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date | Sun, 06 Feb 2005 16:20:46 +0000 |
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6455 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
56215 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2004 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6455 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/functions | |
7 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top | |
8 @chapter Functions | |
9 | |
10 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
11 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
12 define them. | |
13 | |
14 @menu | |
15 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
16 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
17 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
18 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
19 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
20 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
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21 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. |
6455 | 22 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition |
23 of a symbol. | |
24 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. | |
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25 * Function Safety:: Determining whether a function is safe to call. |
6455 | 26 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives |
27 that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
28 @end menu | |
29 | |
30 @node What Is a Function | |
31 @section What Is a Function? | |
32 | |
33 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
34 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
35 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
36 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
37 the contents of data structures. | |
38 | |
39 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
40 function-like objects. | |
41 | |
42 @table @dfn | |
43 @item function | |
44 @cindex function | |
45 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
46 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
47 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
48 macros are not functions. | |
49 | |
50 @item primitive | |
51 @cindex primitive | |
52 @cindex subr | |
53 @cindex built-in function | |
54 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
55 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
56 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also | |
57 considered primitives.) | |
58 | |
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59 Usually the reason we implement a function as a primitive is either |
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60 because it is fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface |
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61 to operating system services, or because it needs to run fast. |
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62 Primitives can be modified or added only by changing the C sources and |
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63 recompiling the editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. |
6455 | 64 |
65 @item lambda expression | |
66 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
67 These are described in the following section. | |
27193 | 68 @ifnottex |
6455 | 69 @xref{Lambda Expressions}. |
27193 | 70 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 71 |
72 @item special form | |
73 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
74 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
75 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
76 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
77 Structures}. | |
78 | |
79 @item macro | |
80 @cindex macro | |
81 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
82 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
83 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
12098 | 84 original expression. Macros enable Lisp programmers to do the sorts of |
85 things that special forms can do. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and | |
86 use macros. | |
6455 | 87 |
88 @item command | |
89 @cindex command | |
90 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
91 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
92 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
93 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
94 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
95 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
96 | |
97 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
98 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
99 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
100 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
101 @xref{Command Overview}. | |
102 | |
103 @item keystroke command | |
104 @cindex keystroke command | |
105 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
106 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
107 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
108 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
109 | |
110 @item byte-code function | |
111 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
112 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
113 @end table | |
114 | |
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115 @defun functionp object |
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116 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is any kind of |
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117 function, or a special form, or, recursively, a symbol whose function |
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118 definition is a function or special form. (This does not include |
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119 macros.) |
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120 @end defun |
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121 |
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122 Unlike @code{functionp}, the next three functions do @emph{not} |
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123 treat a symbol as its function definition. |
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124 |
6455 | 125 @defun subrp object |
126 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
127 (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
128 | |
129 @example | |
130 @group | |
131 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
132 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
133 @end group | |
134 @group | |
135 (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
136 @result{} t | |
137 @end group | |
138 @end example | |
139 @end defun | |
140 | |
141 @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
142 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
143 function. For example: | |
144 | |
145 @example | |
146 @group | |
147 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
148 @result{} t | |
149 @end group | |
150 @end example | |
151 @end defun | |
152 | |
33999 | 153 @defun subr-arity subr |
154 @tindex subr-arity | |
155 This function provides information about the argument list of a | |
156 primitive, @var{subr}. The returned value is a pair | |
157 @code{(@var{min} . @var{max})}. @var{min} is the minimum number of | |
158 args. @var{max} is the maximum number or the symbol @code{many}, for a | |
159 function with @code{&rest} arguments, or the symbol @code{unevalled} if | |
160 @var{subr} is a special form. | |
161 @end defun | |
162 | |
6455 | 163 @node Lambda Expressions |
164 @section Lambda Expressions | |
165 @cindex lambda expression | |
166 | |
167 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
168 | |
169 @example | |
170 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
171 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
172 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
173 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
174 @end example | |
175 | |
176 @noindent | |
12098 | 177 Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression}. In Emacs Lisp, it |
178 actually is valid as an expression---it evaluates to itself. In some | |
179 other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at | |
180 all. In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an | |
181 expression, but to be called as a function. | |
6455 | 182 |
183 @menu | |
184 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
185 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
186 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
187 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
188 @end menu | |
189 | |
190 @node Lambda Components | |
191 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
192 | |
27193 | 193 @ifnottex |
6455 | 194 |
195 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
196 looks like this: | |
197 | |
198 @example | |
199 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
200 [@var{documentation-string}] | |
201 [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
202 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
203 @end example | |
27193 | 204 @end ifnottex |
6455 | 205 |
206 @cindex lambda list | |
207 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
208 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
209 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
210 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
211 functions. | |
212 | |
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213 The second element is a list of symbols---the argument variable names. |
6455 | 214 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, |
215 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
216 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
217 @xref{Local Variables}. | |
218 | |
7193 | 219 The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the |
220 function definition to describe the function for the Emacs help | |
221 facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
6455 | 222 |
223 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
224 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
225 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
226 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
227 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
228 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
229 declaration. | |
230 | |
231 @cindex body of function | |
232 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
233 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
234 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
235 function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
236 | |
237 @node Simple Lambda | |
238 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
239 | |
240 Consider for example the following function: | |
241 | |
242 @example | |
243 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
244 @end example | |
245 | |
246 @noindent | |
247 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
248 expression, like this: | |
249 | |
250 @example | |
251 @group | |
252 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
253 1 2 3) | |
254 @end group | |
255 @end example | |
256 | |
257 @noindent | |
258 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
259 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
260 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
261 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
262 | |
263 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
264 this example: | |
265 | |
266 @example | |
267 @group | |
268 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
269 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
270 @end group | |
271 @end example | |
272 | |
273 @noindent | |
274 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
7193 | 275 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression to the |
276 argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
6455 | 277 |
278 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
279 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
280 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
281 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
282 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
283 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
284 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
285 | |
286 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
287 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
288 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
289 variables. | |
290 | |
291 @node Argument List | |
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292 @subsection Other Features of Argument Lists |
6455 | 293 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments |
294 @cindex argument binding | |
295 @cindex binding arguments | |
296 | |
297 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
298 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
299 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
300 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
301 | |
302 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
303 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
304 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
305 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
306 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
7193 | 307 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{list} |
6455 | 308 and @code{+} do. |
309 | |
310 @cindex optional arguments | |
311 @cindex rest arguments | |
312 @kindex &optional | |
313 @kindex &rest | |
314 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
315 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
316 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
317 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
318 | |
319 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
320 | |
321 @example | |
322 @group | |
323 (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
324 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
325 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
326 @end group | |
327 @end example | |
328 | |
329 @noindent | |
330 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
331 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
332 | |
333 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
334 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
335 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
336 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
337 be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
338 | |
339 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
7193 | 340 then they always default to @code{nil}. There is no way for the |
6455 | 341 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and |
7193 | 342 an omitted argument. However, the body of the function is free to |
343 consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful value. | |
344 This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument to | |
345 @code{substring} means to use the length of the string supplied. | |
6455 | 346 |
347 @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
348 @quotation | |
349 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
350 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
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351 always uses @code{nil}. Emacs Lisp does not support ``supplied-p'' |
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352 variables that tell you whether an argument was explicitly passed. |
6455 | 353 @end quotation |
354 | |
355 For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
356 | |
357 @example | |
358 (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
359 @end example | |
360 | |
361 @noindent | |
362 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
363 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
364 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
365 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
366 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
367 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
368 is @code{nil}. | |
369 | |
370 There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
371 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
372 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
39168 | 373 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the |
374 third argument be for? Would it be used for the @var{c}, or for | |
375 @var{d}? One can argue for both possibilities. Similarly, it makes | |
376 no sense to have any more arguments (either required or optional) | |
377 after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
6455 | 378 |
379 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
380 | |
381 @smallexample | |
382 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
383 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
384 @result{} 2 | |
385 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
386 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
387 1 2) | |
388 @result{} 3 | |
389 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
390 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
391 1 2 3 4 5) | |
392 @result{} 15 | |
393 @end smallexample | |
394 | |
395 @node Function Documentation | |
396 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
397 @cindex documentation of function | |
398 | |
399 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
400 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
401 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
402 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
403 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
404 accessed. | |
405 | |
12098 | 406 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the |
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407 functions in your program, even those that are called only from within |
12098 | 408 your program. Documentation strings are like comments, except that they |
409 are easier to access. | |
6455 | 410 |
411 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
412 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
413 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
414 | |
12098 | 415 The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the source file, |
416 but since these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of | |
6455 | 417 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional |
7193 | 418 lines of the string so that the text lines up in the program source. |
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419 @emph{That is a mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is |
7193 | 420 inside the string; what looks nice in the source code will look ugly |
421 when displayed by the help commands. | |
6455 | 422 |
423 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
424 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
425 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
426 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
427 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
428 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
429 as the return value and as the documentation. | |
430 | |
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431 The last line of the documentation string can specify calling |
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432 conventions different from the actual function arguments. Write |
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433 text like this: |
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434 |
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435 @example |
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436 \(fn @var{arglist}) |
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437 @end example |
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438 |
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439 @noindent |
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440 following a blank line, at the beginning of the line, with no newline |
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441 following it inside the documentation string. This feature is |
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442 particularly useful for macro definitions. The @samp{\} is used to |
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443 avoid confusing the Emacs motion commands. |
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444 |
6455 | 445 @node Function Names |
446 @section Naming a Function | |
447 @cindex function definition | |
448 @cindex named function | |
449 @cindex function name | |
450 | |
451 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
452 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
453 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
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454 @code{lambda}, a byte-code function object, or a primitive subr-object. |
6455 | 455 |
456 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
457 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
458 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
459 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
460 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
461 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
462 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
463 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
464 | |
465 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
466 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
467 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
468 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
469 | |
470 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
471 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
472 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
473 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
474 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
475 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
476 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
477 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
478 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
479 practice). | |
480 | |
481 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
482 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not | |
483 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
484 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there | |
485 is no need to distinguish. | |
486 | |
487 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
488 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
489 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
490 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
491 equally well a name for the same function. | |
492 | |
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493 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; these |
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494 two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. (Some Lisp |
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495 dialects, such as Scheme, do not distinguish between a symbol's value |
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496 and its function definition; a symbol's value as a variable is also its |
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497 function definition.) If you have not given a symbol a function |
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498 definition, you cannot use it as a function; whether the symbol has a |
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499 value as a variable makes no difference to this. |
6455 | 500 |
501 @node Defining Functions | |
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502 @section Defining Functions |
6455 | 503 @cindex defining a function |
504 | |
505 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
506 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
507 @code{defun} special form. | |
508 | |
509 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
510 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
511 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
512 | |
513 @example | |
514 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
515 @end example | |
516 | |
517 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
518 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
519 value. | |
520 | |
521 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}), | |
522 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the | |
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523 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two of the |
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524 @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive |
6455 | 525 declaration. |
526 | |
527 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
528 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
529 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
530 | |
531 Here are some examples: | |
532 | |
533 @example | |
534 @group | |
535 (defun foo () 5) | |
536 @result{} foo | |
537 @end group | |
538 @group | |
539 (foo) | |
540 @result{} 5 | |
541 @end group | |
542 | |
543 @group | |
544 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
545 (list a b c)) | |
546 @result{} bar | |
547 @end group | |
548 @group | |
549 (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
550 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
551 @end group | |
552 @group | |
553 (bar 1) | |
554 @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
555 @end group | |
556 @group | |
557 (bar) | |
558 @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
559 @end group | |
560 | |
561 @group | |
562 (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
563 "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
564 (interactive) | |
565 (backward-word 1) | |
566 (forward-word 1) | |
567 (backward-char 1) | |
568 (capitalize-word 1)) | |
569 @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
570 @end group | |
571 @end example | |
572 | |
573 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
574 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
575 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
576 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
577 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
578 @end defspec | |
579 | |
56215 | 580 @defun defalias name definition &optional docstring |
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581 @anchor{Definition of defalias} |
6455 | 582 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with |
7193 | 583 definition @var{definition} (which can be any valid Lisp function). |
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584 It returns @var{definition}. |
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585 |
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586 If @var{docstring} is non-@code{nil}, it becomes the function |
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587 documentation of @var{name}. Otherwise, any documentation provided by |
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588 @var{definition} is used. |
12098 | 589 |
590 The proper place to use @code{defalias} is where a specific function | |
591 name is being defined---especially where that name appears explicitly in | |
592 the source file being loaded. This is because @code{defalias} records | |
593 which file defined the function, just like @code{defun} | |
594 (@pxref{Unloading}). | |
595 | |
596 By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for other | |
597 purposes, it is better to use @code{fset}, which does not keep such | |
598 records. | |
6455 | 599 @end defun |
600 | |
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601 You cannot create a new primitive function with @code{defun} or |
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602 @code{defalias}, but you can use them to change the function definition of |
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603 any symbol, even one such as @code{car} or @code{x-popup-menu} whose |
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604 normal definition is a primitive. However, this is risky: for |
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605 instance, it is next to impossible to redefine @code{car} without |
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606 breaking Lisp completely. Redefining an obscure function such as |
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607 @code{x-popup-menu} is less dangerous, but it still may not work as |
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608 you expect. If there are calls to the primitive from C code, they |
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609 call the primitive's C definition directly, so changing the symbol's |
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610 definition will have no effect on them. |
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611 |
12098 | 612 See also @code{defsubst}, which defines a function like @code{defun} |
613 and tells the Lisp compiler to open-code it. @xref{Inline Functions}. | |
614 | |
6455 | 615 @node Calling Functions |
616 @section Calling Functions | |
617 @cindex function invocation | |
618 @cindex calling a function | |
619 | |
620 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
621 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
622 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
623 | |
7193 | 624 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. |
625 For example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the | |
626 function @code{concat} with arguments @code{"a"} and @code{"b"}. | |
627 @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
6455 | 628 |
629 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function | |
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630 name it calls is written in your program. This means that you choose |
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631 which function to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you |
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632 write the program. Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you |
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633 need to compute at run time which function to call. To do that, use the |
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634 function @code{funcall}. When you also need to determine at run time |
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635 how many arguments to pass, use @code{apply}. |
6455 | 636 |
637 @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
638 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
639 whatever @var{function} returns. | |
640 | |
641 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
642 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
643 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
644 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions | |
645 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are | |
646 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function}; | |
647 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the | |
648 place where the arguments have already been evaluated. | |
649 | |
650 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
651 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
652 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
653 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
654 above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
655 | |
656 @example | |
657 @group | |
658 (setq f 'list) | |
659 @result{} list | |
660 @end group | |
661 @group | |
662 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
663 @result{} (x y z) | |
664 @end group | |
665 @group | |
666 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
667 @result{} (x y (z)) | |
668 @end group | |
669 @group | |
670 (funcall 'and t nil) | |
671 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
672 @end group | |
673 @end example | |
674 | |
26192 | 675 Compare these examples with the examples of @code{apply}. |
6455 | 676 @end defun |
677 | |
678 @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
679 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
680 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
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681 list of objects, which are passed to @var{function} as separate |
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682 arguments, rather than a single list. We say that @code{apply} |
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683 @dfn{spreads} this list so that each individual element becomes an |
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684 argument. |
6455 | 685 |
686 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
687 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
688 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
689 @code{apply}. | |
690 | |
691 @example | |
692 @group | |
693 (setq f 'list) | |
694 @result{} list | |
695 @end group | |
696 @group | |
697 (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
698 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
699 @end group | |
700 @group | |
701 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
702 @result{} 10 | |
703 @end group | |
704 @group | |
705 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
706 @result{} 10 | |
707 @end group | |
708 | |
709 @group | |
710 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
711 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
712 @end group | |
713 @end example | |
714 | |
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715 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see @ref{Definition |
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716 of mapcar}. |
6455 | 717 @end defun |
718 | |
719 @cindex functionals | |
720 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
721 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
722 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
723 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
724 | |
12098 | 725 Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op |
726 function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
6455 | 727 function: |
728 | |
729 @defun identity arg | |
730 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
731 @end defun | |
732 | |
733 @defun ignore &rest args | |
734 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
735 @end defun | |
736 | |
737 @node Mapping Functions | |
738 @section Mapping Functions | |
739 @cindex mapping functions | |
740 | |
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741 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function (@emph{not} a |
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742 special form or macro) to each element of a list or other collection. |
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743 Emacs Lisp has several such functions; @code{mapcar} and |
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744 @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described here. |
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745 @xref{Definition of mapatoms}, for the function @code{mapatoms} which |
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746 maps over the symbols in an obarray. @xref{Definition of maphash}, |
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747 for the function @code{maphash} which maps over key/value associations |
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748 in a hash table. |
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749 |
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750 These mapping functions do not allow char-tables because a char-table |
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751 is a sparse array whose nominal range of indices is very large. To map |
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752 over a char-table in a way that deals properly with its sparse nature, |
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753 use the function @code{map-char-table} (@pxref{Char-Tables}). |
6455 | 754 |
56215 | 755 @defun mapcar function sequence |
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756 @anchor{Definition of mapcar} |
7193 | 757 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} |
758 in turn, and returns a list of the results. | |
6455 | 759 |
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760 The argument @var{sequence} can be any kind of sequence except a |
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761 char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a bool-vector, or a string. The |
6455 | 762 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the |
763 length of @var{sequence}. | |
764 | |
765 @smallexample | |
766 @group | |
767 @exdent @r{For example:} | |
768 | |
769 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
770 @result{} (a c e) | |
771 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
772 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
773 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc") | |
774 @result{} ("a" "b" "c") | |
775 @end group | |
776 | |
777 @group | |
778 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
779 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
780 @end group | |
781 | |
782 @group | |
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783 (defun mapcar* (function &rest args) |
6455 | 784 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. |
785 Return the list of results." | |
786 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
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787 (if (not (memq nil args)) |
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788 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{car}s.} |
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789 (cons (apply function (mapcar 'car args)) |
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790 (apply 'mapcar* function |
6455 | 791 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} |
792 (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
793 @end group | |
794 | |
795 @group | |
796 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
797 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
798 @end group | |
799 @end smallexample | |
800 @end defun | |
801 | |
28556 | 802 @defun mapc function sequence |
803 @tindex mapc | |
804 @code{mapc} is like @code{mapcar} except that @var{function} is used for | |
805 side-effects only---the values it returns are ignored, not collected | |
806 into a list. @code{mapc} always returns @var{sequence}. | |
807 @end defun | |
808 | |
6455 | 809 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator |
810 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
811 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
812 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
813 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
814 other suitable punctuation. | |
815 | |
816 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
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817 argument and return a string. The argument @var{sequence} can be any |
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818 kind of sequence except a char-table; that is, a list, a vector, a |
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819 bool-vector, or a string. |
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820 |
6455 | 821 @smallexample |
822 @group | |
823 (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
824 '(The cat in the hat) | |
825 " ") | |
826 @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
827 @end group | |
828 | |
829 @group | |
830 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
831 "HAL-8000" | |
832 "") | |
833 @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
834 @end group | |
835 @end smallexample | |
836 @end defun | |
837 | |
838 @node Anonymous Functions | |
839 @section Anonymous Functions | |
840 @cindex anonymous function | |
841 | |
842 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
843 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
844 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions | |
845 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is | |
846 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an | |
847 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. | |
848 | |
849 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
850 | |
851 @smallexample | |
852 @group | |
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853 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) |
6455 | 854 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) |
855 @end group | |
856 @end smallexample | |
857 | |
858 @noindent | |
859 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
860 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
861 @code{silly}. | |
862 | |
863 Here is how we might call this function: | |
864 | |
865 @example | |
866 @group | |
867 (funcall silly 1) | |
868 @result{} 13 | |
869 @end group | |
870 @end example | |
871 | |
872 @noindent | |
873 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function | |
874 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given | |
875 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.) | |
876 | |
877 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
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878 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument to |
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879 the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each |
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880 element of a list. |
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881 |
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882 Here we define a function @code{change-property} which |
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883 uses a function as its third argument: |
6455 | 884 |
885 @example | |
886 @group | |
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887 (defun change-property (symbol prop function) |
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888 (let ((value (get symbol prop))) |
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889 (put symbol prop (funcall function value)))) |
6455 | 890 @end group |
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891 @end example |
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892 |
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893 @noindent |
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894 Here we define a function that uses @code{change-property}, |
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895 passing it a function to double a number: |
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896 |
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897 @example |
6455 | 898 @group |
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899 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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900 (change-property symbol prop '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) |
6455 | 901 @end group |
902 @end example | |
903 | |
904 @noindent | |
905 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead | |
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906 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function, like this: |
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907 |
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908 @example |
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909 @group |
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910 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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911 (change-property symbol prop |
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912 (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))))) |
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913 @end group |
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914 @end example |
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915 |
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916 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference if you |
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917 compile the function @code{double-property}. For example, if you |
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918 compile the second definition of @code{double-property}, the anonymous |
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919 function is compiled as well. By contrast, if you compile the first |
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920 definition which uses ordinary @code{quote}, the argument passed to |
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921 @code{change-property} is the precise list shown: |
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922 |
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923 @example |
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924 (lambda (x) (* x 2)) |
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925 @end example |
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926 |
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927 @noindent |
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928 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it |
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929 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{change-property} will |
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930 do with the list. Perhaps it will check whether the @sc{car} of the third |
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931 element is the symbol @code{*}! Using @code{function} tells the |
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932 compiler it is safe to go ahead and compile the constant function. |
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933 |
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934 Nowadays it is possible to omit @code{function} entirely, like this: |
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935 |
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936 @example |
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937 @group |
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938 (defun double-property (symbol prop) |
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939 (change-property symbol prop (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))) |
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940 @end group |
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941 @end example |
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942 |
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943 @noindent |
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944 This is because @code{lambda} itself implies @code{function}. |
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945 |
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946 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when |
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947 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of |
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948 comment: |
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949 |
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950 @example |
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951 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} |
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952 @end example |
6455 | 953 |
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954 @cindex @samp{#'} syntax |
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955 The read syntax @code{#'} is a short-hand for using @code{function}. |
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956 For example, |
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957 |
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958 @example |
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959 #'(lambda (x) (* x x)) |
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960 @end example |
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961 |
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962 @noindent |
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963 is equivalent to |
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964 |
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965 @example |
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966 (function (lambda (x) (* x x))) |
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967 @end example |
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968 |
6455 | 969 @defspec function function-object |
970 @cindex function quoting | |
971 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
972 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
973 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
974 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
975 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
976 @end defspec | |
977 | |
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978 @xref{describe-symbols example}, for a realistic example using |
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979 @code{function} and an anonymous function. |
6455 | 980 |
981 @node Function Cells | |
982 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
983 | |
984 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
985 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
986 and set the function cell of symbols. | |
987 | |
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988 See also the function @code{indirect-function}. @xref{Definition of |
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989 indirect-function}. |
7193 | 990 |
6455 | 991 @defun symbol-function symbol |
992 @kindex void-function | |
993 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
994 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
995 signaled. | |
996 | |
997 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
998 function. | |
999 | |
1000 @example | |
1001 @group | |
1002 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
1003 @result{} bar | |
1004 @end group | |
1005 @group | |
1006 (symbol-function 'bar) | |
1007 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
1008 @end group | |
1009 @group | |
1010 (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
1011 @result{} bar | |
1012 @end group | |
1013 @group | |
1014 (symbol-function 'baz) | |
1015 @result{} bar | |
1016 @end group | |
1017 @end example | |
1018 @end defun | |
1019 | |
1020 @cindex void function cell | |
1021 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
1022 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
1023 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
1024 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
1025 | |
1026 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
1027 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
1028 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
1029 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
7193 | 1030 @code{defun}). A void function cell contains no object whatsoever. |
6455 | 1031 |
1032 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
1033 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
1034 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
1035 | |
1036 @defun fboundp symbol | |
1037 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
1038 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
1039 is a legitimate function. | |
1040 @end defun | |
1041 | |
1042 @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
1043 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
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1044 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a |
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1045 @code{void-function} error. It returns @var{symbol}. (See also |
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1046 @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Void Variables}.) |
6455 | 1047 |
1048 @example | |
1049 @group | |
1050 (defun foo (x) x) | |
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1051 @result{} foo |
6455 | 1052 @end group |
1053 @group | |
7193 | 1054 (foo 1) |
1055 @result{}1 | |
1056 @end group | |
1057 @group | |
6455 | 1058 (fmakunbound 'foo) |
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1059 @result{} foo |
6455 | 1060 @end group |
1061 @group | |
1062 (foo 1) | |
1063 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
1064 @end group | |
1065 @end example | |
1066 @end defun | |
1067 | |
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1068 @defun fset symbol definition |
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1069 This function stores @var{definition} in the function cell of |
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1070 @var{symbol}. The result is @var{definition}. Normally |
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1071 @var{definition} should be a function or the name of a function, but |
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1072 this is not checked. The argument @var{symbol} is an ordinary evaluated |
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1073 argument. |
6455 | 1074 |
1075 There are three normal uses of this function: | |
1076 | |
1077 @itemize @bullet | |
1078 @item | |
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1079 Copying one symbol's function definition to another---in other words, |
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1080 making an alternate name for a function. (If you think of this as the |
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1081 definition of the new name, you should use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1082 @code{fset}; see @ref{Definition of defalias}.) |
6455 | 1083 |
1084 @item | |
1085 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
7193 | 1086 cannot be made with @code{defun}. For example, you can use @code{fset} |
1087 to give a symbol @code{s1} a function definition which is another symbol | |
1088 @code{s2}; then @code{s1} serves as an alias for whatever definition | |
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1089 @code{s2} presently has. (Once again use @code{defalias} instead of |
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1090 @code{fset} if you think of this as the definition of @code{s1}.) |
6455 | 1091 |
1092 @item | |
1093 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
1094 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
1095 @code{fset}. | |
1096 @end itemize | |
1097 | |
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1098 Here are examples of these uses: |
6455 | 1099 |
1100 @example | |
1101 @group | |
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1102 ;; @r{Save @code{foo}'s definition in @code{old-foo}.} |
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1103 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) |
6455 | 1104 @end group |
1105 | |
1106 @group | |
1107 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
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1108 ;; @r{(Most likely, @code{defalias} would be better than @code{fset} here.)} |
6455 | 1109 (fset 'xfirst 'car) |
1110 @result{} car | |
1111 @end group | |
1112 @group | |
1113 (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
1114 @result{} 1 | |
1115 @end group | |
1116 @group | |
1117 (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
1118 @result{} car | |
1119 @end group | |
1120 @group | |
1121 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
1122 @result{} #<subr car> | |
1123 @end group | |
1124 | |
1125 @group | |
1126 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
1127 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
1128 @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
1129 @end group | |
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1130 |
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1131 @group |
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1132 ;; @r{Here is a function that alters other functions.} |
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1133 (defun copy-function-definition (new old) |
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1134 "Define NEW with the same function definition as OLD." |
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1135 (fset new (symbol-function old))) |
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1136 @end group |
6455 | 1137 @end example |
1138 @end defun | |
1139 | |
1140 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function, | |
12098 | 1141 the following idiom is sometimes used: |
6455 | 1142 |
1143 @example | |
1144 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) | |
1145 (defun foo () | |
1146 "Just like old-foo, except more so." | |
1147 @group | |
1148 (old-foo) | |
1149 (more-so)) | |
1150 @end group | |
1151 @end example | |
1152 | |
1153 @noindent | |
1154 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload. | |
1155 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts | |
1156 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably | |
1157 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the | |
1158 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the | |
1159 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}. | |
1160 | |
12098 | 1161 But it is unmodular and unclean, in any case, for a Lisp file to |
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1162 redefine a function defined elsewhere. It is cleaner to use the advice |
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1163 facility (@pxref{Advising Functions}). |
12098 | 1164 |
6455 | 1165 @node Inline Functions |
1166 @section Inline Functions | |
1167 @cindex inline functions | |
1168 | |
1169 @findex defsubst | |
1170 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1171 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1172 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1173 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1174 | |
1175 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1176 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change | |
1177 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old | |
1178 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of | |
1179 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not | |
1180 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial. | |
1181 | |
1182 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1183 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1184 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1185 generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1186 | |
1187 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
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1188 inline function would execute. (@xref{Macros}.) But the macro would be |
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1189 limited to direct use in expressions---a macro cannot be called with |
6455 | 1190 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to |
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1191 convert an ordinary function into a macro. To convert it into an inline |
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1192 function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} with @code{defsubst}. |
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1193 Since each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you |
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1194 needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you |
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1195 do for macros. (@xref{Argument Evaluation}.) |
6455 | 1196 |
7193 | 1197 Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same file, |
6455 | 1198 following the definition, just like macros. |
1199 | |
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1200 @node Function Safety |
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1201 @section Determining whether a function is safe to call |
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1202 @cindex function safety |
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1203 @cindex safety of functions |
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1204 |
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1205 Some major modes such as SES call functions that are stored in user |
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1206 files. (@inforef{Top, ,ses}, for more information on SES.) User |
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1207 files sometimes have poor pedigrees---you can get a spreadsheet from |
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1208 someone you've just met, or you can get one through email from someone |
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1209 you've never met. So it is risky to call a function whose source code |
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1210 is stored in a user file until you have determined that it is safe. |
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1211 |
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1212 @defun unsafep form &optional unsafep-vars |
52759 | 1213 Returns @code{nil} if @var{form} is a @dfn{safe} Lisp expression, or |
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1214 returns a list that describes why it might be unsafe. The argument |
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1215 @var{unsafep-vars} is a list of symbols known to have temporary |
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1216 bindings at this point; it is mainly used for internal recursive |
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1217 calls. The current buffer is an implicit argument, which provides a |
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1218 list of buffer-local bindings. |
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1219 @end defun |
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1220 |
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1221 Being quick and simple, @code{unsafep} does a very light analysis and |
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1222 rejects many Lisp expressions that are actually safe. There are no |
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1223 known cases where @code{unsafep} returns @code{nil} for an unsafe |
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1224 expression. However, a ``safe'' Lisp expression can return a string |
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1225 with a @code{display} property, containing an associated Lisp |
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1226 expression to be executed after the string is inserted into a buffer. |
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1227 This associated expression can be a virus. In order to be safe, you |
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1228 must delete properties from all strings calculated by user code before |
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1229 inserting them into buffers. |
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1230 |
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1231 @ignore |
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1232 What is a safe Lisp expression? Basically, it's an expression that |
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1233 calls only built-in functions with no side effects (or only innocuous |
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1234 ones). Innocuous side effects include displaying messages and |
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1235 altering non-risky buffer-local variables (but not global variables). |
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1236 |
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1237 @table @dfn |
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1238 @item Safe expression |
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1239 @itemize |
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1240 @item |
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1241 An atom or quoted thing. |
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1242 @item |
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1243 A call to a safe function (see below), if all its arguments are |
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1244 safe expressions. |
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1245 @item |
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1246 One of the special forms @code{and}, @code{catch}, @code{cond}, |
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1247 @code{if}, @code{or}, @code{prog1}, @code{prog2}, @code{progn}, |
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1248 @code{while}, and @code{unwind-protect}], if all its arguments are |
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1249 safe. |
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1250 @item |
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1251 A form that creates temporary bindings (@code{condition-case}, |
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1252 @code{dolist}, @code{dotimes}, @code{lambda}, @code{let}, or |
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1253 @code{let*}), if all args are safe and the symbols to be bound are not |
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1254 explicitly risky (see @pxref{File Local Variables}). |
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1255 @item |
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1256 An assignment using @code{add-to-list}, @code{setq}, @code{push}, or |
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1257 @code{pop}, if all args are safe and the symbols to be assigned are |
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1258 not explicitly risky and they already have temporary or buffer-local |
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1259 bindings. |
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1260 @item |
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1261 One of [apply, mapc, mapcar, mapconcat] if the first argument is a |
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1262 safe explicit lambda and the other args are safe expressions. |
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1263 @end itemize |
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1264 |
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1265 @item Safe function |
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1266 @itemize |
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1267 @item |
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1268 A lambda containing safe expressions. |
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1269 @item |
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1270 A symbol on the list @code{safe-functions}, so the user says it's safe. |
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1271 @item |
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1272 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{side-effect-free} property. |
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1273 @item |
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1274 A symbol with a non-@code{nil} @code{safe-function} property. Value t |
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1275 indicates a function that is safe but has innocuous side effects. |
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1276 Other values will someday indicate functions with classes of side |
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1277 effects that are not always safe. |
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1278 @end itemize |
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1279 |
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1280 The @code{side-effect-free} and @code{safe-function} properties are |
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1281 provided for built-in functions and for low-level functions and macros |
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1282 defined in @file{subr.el}. You can assign these properties for the |
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1283 functions you write. |
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1284 @end table |
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1285 @end ignore |
6455 | 1286 |
1287 @node Related Topics | |
1288 @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1289 | |
1290 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1291 function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1292 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1293 | |
1294 @table @code | |
1295 @item apply | |
1296 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1297 | |
1298 @item autoload | |
1299 See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1300 | |
1301 @item call-interactively | |
1302 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1303 | |
1304 @item commandp | |
1305 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1306 | |
1307 @item documentation | |
1308 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1309 | |
1310 @item eval | |
1311 See @ref{Eval}. | |
1312 | |
1313 @item funcall | |
1314 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1315 | |
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1316 @item function |
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1317 See @ref{Anonymous Functions}. |
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1318 |
6455 | 1319 @item ignore |
1320 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1321 | |
1322 @item indirect-function | |
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1323 See @ref{Function Indirection}. |
6455 | 1324 |
1325 @item interactive | |
1326 See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1327 | |
1328 @item interactive-p | |
1329 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1330 | |
1331 @item mapatoms | |
1332 See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1333 | |
1334 @item mapcar | |
1335 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1336 | |
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1337 @item map-char-table |
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1338 See @ref{Char-Tables}. |
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1339 |
6455 | 1340 @item mapconcat |
1341 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1342 | |
1343 @item undefined | |
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1344 See @ref{Functions for Key Lookup}. |
6455 | 1345 @end table |
1346 | |
52401 | 1347 @ignore |
1348 arch-tag: 39100cdf-8a55-4898-acba-595db619e8e2 | |
1349 @end ignore |