335
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336 @defun boundp variable
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337 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void;
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338 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns
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339 @code{nil} otherwise.
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340
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341 @smallexample
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342 @group
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343 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.}
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344 @result{} nil
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345 @end group
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346 @group
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347 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.}
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348 (boundp 'abracadabra))
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349 @result{} t
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350 @end group
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351 @group
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352 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.}
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353 @result{} nil
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354 @end group
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355 @group
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356 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.}
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357 @result{} 5
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358 @end group
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359 @group
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360 (boundp 'abracadabra)
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361 @result{} t
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362 @end group
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363 @end smallexample
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364 @end defun
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365
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366 @node Defining Variables
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367 @section Defining Global Variables
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368
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369 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable
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370 with a definition, using @code{defconst} or @code{defvar}.
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371
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372 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform
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373 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be
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374 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system
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375 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they
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376 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and
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377 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and
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378 variables in a program.
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379
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380 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily
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381 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether programs
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382 will change the variable. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in
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383 which a variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar}
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384 declarations. However, it also makes a difference for initialization:
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385 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while
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386 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void.
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387
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388 One would expect user option variables to be defined with
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389 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this
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390 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded:
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391 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is
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392 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init
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393 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For
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394 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}.
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395
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396 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]]
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397 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it.
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398 The definition informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} is
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399 used as a variable that programs are likely to set or change. It is
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400 also used for all user option variables except in the preloaded parts of
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401 Emacs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be
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402 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}.
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403
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404 If @var{symbol} already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value}
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405 is not even evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If
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406 @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar}
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407 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. (If @var{value} is
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408 omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case.)
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409
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410 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer,
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411 @code{defvar} sets the default value, not the local value.
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412 @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}.
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413
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414 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation
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415 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of
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416 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is
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417 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The
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418 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property.
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419
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420 If the first character of @var{doc-string} is @samp{*}, it means that
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421 this variable is considered a user option. This lets users set the
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422 variable conventiently using the commands @code{set-variable} and
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423 @code{edit-options}.
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424
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425 For example, this form defines @code{foo} but does not set its value:
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426
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427 @example
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428 @group
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429 (defvar foo)
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430 @result{} foo
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431 @end group
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432 @end example
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433
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434 The following example sets the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and
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435 gives it a documentation string:
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436
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437 @example
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438 @group
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439 (defvar bar 23
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440 "The normal weight of a bar.")
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441 @result{} bar
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442 @end group
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443 @end example
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444
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445 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar},
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446 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar}
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447 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ 23)} is not even
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448 performed.)
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449
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450 @example
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451 @group
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452 (defvar bar (1+ 23)
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453 "*The normal weight of a bar.")
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454 @result{} bar
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455 @end group
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456 @group
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457 bar
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458 @result{} 23
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459 @end group
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460 @end example
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461
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462 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form:
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463
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464 @example
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465 @group
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466 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string})
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467 @equiv{}
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468 (progn
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469 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol}))
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470 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value}))
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471 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string})
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472 '@var{symbol})
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473 @end group
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474 @end example
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475
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476 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used
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477 at top level in a file where its value does not matter.
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478 @end defspec
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479
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480 @defspec defconst symbol [value [doc-string]]
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481 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it.
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482 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a global
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483 value, established here, that will not normally be changed or locally
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484 bound by the execution of the program. The user, however, may be
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485 welcome to change it. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the
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486 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}.
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487
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488 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value} and sets the global value
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489 of @var{symbol} to the result, provided @var{value} is given. If
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490 @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer,
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491 @code{defconst} sets the default value, not the local value.
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492
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493 @strong{Please note:} don't use @code{defconst} for user option
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494 variables in libraries that are not standardly preloaded. The user
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495 should be able to specify a value for such a variable in the
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496 @file{.emacs} file, so that it will be in effect if and when the library
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497 is loaded later.
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498
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499 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed
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500 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding).
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501 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory.
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502
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503 @example
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504 @group
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505 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.")
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506 @result{} pi
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507 @end group
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508 @group
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509 (setq pi 3)
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510 @result{} pi
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511 @end group
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512 @group
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513 pi
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514 @result{} 3
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515 @end group
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516 @end example
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517 @end defspec
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518
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519 @defun user-variable-p variable
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520 @cindex user option
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521 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option--- a
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522 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and
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523 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the
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524 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.)
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525
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526 User option variables are distinguished from other variables by the
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527 first character of the @code{variable-documentation} property. If the
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528 property exists and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*},
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529 then the variable is a user option.
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530 @end defun
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531
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532 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property,
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533 @code{set-variable} uses that value to control reading the new value for
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534 the variable. The property's value is used as if it were the argument
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535 to @code{interactive}.
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536
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537 @strong{Warning:} if the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special
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538 forms are used while the variable has a local binding, they set the
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539 local binding's value; the global binding is not changed. This is not
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540 what we really want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top
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541 level in a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make
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542 sure to load the file before making a local binding for the variable.
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543
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544 @node Accessing Variables
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545 @section Accessing Variable Values
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546
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547 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which
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548 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the
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549 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what
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550 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which
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551 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}.
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552
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553 @defun symbol-value symbol
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554 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in
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555 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it
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556 has no local bindings.
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557
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558 @example
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559 @group
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560 (setq abracadabra 5)
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561 @result{} 5
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562 @end group
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563 @group
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564 (setq foo 9)
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565 @result{} 9
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566 @end group
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567
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568 @group
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569 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}}
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570 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.}
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571 (let ((abracadabra 'foo))
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572 (symbol-value 'abracadabra))
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573 @result{} foo
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574 @end group
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575
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576 @group
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577 ;; @r{Here the value of @code{abracadabra},}
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578 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},}
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579 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.}
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580 (let ((abracadabra 'foo))
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581 (symbol-value abracadabra))
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582 @result{} 9
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583 @end group
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584
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585 @group
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586 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)
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587 @result{} 5
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588 @end group
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589 @end example
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590
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591 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if @var{symbol} has neither a
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592 local binding nor a global value.
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593 @end defun
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594
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595 @node Setting Variables
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596 @section How to Alter a Variable Value
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597
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598 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special
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599 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at
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600 run time, use the function @code{set}.
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601
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602 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{}
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603 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's
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604 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of
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605 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing
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606 binding of the symbol is changed.
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607
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608 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you
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609 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The
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610 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.''
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611
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diff changeset
612 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}.
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613
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614 @example
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615 @group
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616 (setq x (1+ 2))
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617 @result{} 3
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618 @end group
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619 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.}
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620 @result{} 3
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621 @group
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622 (let ((x 5))
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623 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.}
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624 x)
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625 @result{} 6
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626 @end group
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627 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.}
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628 @result{} 3
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629 @end example
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630
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diff changeset
631 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first
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632 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the
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633 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on:
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634
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635 @example
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636 @group
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637 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before}
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638 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.}
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639 @result{} 11
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640 @end group
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641 @end example
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diff changeset
642 @end defspec
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643
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diff changeset
644 @defun set symbol value
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645 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns
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646 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for
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647 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set.
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648
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649 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is
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650 set; shadowed bindings are not affected. If @var{symbol} is not
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651 actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled.
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652
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653 @example
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654 @group
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655 (set one 1)
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656 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one
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657 @end group
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658 @group
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659 (set 'one 1)
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660 @result{} 1
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661 @end group
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diff changeset
662 @group
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diff changeset
663 (set 'two 'one)
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diff changeset
664 @result{} one
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665 @end group
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666 @group
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667 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.}
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668 @result{} 2
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669 @end group
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670 @group
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671 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.}
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672 @result{} 2
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673 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,}
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674 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.}
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675 one)
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diff changeset
676 @result{} 3
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677 @end group
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diff changeset
678 @group
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diff changeset
679 one
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680 @result{} 2
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681 @end group
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682 @end example
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diff changeset
683
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diff changeset
684 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than
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diff changeset
685 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use
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diff changeset
686 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the
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687 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used;
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688 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is needed for choosing which
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diff changeset
689 variable to set is made at run time. For example, the command
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diff changeset
690 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then
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diff changeset
691 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}.
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diff changeset
692
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diff changeset
693 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local
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diff changeset
694 @quotation
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diff changeset
695 @b{Common Lisp note:} in Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the
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diff changeset
696 symbol's special value, ignoring any lexical bindings. In Emacs Lisp,
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697 all variables and all bindings are (in effect) special, so @code{set}
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698 always affects the most local existing binding.
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699 @end quotation
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diff changeset
700 @end defun
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diff changeset
701
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702 @node Variable Scoping
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703 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings
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704
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705 A given symbol @code{foo} may have several local variable bindings,
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706 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global
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707 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over
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708 the others.
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709
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710 @cindex scope
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711 @cindex extent
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712 @cindex dynamic scoping
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713 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and
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714 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in
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715 the source code the binding can be accessed. Indefinite scope means
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716 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable
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717 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is
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718 executing, the binding exists. Dynamic extent means that the binding
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719 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it.
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720
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721 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called
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722 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use
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723 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be
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724 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable.
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725
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726 @cindex CL note---special variables
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727 @quotation
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728 @b{Common Lisp note:} variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp
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729 are dynamically scoped like variables in Emacs Lisp.
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730 @end quotation
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731
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732 @menu
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733 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible.
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734 Comparison with other languages.
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735 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists.
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736 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping.
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737 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems.
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738 @end menu
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739
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740 @node Scope
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741 @subsection Scope
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742
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743 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings.
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744 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a
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745 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function
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746 definitions:
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747
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748 @example
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749 @group
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750 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.}
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751 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.}
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752 @end group
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753
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754 @group
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755 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used in @code{user}.}
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756 (list x))
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757 @end group
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758 @end example
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759
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760 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in
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761 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because
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762 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function
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763 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user}
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764 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in
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765 @code{binder}, depending on circumstances:
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766
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767 @itemize @bullet
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768 @item
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769 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all,
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770 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from
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771 @code{binder}.
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772
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773 @item
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774 If we define @code{foo} as follows and call @code{binder}, then the
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775 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}:
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776
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777 @example
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778 @group
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779 (defun foo (lose)
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780 (user))
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781 @end group
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782 @end example
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783
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784 @item
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785 If we define @code{foo} as follows and call @code{binder}, then the
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786 binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in @code{user}:
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787
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788 @example
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diff changeset
789 (defun foo (x)
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790 (user))
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791 @end example
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792
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793 @noindent
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794 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}.
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diff changeset
795 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in
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796 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound
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797 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}.
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798 @end itemize
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diff changeset
799
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800 @node Extent
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diff changeset
801 @subsection Extent
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diff changeset
802
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803 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a
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804 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while
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diff changeset
805 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic
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806 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages,
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diff changeset
807 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent.
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diff changeset
808
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diff changeset
809 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This
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810 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form
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diff changeset
811 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support
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diff changeset
812 this, but Emacs Lisp does not.
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diff changeset
813
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diff changeset
814 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a
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diff changeset
815 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}.
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diff changeset
816 This would work in Common Lisp, but it does not work as intended in
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diff changeset
817 Emacs Lisp, because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the
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diff changeset
818 variable @code{n} is no longer bound to the actual argument 2.
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diff changeset
819
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diff changeset
820 @example
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diff changeset
821 (defun make-add (n)
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diff changeset
822 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.}
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diff changeset
823 @result{} make-add
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diff changeset
824 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}}
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diff changeset
825 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.}
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diff changeset
826 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m))
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diff changeset
827 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.}
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diff changeset
828 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n
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diff changeset
829 @end example
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diff changeset
830
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diff changeset
831 @cindex closures not available
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diff changeset
832 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures'', objects that are like functions
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diff changeset
833 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have
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diff changeset
834 closures.
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diff changeset
835
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836 @node Impl of Scope
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diff changeset
837 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping
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diff changeset
838 @cindex deep binding
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diff changeset
839
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diff changeset
840 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually
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diff changeset
841 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is
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diff changeset
842 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems.
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diff changeset
843
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diff changeset
844 Suppose there is a stack of bindings: variable-value pairs. At entry
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diff changeset
845 to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings on the stack
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diff changeset
846 for the arguments or local variables created there. We can pop those
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diff changeset
847 bindings from the stack at exit from the binding construct.
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diff changeset
848
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diff changeset
849 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to
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diff changeset
850 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is
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diff changeset
851 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the
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diff changeset
852 current binding, then store the new value into that binding.
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diff changeset
853
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854 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it
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855 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is
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856 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function
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diff changeset
857 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the
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diff changeset
858 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite.
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diff changeset
859
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diff changeset
860 @cindex shallow binding
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diff changeset
861 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a
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diff changeset
862 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard
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diff changeset
863 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the
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864 symbol.
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diff changeset
865
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diff changeset
866 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in
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diff changeset
867 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value
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diff changeset
868 (belonging to a previous binding) on a stack, and storing the local value
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diff changeset
869 in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping the old value
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diff changeset
870 off the stack, into the value cell.
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diff changeset
871
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diff changeset
872 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep
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873 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a
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874 binding.
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875
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diff changeset
876 @node Using Scoping
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diff changeset
877 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping
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diff changeset
878
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879 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a
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diff changeset
880 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs
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881 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique:
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882
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diff changeset
883 @itemize @bullet
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884 @item
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885 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close
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886 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within
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887 one program.
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888
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889 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see
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diff changeset
890 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses
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891 elsewhere.
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diff changeset
892
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diff changeset
893 @item
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894 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all
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895 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever
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896 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable
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diff changeset
897 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case
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diff changeset
898 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it
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diff changeset
899 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it.
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900
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901 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what
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902 the effect will be.
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903 @end itemize
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904
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diff changeset
905 @node Buffer-Local Variables
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906 @section Buffer-Local Variables
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907 @cindex variables, buffer-local
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908 @cindex buffer-local variables
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909
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910 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming
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911 languages in one form or another. Emacs also supports another, unusual
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912 kind of variable binding: @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which apply only
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913 to one buffer. Emacs Lisp is meant for programming editing commands,
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914 and having different values for a variable in different buffers is an
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915 important customization method.
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diff changeset
916
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diff changeset
917 @menu
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918 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts.
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919 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings.
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920 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers
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921 that don't have their own local values.
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922 @end menu
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923
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924 @node Intro to Buffer-Local
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925 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables
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diff changeset
926
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927 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a
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928 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is
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diff changeset
929 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while
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930 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding,
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931 so the global binding is unchanged; this means that the change is
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932 visible in that buffer alone.
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933
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diff changeset
934 A variable may have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in
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diff changeset
935 others. The global binding is shared by all the buffers that don't have
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diff changeset
936 their own bindings. Thus, if you set the variable in a buffer that does
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937 not have a buffer-local binding for it, the new value is visible in all
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diff changeset
938 buffers except those with buffer-local bindings. (Here we are assuming
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939 that there are no @code{let}-style local bindings to complicate the issue.)
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diff changeset
940
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diff changeset
941 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change
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diff changeset
942 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and
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diff changeset
943 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only
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diff changeset
944 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable
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945 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and
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diff changeset
946 then setting it to the new value for that mode.
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diff changeset
947
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diff changeset
948 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with
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diff changeset
949 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands use. This
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950 affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including those yet to
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951 be created) continue to share the global value.
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952
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953 @cindex automatically buffer-local
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diff changeset
954 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as
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diff changeset
955 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling
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956 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the
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diff changeset
957 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More
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958 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes
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959 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All
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diff changeset
960 buffers start out by sharing the global value of the variable as usual,
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diff changeset
961 but any @code{setq} creates a buffer-local binding for the current
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diff changeset
962 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving
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diff changeset
963 the (default) global binding untouched. The global value can no longer
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diff changeset
964 be changed with @code{setq}; you need to use @code{setq-default} to do
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diff changeset
965 that.
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diff changeset
966
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diff changeset
967 @strong{Warning:} when a variable has local values in one or more
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diff changeset
968 buffers, you can get Emacs very confused by binding the variable with
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969 @code{let}, changing to a different current buffer in which a different
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diff changeset
970 binding is in effect, and then exiting the @code{let}. This can
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diff changeset
971 scramble the values of the global and local bindings.
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diff changeset
972
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diff changeset
973 To preserve your sanity, avoid that series of actions. If you use
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diff changeset
974 @code{save-excursion} around each piece of code that changes to a
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diff changeset
975 different current buffer, you will not have this problem. Here is an
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diff changeset
976 example of what to avoid:
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diff changeset
977
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diff changeset
978 @example
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diff changeset
979 @group
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diff changeset
980 (setq foo 'b)
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diff changeset
981 (set-buffer "a")
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parents:
diff changeset
982 (make-local-variable 'foo)
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diff changeset
983 @end group
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diff changeset
984 (setq foo 'a)
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diff changeset
985 (let ((foo 'temp))
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diff changeset
986 (set-buffer "b")
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diff changeset
987 @dots{})
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diff changeset
988 @group
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diff changeset
989 foo @result{} 'a ; @r{The old buffer-local value from buffer @samp{a}}
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990 ; @r{is now the default value.}
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diff changeset
991 @end group
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diff changeset
992 @group
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diff changeset
993 (set-buffer "a")
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diff changeset
994 foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{The local value that should be gone}
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diff changeset
995 ; @r{is now the buffer-local value in buffer @samp{a}.}
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diff changeset
996 @end group
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diff changeset
997 @end example
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diff changeset
998
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diff changeset
999 @noindent
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diff changeset
1000 But @code{save-excursion} as shown here avoids the problem:
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diff changeset
1001
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diff changeset
1002 @example
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diff changeset
1003 @group
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diff changeset
1004 (let ((foo 'temp))
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diff changeset
1005 (save-excursion
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parents:
diff changeset
1006 (set-buffer "b")
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diff changeset
1007 @var{body}@dots{}))
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diff changeset
1008 @end group
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diff changeset
1009 @end example
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diff changeset
1010
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diff changeset
1011 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the
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diff changeset
1012 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}.
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diff changeset
1013
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1014 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local
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diff changeset
1015 value when you visit the file. @xref{Auto Major Mode}.
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diff changeset
1016
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diff changeset
1017 @node Creating Buffer-Local
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diff changeset
1018 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings
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diff changeset
1019
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diff changeset
1020 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable
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diff changeset
1021 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for
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diff changeset
1022 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value
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diff changeset
1023 returned is @var{variable}.
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diff changeset
1024
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diff changeset
1025 @c Emacs 19 feature
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diff changeset
1026 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value
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diff changeset
1027 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains
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diff changeset
1028 void.
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diff changeset
1029
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diff changeset
1030 @example
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diff changeset
1031 @group
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diff changeset
1032 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:}
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diff changeset
1033 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.}
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diff changeset
1034 @result{} 5
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diff changeset
1035 @end group
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diff changeset
1036 @group
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diff changeset
1037 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.}
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diff changeset
1038 @result{} foo
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diff changeset
1039 @end group
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diff changeset
1040 @group
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diff changeset
1041 foo ; @r{That did not change}
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diff changeset
1042 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.}
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diff changeset
1043 @end group
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diff changeset
1044 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1045 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1046 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.}
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parents:
diff changeset
1047 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1048 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1049 foo
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1050 @result{} 6
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parents:
diff changeset
1051 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1052
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parents:
diff changeset
1053 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1054 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1055 (save-excursion
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1056 (set-buffer "b2")
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1057 foo)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1058 @result{} 5
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parents:
diff changeset
1059 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1060 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1061 @end deffn
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parents:
diff changeset
1062
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parents:
diff changeset
1063 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1064 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1065 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1066 local to the current buffer at the time.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1067
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parents:
diff changeset
1068 The value returned is @var{variable}.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1069 @end deffn
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parents:
diff changeset
1070
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parents:
diff changeset
1071 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1072 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1073 buffer @var{buffer}. It returns an association list (@pxref{Association
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1074 Lists}) in which each association contains one buffer-local variable and
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1075 its value. When a buffer-local variable is void in @var{buffer}, then
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1076 it appears directly in the resulting list. If @var{buffer} is omitted,
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1077 the current buffer is used.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1078
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parents:
diff changeset
1079 @example
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parents:
diff changeset
1080 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1081 (make-local-variable 'foobar)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1082 (makunbound 'foobar)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1083 (make-local-variable 'bind-me)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1084 (setq bind-me 69)
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parents:
diff changeset
1085 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1086 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables))
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1087 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:}
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parents:
diff changeset
1088 @result{} ((mark-active . nil)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1089 (buffer-undo-list nil)
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parents:
diff changeset
1090 (mode-name . "Fundamental")
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1091 @dots{}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1092 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1093 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in local variables.}
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parents:
diff changeset
1094 ;; @r{This one is local and void:}
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parents:
diff changeset
1095 foobar
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parents:
diff changeset
1096 ;; @r{This one is local and nonvoid:}
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parents:
diff changeset
1097 (bind-me . 69))
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1098 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
1099 @end example
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parents:
diff changeset
1100
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parents:
diff changeset
1101 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1102 list does @emph{not} change the local values of the variables.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1103 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
1104
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parents:
diff changeset
1105 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1106 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1107 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1108 global (default) binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1109 buffer. Usually this results in a change in the value of
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1110 @var{variable}, since the global value is usually different from the
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1111 buffer-local value just eliminated.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1112
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1113 If you kill the local binding of a variable that automatically becomes
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1114 local when set, this makes the global value visible in the current
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1115 buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will once again
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1116 create a local binding for it.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1117
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1118 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1119 @end deffn
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parents:
diff changeset
1120
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1121 @defun kill-all-local-variables
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1122 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1123 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent''. As a
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1124 result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1125
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1126 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1127 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1128 value of @code{standard-syntax-table}, and the abbrev table to the value
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1129 of @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1130
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1131 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1132 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1133 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1134 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1135
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1136 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1137 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1138
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1139 @c Emacs 19 feature
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1140 @cindex permanent local variable
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1141 A local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a symbol) has a
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1142 @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}. Permanent
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1143 locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file came from
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1144 or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1145
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1146 @node Default Value
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1147 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1148 @cindex default value
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1149
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1150 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1151 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1152 effect except when specifically overridden.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1153
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1154 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1155 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1156 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1157 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1158 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1159 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer which has a buffer-local value for
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1160 this variable.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1161
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1162 @c Emacs 19 feature
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1163 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1164 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any local
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1165 value.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1166
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1167 @defun default-value symbol
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1168 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1169 that is seen in buffers that do not have their own values for this
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1170 variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent to
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1171 @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}).
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1172 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1173
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1174 @c Emacs 19 feature
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1175 @defun default-boundp variable
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1176 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{variable}'s
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1177 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1178 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1179
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parents:
diff changeset
1180 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1181 @code{symbol-value}.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1182 @end defun
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1183
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parents:
diff changeset
1184 @defspec setq-default symbol value
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1185 This sets the default value of @var{symbol} to @var{value}. It does not
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1186 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{value}. The value of the
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1187 @code{setq-default} form is @var{value}.
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1188
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1189 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1190 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1191 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1192 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1193 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1194 current buffer sees.
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1195
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1196 @example
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1197 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1198 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:}
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1199 (make-local-variable 'local)
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parents:
diff changeset
1200 @result{} local
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parents:
diff changeset
1201 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1202 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1203 (setq local 'value-in-foo)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1204 @result{} value-in-foo
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1205 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1206 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1207 (setq-default local 'new-default)
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1208 @result{} new-default
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1209 @end group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1210 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1211 local
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1212 @result{} value-in-foo
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1213 @end group
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1214 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1215 (default-value 'local)
e18202af3602 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1216 @result{} new-default
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1217 @end group
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1218
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1219 @group
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1220 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:}
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1221 local
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1222 @result{} new-default
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1223 @end group
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1224 @group
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1225 (default-value 'local)
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1226 @result{} new-default
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1227 @end group
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1228 @group
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1229 (setq local 'another-default)
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1230 @result{} another-default
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1231 @end group
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1232 @group
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1233 (default-value 'local)
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1234 @result{} another-default
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1235 @end group
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1236
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1237 @group
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1238 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:}
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1239 local
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1240 @result{} value-in-foo
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1241 (default-value 'local)
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1242 @result{} another-default
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1243 @end group
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1244 @end example
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1245 @end defspec
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1246
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1247 @defun set-default symbol value
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1248 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is
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1249 evaluated.
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1250
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1251 @example
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1252 @group
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1253 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23)
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1254 @result{} 23
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1255 @end group
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1256 @group
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1257 (default-value 'a)
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1258 @result{} 23
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1259 @end group
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1260 @end example
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1261 @end defun
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1262