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annotate lispref/lists.texi @ 23834:ce563c147515
Do string comparision of _NMAKE_VER.
author | Geoff Voelker <voelker@cs.washington.edu> |
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date | Tue, 08 Dec 1998 23:56:14 +0000 |
parents | 8159553e2468 |
children | 7451b1458af1 |
rev | line source |
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6558 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6558 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/lists | |
6 @node Lists, Sequences Arrays Vectors, Strings and Characters, Top | |
7 @chapter Lists | |
8 @cindex list | |
9 @cindex element (of list) | |
10 | |
11 A @dfn{list} represents a sequence of zero or more elements (which may | |
12 be any Lisp objects). The important difference between lists and | |
13 vectors is that two or more lists can share part of their structure; in | |
14 addition, you can insert or delete elements in a list without copying | |
15 the whole list. | |
16 | |
17 @menu | |
18 * Cons Cells:: How lists are made out of cons cells. | |
19 * Lists as Boxes:: Graphical notation to explain lists. | |
20 * List-related Predicates:: Is this object a list? Comparing two lists. | |
21 * List Elements:: Extracting the pieces of a list. | |
22 * Building Lists:: Creating list structure. | |
23 * Modifying Lists:: Storing new pieces into an existing list. | |
24 * Sets And Lists:: A list can represent a finite mathematical set. | |
25 * Association Lists:: A list can represent a finite relation or mapping. | |
26 @end menu | |
27 | |
28 @node Cons Cells | |
29 @section Lists and Cons Cells | |
30 @cindex lists and cons cells | |
31 @cindex @code{nil} and lists | |
32 | |
33 Lists in Lisp are not a primitive data type; they are built up from | |
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34 @dfn{cons cells}. A cons cell is a data object that represents an |
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35 ordered pair. It holds, or ``points to,'' two Lisp objects, one labeled |
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36 as the @sc{car}, and the other labeled as the @sc{cdr}. These names are |
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37 traditional; see @ref{Cons Cell Type}. @sc{cdr} is pronounced |
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38 ``could-er.'' |
6558 | 39 |
40 A list is a series of cons cells chained together, one cons cell per | |
41 element of the list. By convention, the @sc{car}s of the cons cells are | |
42 the elements of the list, and the @sc{cdr}s are used to chain the list: | |
43 the @sc{cdr} of each cons cell is the following cons cell. The @sc{cdr} | |
44 of the last cons cell is @code{nil}. This asymmetry between the | |
45 @sc{car} and the @sc{cdr} is entirely a matter of convention; at the | |
46 level of cons cells, the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} slots have the same | |
47 characteristics. | |
48 | |
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49 @cindex list structure |
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50 Because most cons cells are used as part of lists, the phrase |
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51 @dfn{list structure} has come to mean any structure made out of cons |
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52 cells. |
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53 |
6558 | 54 The symbol @code{nil} is considered a list as well as a symbol; it is |
55 the list with no elements. For convenience, the symbol @code{nil} is | |
56 considered to have @code{nil} as its @sc{cdr} (and also as its | |
57 @sc{car}). | |
58 | |
59 The @sc{cdr} of any nonempty list @var{l} is a list containing all the | |
60 elements of @var{l} except the first. | |
61 | |
62 @node Lists as Boxes | |
63 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
64 @section Lists as Linked Pairs of Boxes | |
65 @cindex box representation for lists | |
66 @cindex lists represented as boxes | |
67 @cindex cons cell as box | |
68 | |
69 A cons cell can be illustrated as a pair of boxes. The first box | |
70 represents the @sc{car} and the second box represents the @sc{cdr}. | |
71 Here is an illustration of the two-element list, @code{(tulip lily)}, | |
72 made from two cons cells: | |
73 | |
74 @example | |
75 @group | |
76 --------------- --------------- | |
77 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
78 | tulip | o---------->| lily | nil | | |
79 | | | | | | | |
80 --------------- --------------- | |
81 @end group | |
82 @end example | |
83 | |
84 Each pair of boxes represents a cons cell. Each box ``refers to'', | |
85 ``points to'' or ``contains'' a Lisp object. (These terms are | |
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86 synonymous.) The first box, which describes the @sc{car} of the first |
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87 cons cell, contains the symbol @code{tulip}. The arrow from the |
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88 @sc{cdr} box of the first cons cell to the second cons cell indicates |
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89 that the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell is the second cons cell. |
6558 | 90 |
91 The same list can be illustrated in a different sort of box notation | |
92 like this: | |
93 | |
94 @example | |
95 @group | |
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96 --- --- --- --- |
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97 | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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98 --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 99 | | |
100 | | | |
101 --> tulip --> lily | |
102 @end group | |
103 @end example | |
104 | |
105 Here is a more complex illustration, showing the three-element list, | |
106 @code{((pine needles) oak maple)}, the first element of which is a | |
107 two-element list: | |
108 | |
109 @example | |
110 @group | |
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111 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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112 | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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113 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 114 | | | |
115 | | | | |
116 | --> oak --> maple | |
117 | | |
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118 | --- --- --- --- |
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119 --> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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120 --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 121 | | |
122 | | | |
123 --> pine --> needles | |
124 @end group | |
125 @end example | |
126 | |
127 The same list represented in the first box notation looks like this: | |
128 | |
129 @example | |
130 @group | |
131 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
132 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
133 | o | o------->| oak | o------->| maple | nil | | |
134 | | | | | | | | | | | |
135 -- | --------- -------------- -------------- | |
136 | | |
137 | | |
138 | -------------- ---------------- | |
139 | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
140 ------>| pine | o------->| needles | nil | | |
141 | | | | | | | |
142 -------------- ---------------- | |
143 @end group | |
144 @end example | |
145 | |
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146 @xref{Cons Cell Type}, for the read and print syntax of cons cells and |
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147 lists, and for more ``box and arrow'' illustrations of lists. |
6558 | 148 |
149 @node List-related Predicates | |
150 @section Predicates on Lists | |
151 | |
152 The following predicates test whether a Lisp object is an atom, is a | |
153 cons cell or is a list, or whether it is the distinguished object | |
154 @code{nil}. (Many of these predicates can be defined in terms of the | |
155 others, but they are used so often that it is worth having all of them.) | |
156 | |
157 @defun consp object | |
158 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} | |
159 otherwise. @code{nil} is not a cons cell, although it @emph{is} a list. | |
160 @end defun | |
161 | |
162 @defun atom object | |
163 @cindex atoms | |
164 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is an atom, @code{nil} | |
165 otherwise. All objects except cons cells are atoms. The symbol | |
166 @code{nil} is an atom and is also a list; it is the only Lisp object | |
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167 that is both. |
6558 | 168 |
169 @example | |
170 (atom @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (consp @var{object})) | |
171 @end example | |
172 @end defun | |
173 | |
174 @defun listp object | |
175 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a cons cell or | |
176 @code{nil}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
177 | |
178 @example | |
179 @group | |
180 (listp '(1)) | |
181 @result{} t | |
182 @end group | |
183 @group | |
184 (listp '()) | |
185 @result{} t | |
186 @end group | |
187 @end example | |
188 @end defun | |
189 | |
190 @defun nlistp object | |
191 This function is the opposite of @code{listp}: it returns @code{t} if | |
192 @var{object} is not a list. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
193 | |
194 @example | |
195 (listp @var{object}) @equiv{} (not (nlistp @var{object})) | |
196 @end example | |
197 @end defun | |
198 | |
199 @defun null object | |
200 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is @code{nil}, and | |
201 returns @code{nil} otherwise. This function is identical to @code{not}, | |
202 but as a matter of clarity we use @code{null} when @var{object} is | |
203 considered a list and @code{not} when it is considered a truth value | |
204 (see @code{not} in @ref{Combining Conditions}). | |
205 | |
206 @example | |
207 @group | |
208 (null '(1)) | |
209 @result{} nil | |
210 @end group | |
211 @group | |
212 (null '()) | |
213 @result{} t | |
214 @end group | |
215 @end example | |
216 @end defun | |
217 | |
7734 | 218 @need 2000 |
6558 | 219 |
220 @node List Elements | |
221 @section Accessing Elements of Lists | |
222 @cindex list elements | |
223 | |
224 @defun car cons-cell | |
225 This function returns the value pointed to by the first pointer of the | |
226 cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function | |
227 returns the @sc{car} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
228 | |
229 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{car} | |
230 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
231 for @code{car}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
232 or @code{nil}. | |
233 | |
234 @example | |
235 @group | |
236 (car '(a b c)) | |
237 @result{} a | |
238 @end group | |
239 @group | |
240 (car '()) | |
241 @result{} nil | |
242 @end group | |
243 @end example | |
244 @end defun | |
245 | |
246 @defun cdr cons-cell | |
247 This function returns the value pointed to by the second pointer of | |
248 the cons cell @var{cons-cell}. Expressed another way, this function | |
249 returns the @sc{cdr} of @var{cons-cell}. | |
250 | |
251 As a special case, if @var{cons-cell} is @code{nil}, then @code{cdr} | |
252 is defined to return @code{nil}; therefore, any list is a valid argument | |
253 for @code{cdr}. An error is signaled if the argument is not a cons cell | |
254 or @code{nil}. | |
255 | |
256 @example | |
257 @group | |
258 (cdr '(a b c)) | |
259 @result{} (b c) | |
260 @end group | |
261 @group | |
262 (cdr '()) | |
263 @result{} nil | |
264 @end group | |
265 @end example | |
266 @end defun | |
267 | |
268 @defun car-safe object | |
269 This function lets you take the @sc{car} of a cons cell while avoiding | |
270 errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{car} of @var{object} if | |
271 @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. This is in contrast | |
272 to @code{car}, which signals an error if @var{object} is not a list. | |
273 | |
274 @example | |
275 @group | |
276 (car-safe @var{object}) | |
277 @equiv{} | |
278 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
279 (if (consp x) | |
280 (car x) | |
281 nil)) | |
282 @end group | |
283 @end example | |
284 @end defun | |
285 | |
286 @defun cdr-safe object | |
287 This function lets you take the @sc{cdr} of a cons cell while | |
288 avoiding errors for other data types. It returns the @sc{cdr} of | |
289 @var{object} if @var{object} is a cons cell, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
290 This is in contrast to @code{cdr}, which signals an error if | |
291 @var{object} is not a list. | |
292 | |
293 @example | |
294 @group | |
295 (cdr-safe @var{object}) | |
296 @equiv{} | |
297 (let ((x @var{object})) | |
298 (if (consp x) | |
299 (cdr x) | |
300 nil)) | |
301 @end group | |
302 @end example | |
303 @end defun | |
304 | |
305 @defun nth n list | |
306 This function returns the @var{n}th element of @var{list}. Elements | |
307 are numbered starting with zero, so the @sc{car} of @var{list} is | |
308 element number zero. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
309 the value is @code{nil}. | |
310 | |
311 If @var{n} is negative, @code{nth} returns the first element of | |
312 @var{list}. | |
313 | |
314 @example | |
315 @group | |
316 (nth 2 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
317 @result{} 3 | |
318 @end group | |
319 @group | |
320 (nth 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
321 @result{} nil | |
322 @end group | |
323 @group | |
324 (nth -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
325 @result{} 1 | |
326 | |
327 (nth n x) @equiv{} (car (nthcdr n x)) | |
328 @end group | |
329 @end example | |
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330 |
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331 The function @code{elt} is similar, but applies to any kind of sequence. |
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332 For historical reasons, it takes its arguments in the opposite order. |
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333 @xref{Sequence Functions}. |
6558 | 334 @end defun |
335 | |
336 @defun nthcdr n list | |
337 This function returns the @var{n}th @sc{cdr} of @var{list}. In other | |
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338 words, it skips past the first @var{n} links of @var{list} and returns |
6558 | 339 what follows. |
340 | |
341 If @var{n} is zero or negative, @code{nthcdr} returns all of | |
342 @var{list}. If the length of @var{list} is @var{n} or less, | |
343 @code{nthcdr} returns @code{nil}. | |
344 | |
345 @example | |
346 @group | |
347 (nthcdr 1 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
348 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
349 @end group | |
350 @group | |
351 (nthcdr 10 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
352 @result{} nil | |
353 @end group | |
354 @group | |
355 (nthcdr -3 '(1 2 3 4)) | |
356 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
357 @end group | |
358 @end example | |
359 @end defun | |
360 | |
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361 @defun safe-length list |
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362 @tindex safe-length |
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363 This function returns the length of @var{list}, with no risk |
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364 of either an error or an infinite loop. |
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365 |
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366 If @var{list} is not really a list, @code{safe-length} returns 0. If |
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367 @var{list} is circular, it returns a finite value which is at least the |
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368 number of distinct elements. |
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369 @end defun |
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370 |
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371 The most common way to compute the length of a list, when you are not |
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372 worried that it may be circular, is with @code{length}. @xref{Sequence |
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373 Functions}. |
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374 |
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375 @defun caar cons-cell |
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376 @tindex caar |
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377 This is the same as @code{(car (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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378 @end defun |
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379 |
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380 @defun cadr cons-cell |
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381 @tindex cadr |
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382 This is the same as @code{(car (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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383 or @code{(nth 1 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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384 @end defun |
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385 |
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386 @defun cdar cons-cell |
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387 @tindex cdar |
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388 This is the same as @code{(cdr (car @var{cons-cell}))}. |
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389 @end defun |
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390 |
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391 @defun cddr cons-cell |
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392 @tindex cddr |
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393 This is the same as @code{(cdr (cdr @var{cons-cell}))} |
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394 or @code{(nthcdr 2 @var{cons-cell})}. |
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395 @end defun |
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396 |
6558 | 397 @node Building Lists |
398 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
399 @section Building Cons Cells and Lists | |
400 @cindex cons cells | |
401 @cindex building lists | |
402 | |
403 Many functions build lists, as lists reside at the very heart of Lisp. | |
404 @code{cons} is the fundamental list-building function; however, it is | |
405 interesting to note that @code{list} is used more times in the source | |
406 code for Emacs than @code{cons}. | |
407 | |
408 @defun cons object1 object2 | |
409 This function is the fundamental function used to build new list | |
410 structure. It creates a new cons cell, making @var{object1} the | |
411 @sc{car}, and @var{object2} the @sc{cdr}. It then returns the new cons | |
412 cell. The arguments @var{object1} and @var{object2} may be any Lisp | |
413 objects, but most often @var{object2} is a list. | |
414 | |
415 @example | |
416 @group | |
417 (cons 1 '(2)) | |
418 @result{} (1 2) | |
419 @end group | |
420 @group | |
421 (cons 1 '()) | |
422 @result{} (1) | |
423 @end group | |
424 @group | |
425 (cons 1 2) | |
426 @result{} (1 . 2) | |
427 @end group | |
428 @end example | |
429 | |
430 @cindex consing | |
431 @code{cons} is often used to add a single element to the front of a | |
432 list. This is called @dfn{consing the element onto the list}. For | |
433 example: | |
434 | |
435 @example | |
436 (setq list (cons newelt list)) | |
437 @end example | |
438 | |
439 Note that there is no conflict between the variable named @code{list} | |
440 used in this example and the function named @code{list} described below; | |
441 any symbol can serve both purposes. | |
442 @end defun | |
443 | |
444 @defun list &rest objects | |
445 This function creates a list with @var{objects} as its elements. The | |
446 resulting list is always @code{nil}-terminated. If no @var{objects} | |
447 are given, the empty list is returned. | |
448 | |
449 @example | |
450 @group | |
451 (list 1 2 3 4 5) | |
452 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
453 @end group | |
454 @group | |
455 (list 1 2 '(3 4 5) 'foo) | |
456 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5) foo) | |
457 @end group | |
458 @group | |
459 (list) | |
460 @result{} nil | |
461 @end group | |
462 @end example | |
463 @end defun | |
464 | |
465 @defun make-list length object | |
466 This function creates a list of length @var{length}, in which all the | |
467 elements have the identical value @var{object}. Compare | |
468 @code{make-list} with @code{make-string} (@pxref{Creating Strings}). | |
469 | |
470 @example | |
471 @group | |
472 (make-list 3 'pigs) | |
473 @result{} (pigs pigs pigs) | |
474 @end group | |
475 @group | |
476 (make-list 0 'pigs) | |
477 @result{} nil | |
478 @end group | |
479 @end example | |
480 @end defun | |
481 | |
482 @defun append &rest sequences | |
483 @cindex copying lists | |
484 This function returns a list containing all the elements of | |
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485 @var{sequences}. The @var{sequences} may be lists, vectors, |
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486 bool-vectors, or strings, but the last one should usually be a list. |
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487 All arguments except the last one are copied, so none of the arguments |
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488 is altered. (See @code{nconc} in @ref{Rearrangement}, for a way to join |
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489 lists with no copying.) |
6558 | 490 |
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491 More generally, the final argument to @code{append} may be any Lisp |
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492 object. The final argument is not copied or converted; it becomes the |
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493 @sc{cdr} of the last cons cell in the new list. If the final argument |
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494 is itself a list, then its elements become in effect elements of the |
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495 result list. If the final element is not a list, the result is a |
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496 ``dotted list'' since its final @sc{cdr} is not @code{nil} as required |
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497 in a true list. |
6558 | 498 |
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499 The @code{append} function also allows integers as arguments. It |
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500 converts them to strings of digits, making up the decimal print |
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501 representation of the integer, and then uses the strings instead of the |
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502 original integers. @strong{Don't use this feature; we plan to eliminate |
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503 it. If you already use this feature, change your programs now!} The |
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504 proper way to convert an integer to a decimal number in this way is with |
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505 @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or @code{number-to-string} |
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506 (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
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507 @end defun |
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508 |
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509 Here is an example of using @code{append}: |
6558 | 510 |
511 @example | |
512 @group | |
513 (setq trees '(pine oak)) | |
514 @result{} (pine oak) | |
515 (setq more-trees (append '(maple birch) trees)) | |
516 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
517 @end group | |
518 | |
519 @group | |
520 trees | |
521 @result{} (pine oak) | |
522 more-trees | |
523 @result{} (maple birch pine oak) | |
524 @end group | |
525 @group | |
526 (eq trees (cdr (cdr more-trees))) | |
527 @result{} t | |
528 @end group | |
529 @end example | |
530 | |
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531 You can see how @code{append} works by looking at a box diagram. The |
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532 variable @code{trees} is set to the list @code{(pine oak)} and then the |
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533 variable @code{more-trees} is set to the list @code{(maple birch pine |
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534 oak)}. However, the variable @code{trees} continues to refer to the |
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535 original list: |
6558 | 536 |
537 @smallexample | |
538 @group | |
539 more-trees trees | |
540 | | | |
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541 | --- --- --- --- -> --- --- --- --- |
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542 --> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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543 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 544 | | | | |
545 | | | | | |
546 --> maple -->birch --> pine --> oak | |
547 @end group | |
548 @end smallexample | |
549 | |
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550 An empty sequence contributes nothing to the value returned by |
6558 | 551 @code{append}. As a consequence of this, a final @code{nil} argument |
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552 forces a copy of the previous argument: |
6558 | 553 |
554 @example | |
555 @group | |
556 trees | |
557 @result{} (pine oak) | |
558 @end group | |
559 @group | |
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560 (setq wood (append trees nil)) |
6558 | 561 @result{} (pine oak) |
562 @end group | |
563 @group | |
564 wood | |
565 @result{} (pine oak) | |
566 @end group | |
567 @group | |
568 (eq wood trees) | |
569 @result{} nil | |
570 @end group | |
571 @end example | |
572 | |
573 @noindent | |
574 This once was the usual way to copy a list, before the function | |
575 @code{copy-sequence} was invented. @xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}. | |
576 | |
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577 Here we show the use of vectors and strings as arguments to @code{append}: |
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578 |
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579 @example |
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580 @group |
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581 (append [a b] "cd" nil) |
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582 @result{} (a b 99 100) |
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583 @end group |
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584 @end example |
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585 |
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586 With the help of @code{apply} (@pxref{Calling Functions}), we can append |
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587 all the lists in a list of lists: |
6558 | 588 |
589 @example | |
590 @group | |
591 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
592 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
593 @end group | |
594 @end example | |
595 | |
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596 If no @var{sequences} are given, @code{nil} is returned: |
6558 | 597 |
598 @example | |
599 @group | |
600 (append) | |
601 @result{} nil | |
602 @end group | |
603 @end example | |
604 | |
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605 Here are some examples where the final argument is not a list: |
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606 |
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607 @example |
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608 (append '(x y) 'z) |
12098 | 609 @result{} (x y . z) |
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610 (append '(x y) [z]) |
12098 | 611 @result{} (x y . [z]) |
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612 @end example |
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613 |
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614 @noindent |
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615 The second example shows that when the final argument is a sequence but |
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616 not a list, the sequence's elements do not become elements of the |
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617 resulting list. Instead, the sequence becomes the final @sc{cdr}, like |
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618 any other non-list final argument. |
6558 | 619 |
620 @defun reverse list | |
621 This function creates a new list whose elements are the elements of | |
622 @var{list}, but in reverse order. The original argument @var{list} is | |
623 @emph{not} altered. | |
624 | |
625 @example | |
626 @group | |
627 (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
628 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
629 @end group | |
630 @group | |
631 (reverse x) | |
632 @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
633 x | |
634 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
635 @end group | |
636 @end example | |
637 @end defun | |
638 | |
639 @node Modifying Lists | |
640 @section Modifying Existing List Structure | |
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641 @cindex destructive list operations |
6558 | 642 |
643 You can modify the @sc{car} and @sc{cdr} contents of a cons cell with the | |
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644 primitives @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}. We call these ``destructive'' |
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645 operations because they change existing list structure. |
6558 | 646 |
647 @cindex CL note---@code{rplaca} vrs @code{setcar} | |
648 @quotation | |
649 @findex rplaca | |
650 @findex rplacd | |
651 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp uses functions @code{rplaca} and | |
652 @code{rplacd} to alter list structure; they change structure the same | |
653 way as @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr}, but the Common Lisp functions | |
654 return the cons cell while @code{setcar} and @code{setcdr} return the | |
655 new @sc{car} or @sc{cdr}. | |
656 @end quotation | |
657 | |
658 @menu | |
659 * Setcar:: Replacing an element in a list. | |
660 * Setcdr:: Replacing part of the list backbone. | |
661 This can be used to remove or add elements. | |
662 * Rearrangement:: Reordering the elements in a list; combining lists. | |
663 @end menu | |
664 | |
665 @node Setcar | |
666 @subsection Altering List Elements with @code{setcar} | |
667 | |
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668 Changing the @sc{car} of a cons cell is done with @code{setcar}. When |
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669 used on a list, @code{setcar} replaces one element of a list with a |
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670 different element. |
6558 | 671 |
672 @defun setcar cons object | |
673 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{car} of @var{cons}, | |
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674 replacing its previous @sc{car}. In other words, it changes the |
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675 @sc{car} slot of @var{cons} to point to @var{object}. It returns the |
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676 value @var{object}. For example: |
6558 | 677 |
678 @example | |
679 @group | |
680 (setq x '(1 2)) | |
681 @result{} (1 2) | |
682 @end group | |
683 @group | |
684 (setcar x 4) | |
685 @result{} 4 | |
686 @end group | |
687 @group | |
688 x | |
689 @result{} (4 2) | |
690 @end group | |
691 @end example | |
692 @end defun | |
693 | |
694 When a cons cell is part of the shared structure of several lists, | |
695 storing a new @sc{car} into the cons changes one element of each of | |
696 these lists. Here is an example: | |
697 | |
698 @example | |
699 @group | |
700 ;; @r{Create two lists that are partly shared.} | |
701 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
702 @result{} (a b c) | |
703 (setq x2 (cons 'z (cdr x1))) | |
704 @result{} (z b c) | |
705 @end group | |
706 | |
707 @group | |
708 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a shared link.} | |
709 (setcar (cdr x1) 'foo) | |
710 @result{} foo | |
711 x1 ; @r{Both lists are changed.} | |
712 @result{} (a foo c) | |
713 x2 | |
714 @result{} (z foo c) | |
715 @end group | |
716 | |
717 @group | |
718 ;; @r{Replace the @sc{car} of a link that is not shared.} | |
719 (setcar x1 'baz) | |
720 @result{} baz | |
721 x1 ; @r{Only one list is changed.} | |
722 @result{} (baz foo c) | |
723 x2 | |
724 @result{} (z foo c) | |
725 @end group | |
726 @end example | |
727 | |
728 Here is a graphical depiction of the shared structure of the two lists | |
729 in the variables @code{x1} and @code{x2}, showing why replacing @code{b} | |
730 changes them both: | |
731 | |
732 @example | |
733 @group | |
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734 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
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735 x1---> | | |----> | | |--> | | |--> nil |
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736 --- --- --- --- --- --- |
6558 | 737 | --> | | |
738 | | | | | |
739 --> a | --> b --> c | |
740 | | |
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741 --- --- | |
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742 x2--> | | |-- |
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743 --- --- |
6558 | 744 | |
745 | | |
746 --> z | |
747 @end group | |
748 @end example | |
749 | |
750 Here is an alternative form of box diagram, showing the same relationship: | |
751 | |
752 @example | |
753 @group | |
754 x1: | |
755 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
756 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
757 | a | o------->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
758 | | | -->| | | | | | | |
759 -------------- | -------------- -------------- | |
760 | | |
761 x2: | | |
762 -------------- | | |
763 | car | cdr | | | |
764 | z | o---- | |
765 | | | | |
766 -------------- | |
767 @end group | |
768 @end example | |
769 | |
770 @node Setcdr | |
771 @subsection Altering the CDR of a List | |
772 | |
773 The lowest-level primitive for modifying a @sc{cdr} is @code{setcdr}: | |
774 | |
775 @defun setcdr cons object | |
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776 This function stores @var{object} as the new @sc{cdr} of @var{cons}, |
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777 replacing its previous @sc{cdr}. In other words, it changes the |
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778 @sc{cdr} slot of @var{cons} to point to @var{object}. It returns the |
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779 value @var{object}. |
6558 | 780 @end defun |
781 | |
782 Here is an example of replacing the @sc{cdr} of a list with a | |
783 different list. All but the first element of the list are removed in | |
784 favor of a different sequence of elements. The first element is | |
785 unchanged, because it resides in the @sc{car} of the list, and is not | |
786 reached via the @sc{cdr}. | |
787 | |
788 @example | |
789 @group | |
790 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
791 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
792 @end group | |
793 @group | |
794 (setcdr x '(4)) | |
795 @result{} (4) | |
796 @end group | |
797 @group | |
798 x | |
799 @result{} (1 4) | |
800 @end group | |
801 @end example | |
802 | |
803 You can delete elements from the middle of a list by altering the | |
804 @sc{cdr}s of the cons cells in the list. For example, here we delete | |
805 the second element, @code{b}, from the list @code{(a b c)}, by changing | |
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806 the @sc{cdr} of the first cons cell: |
6558 | 807 |
808 @example | |
809 @group | |
810 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
811 @result{} (a b c) | |
812 (setcdr x1 (cdr (cdr x1))) | |
813 @result{} (c) | |
814 x1 | |
815 @result{} (a c) | |
816 @end group | |
817 @end example | |
818 | |
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819 @need 4000 |
6558 | 820 Here is the result in box notation: |
821 | |
822 @example | |
823 @group | |
824 -------------------- | |
825 | | | |
826 -------------- | -------------- | -------------- | |
827 | car | cdr | | | car | cdr | -->| car | cdr | | |
828 | a | o----- | b | o-------->| c | nil | | |
829 | | | | | | | | | | |
830 -------------- -------------- -------------- | |
831 @end group | |
832 @end example | |
833 | |
834 @noindent | |
835 The second cons cell, which previously held the element @code{b}, still | |
836 exists and its @sc{car} is still @code{b}, but it no longer forms part | |
837 of this list. | |
838 | |
839 It is equally easy to insert a new element by changing @sc{cdr}s: | |
840 | |
841 @example | |
842 @group | |
843 (setq x1 '(a b c)) | |
844 @result{} (a b c) | |
845 (setcdr x1 (cons 'd (cdr x1))) | |
846 @result{} (d b c) | |
847 x1 | |
848 @result{} (a d b c) | |
849 @end group | |
850 @end example | |
851 | |
852 Here is this result in box notation: | |
853 | |
854 @smallexample | |
855 @group | |
856 -------------- ------------- ------------- | |
857 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
858 | a | o | -->| b | o------->| c | nil | | |
859 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
860 --------- | -- | ------------- ------------- | |
861 | | | |
862 ----- -------- | |
863 | | | |
864 | --------------- | | |
865 | | car | cdr | | | |
866 -->| d | o------ | |
867 | | | | |
868 --------------- | |
869 @end group | |
870 @end smallexample | |
871 | |
872 @node Rearrangement | |
873 @subsection Functions that Rearrange Lists | |
874 @cindex rearrangement of lists | |
875 @cindex modification of lists | |
876 | |
877 Here are some functions that rearrange lists ``destructively'' by | |
878 modifying the @sc{cdr}s of their component cons cells. We call these | |
879 functions ``destructive'' because they chew up the original lists passed | |
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880 to them as arguments, relinking their cons cells to form a new list that |
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881 is the returned value. |
6558 | 882 |
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883 @ifinfo |
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884 See @code{delq}, in @ref{Sets And Lists}, for another function |
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885 that modifies cons cells. |
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886 @end ifinfo |
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887 @iftex |
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888 The function @code{delq} in the following section is another example |
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889 of destructive list manipulation. |
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890 @end iftex |
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891 |
6558 | 892 @defun nconc &rest lists |
893 @cindex concatenating lists | |
894 @cindex joining lists | |
895 This function returns a list containing all the elements of @var{lists}. | |
896 Unlike @code{append} (@pxref{Building Lists}), the @var{lists} are | |
897 @emph{not} copied. Instead, the last @sc{cdr} of each of the | |
898 @var{lists} is changed to refer to the following list. The last of the | |
899 @var{lists} is not altered. For example: | |
900 | |
901 @example | |
902 @group | |
903 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
904 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
905 @end group | |
906 @group | |
907 (nconc x '(4 5)) | |
908 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
909 @end group | |
910 @group | |
911 x | |
912 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5) | |
913 @end group | |
914 @end example | |
915 | |
916 Since the last argument of @code{nconc} is not itself modified, it is | |
917 reasonable to use a constant list, such as @code{'(4 5)}, as in the | |
918 above example. For the same reason, the last argument need not be a | |
919 list: | |
920 | |
921 @example | |
922 @group | |
923 (setq x '(1 2 3)) | |
924 @result{} (1 2 3) | |
925 @end group | |
926 @group | |
927 (nconc x 'z) | |
928 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
929 @end group | |
930 @group | |
931 x | |
932 @result{} (1 2 3 . z) | |
933 @end group | |
934 @end example | |
935 | |
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936 However, the other arguments (all but the last) must be lists. |
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937 |
6558 | 938 A common pitfall is to use a quoted constant list as a non-last |
939 argument to @code{nconc}. If you do this, your program will change | |
940 each time you run it! Here is what happens: | |
941 | |
942 @smallexample | |
943 @group | |
944 (defun add-foo (x) ; @r{We want this function to add} | |
945 (nconc '(foo) x)) ; @r{@code{foo} to the front of its arg.} | |
946 @end group | |
947 | |
948 @group | |
949 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
950 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo)) x)) | |
951 @end group | |
952 | |
953 @group | |
954 (setq xx (add-foo '(1 2))) ; @r{It seems to work.} | |
955 @result{} (foo 1 2) | |
956 @end group | |
957 @group | |
958 (setq xy (add-foo '(3 4))) ; @r{What happened?} | |
959 @result{} (foo 1 2 3 4) | |
960 @end group | |
961 @group | |
962 (eq xx xy) | |
963 @result{} t | |
964 @end group | |
965 | |
966 @group | |
967 (symbol-function 'add-foo) | |
968 @result{} (lambda (x) (nconc (quote (foo 1 2 3 4) x))) | |
969 @end group | |
970 @end smallexample | |
971 @end defun | |
972 | |
973 @defun nreverse list | |
974 @cindex reversing a list | |
975 This function reverses the order of the elements of @var{list}. | |
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976 Unlike @code{reverse}, @code{nreverse} alters its argument by reversing |
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977 the @sc{cdr}s in the cons cells forming the list. The cons cell that |
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978 used to be the last one in @var{list} becomes the first cons cell of the |
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979 value. |
6558 | 980 |
981 For example: | |
982 | |
983 @example | |
984 @group | |
985 (setq x '(1 2 3 4)) | |
986 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
987 @end group | |
988 @group | |
989 x | |
990 @result{} (1 2 3 4) | |
991 (nreverse x) | |
992 @result{} (4 3 2 1) | |
993 @end group | |
994 @group | |
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995 ;; @r{The cons cell that was first is now last.} |
6558 | 996 x |
997 @result{} (1) | |
998 @end group | |
999 @end example | |
1000 | |
1001 To avoid confusion, we usually store the result of @code{nreverse} | |
1002 back in the same variable which held the original list: | |
1003 | |
1004 @example | |
1005 (setq x (nreverse x)) | |
1006 @end example | |
1007 | |
1008 Here is the @code{nreverse} of our favorite example, @code{(a b c)}, | |
1009 presented graphically: | |
1010 | |
1011 @smallexample | |
1012 @group | |
1013 @r{Original list head:} @r{Reversed list:} | |
1014 ------------- ------------- ------------ | |
1015 | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | car | cdr | | |
1016 | a | nil |<-- | b | o |<-- | c | o | | |
1017 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1018 ------------- | --------- | - | -------- | - | |
1019 | | | | | |
1020 ------------- ------------ | |
1021 @end group | |
1022 @end smallexample | |
1023 @end defun | |
1024 | |
1025 @defun sort list predicate | |
1026 @cindex stable sort | |
1027 @cindex sorting lists | |
1028 This function sorts @var{list} stably, though destructively, and | |
1029 returns the sorted list. It compares elements using @var{predicate}. A | |
1030 stable sort is one in which elements with equal sort keys maintain their | |
1031 relative order before and after the sort. Stability is important when | |
1032 successive sorts are used to order elements according to different | |
1033 criteria. | |
1034 | |
1035 The argument @var{predicate} must be a function that accepts two | |
1036 arguments. It is called with two elements of @var{list}. To get an | |
1037 increasing order sort, the @var{predicate} should return @code{t} if the | |
1038 first element is ``less than'' the second, or @code{nil} if not. | |
1039 | |
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1040 The comparison function @var{predicate} must give reliable results for |
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1041 any given pair of arguments, at least within a single call to |
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1042 @code{sort}. It must be @dfn{antisymmetric}; that is, if @var{a} is |
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1043 less than @var{b}, @var{b} must not be less than @var{a}. It must be |
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1044 @dfn{transitive}---that is, if @var{a} is less than @var{b}, and @var{b} |
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1045 is less than @var{c}, then @var{a} must be less than @var{c}. If you |
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1046 use a comparison function which does not meet these requirements, the |
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1047 result of @code{sort} is unpredictable. |
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1048 |
6558 | 1049 The destructive aspect of @code{sort} is that it rearranges the cons |
1050 cells forming @var{list} by changing @sc{cdr}s. A nondestructive sort | |
1051 function would create new cons cells to store the elements in their | |
1052 sorted order. If you wish to make a sorted copy without destroying the | |
1053 original, copy it first with @code{copy-sequence} and then sort. | |
1054 | |
1055 Sorting does not change the @sc{car}s of the cons cells in @var{list}; | |
1056 the cons cell that originally contained the element @code{a} in | |
1057 @var{list} still has @code{a} in its @sc{car} after sorting, but it now | |
1058 appears in a different position in the list due to the change of | |
1059 @sc{cdr}s. For example: | |
1060 | |
1061 @example | |
1062 @group | |
1063 (setq nums '(1 3 2 6 5 4 0)) | |
1064 @result{} (1 3 2 6 5 4 0) | |
1065 @end group | |
1066 @group | |
1067 (sort nums '<) | |
1068 @result{} (0 1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1069 @end group | |
1070 @group | |
1071 nums | |
1072 @result{} (1 2 3 4 5 6) | |
1073 @end group | |
1074 @end example | |
1075 | |
1076 @noindent | |
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1077 @strong{Warning}: Note that the list in @code{nums} no longer contains |
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1078 0; this is the same cons cell that it was before, but it is no longer |
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1079 the first one in the list. Don't assume a variable that formerly held |
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1080 the argument now holds the entire sorted list! Instead, save the result |
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1081 of @code{sort} and use that. Most often we store the result back into |
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1082 the variable that held the original list: |
6558 | 1083 |
1084 @example | |
1085 (setq nums (sort nums '<)) | |
1086 @end example | |
1087 | |
1088 @xref{Sorting}, for more functions that perform sorting. | |
1089 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
1090 useful example of @code{sort}. | |
1091 @end defun | |
1092 | |
1093 @node Sets And Lists | |
1094 @section Using Lists as Sets | |
1095 @cindex lists as sets | |
1096 @cindex sets | |
1097 | |
1098 A list can represent an unordered mathematical set---simply consider a | |
1099 value an element of a set if it appears in the list, and ignore the | |
1100 order of the list. To form the union of two sets, use @code{append} (as | |
1101 long as you don't mind having duplicate elements). Other useful | |
1102 functions for sets include @code{memq} and @code{delq}, and their | |
1103 @code{equal} versions, @code{member} and @code{delete}. | |
1104 | |
13229 | 1105 @cindex CL note---lack @code{union}, @code{intersection} |
6558 | 1106 @quotation |
1107 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp has functions @code{union} (which | |
1108 avoids duplicate elements) and @code{intersection} for set operations, | |
1109 but GNU Emacs Lisp does not have them. You can write them in Lisp if | |
1110 you wish. | |
1111 @end quotation | |
1112 | |
1113 @defun memq object list | |
1114 @cindex membership in a list | |
1115 This function tests to see whether @var{object} is a member of | |
1116 @var{list}. If it is, @code{memq} returns a list starting with the | |
1117 first occurrence of @var{object}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1118 The letter @samp{q} in @code{memq} says that it uses @code{eq} to | |
1119 compare @var{object} against the elements of the list. For example: | |
1120 | |
1121 @example | |
1122 @group | |
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1123 (memq 'b '(a b c b a)) |
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1124 @result{} (b c b a) |
6558 | 1125 @end group |
1126 @group | |
1127 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1128 @result{} nil | |
1129 @end group | |
1130 @end example | |
1131 @end defun | |
1132 | |
1133 @defun delq object list | |
1134 @cindex deletion of elements | |
1135 This function destructively removes all elements @code{eq} to | |
1136 @var{object} from @var{list}. The letter @samp{q} in @code{delq} says | |
1137 that it uses @code{eq} to compare @var{object} against the elements of | |
1138 the list, like @code{memq}. | |
1139 @end defun | |
1140 | |
1141 When @code{delq} deletes elements from the front of the list, it does so | |
1142 simply by advancing down the list and returning a sublist that starts | |
1143 after those elements: | |
1144 | |
1145 @example | |
1146 @group | |
1147 (delq 'a '(a b c)) @equiv{} (cdr '(a b c)) | |
1148 @end group | |
1149 @end example | |
1150 | |
1151 When an element to be deleted appears in the middle of the list, | |
1152 removing it involves changing the @sc{cdr}s (@pxref{Setcdr}). | |
1153 | |
1154 @example | |
1155 @group | |
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1156 (setq sample-list '(a b c (4))) |
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1157 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1158 @end group |
1159 @group | |
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1160 (delq 'a sample-list) |
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1161 @result{} (b c (4)) |
6558 | 1162 @end group |
1163 @group | |
1164 sample-list | |
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1165 @result{} (a b c (4)) |
6558 | 1166 @end group |
1167 @group | |
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1168 (delq 'c sample-list) |
11628 | 1169 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1170 @end group |
1171 @group | |
1172 sample-list | |
11628 | 1173 @result{} (a b (4)) |
6558 | 1174 @end group |
1175 @end example | |
1176 | |
12098 | 1177 Note that @code{(delq 'c sample-list)} modifies @code{sample-list} to |
1178 splice out the third element, but @code{(delq 'a sample-list)} does not | |
6558 | 1179 splice anything---it just returns a shorter list. Don't assume that a |
1180 variable which formerly held the argument @var{list} now has fewer | |
1181 elements, or that it still holds the original list! Instead, save the | |
1182 result of @code{delq} and use that. Most often we store the result back | |
1183 into the variable that held the original list: | |
1184 | |
1185 @example | |
1186 (setq flowers (delq 'rose flowers)) | |
1187 @end example | |
1188 | |
1189 In the following example, the @code{(4)} that @code{delq} attempts to match | |
1190 and the @code{(4)} in the @code{sample-list} are not @code{eq}: | |
1191 | |
1192 @example | |
1193 @group | |
1194 (delq '(4) sample-list) | |
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1195 @result{} (a c (4)) |
6558 | 1196 @end group |
1197 @end example | |
1198 | |
1199 The following two functions are like @code{memq} and @code{delq} but use | |
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1200 @code{equal} rather than @code{eq} to compare elements. @xref{Equality |
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1201 Predicates}. |
6558 | 1202 |
1203 @defun member object list | |
1204 The function @code{member} tests to see whether @var{object} is a member | |
1205 of @var{list}, comparing members with @var{object} using @code{equal}. | |
1206 If @var{object} is a member, @code{member} returns a list starting with | |
1207 its first occurrence in @var{list}. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}. | |
1208 | |
1209 Compare this with @code{memq}: | |
1210 | |
1211 @example | |
1212 @group | |
1213 (member '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are @code{equal}.} | |
1214 @result{} ((2)) | |
1215 @end group | |
1216 @group | |
1217 (memq '(2) '((1) (2))) ; @r{@code{(2)} and @code{(2)} are not @code{eq}.} | |
1218 @result{} nil | |
1219 @end group | |
1220 @group | |
1221 ;; @r{Two strings with the same contents are @code{equal}.} | |
1222 (member "foo" '("foo" "bar")) | |
1223 @result{} ("foo" "bar") | |
1224 @end group | |
1225 @end example | |
1226 @end defun | |
1227 | |
1228 @defun delete object list | |
1229 This function destructively removes all elements @code{equal} to | |
1230 @var{object} from @var{list}. It is to @code{delq} as @code{member} is | |
1231 to @code{memq}: it uses @code{equal} to compare elements with | |
1232 @var{object}, like @code{member}; when it finds an element that matches, | |
1233 it removes the element just as @code{delq} would. For example: | |
1234 | |
1235 @example | |
1236 @group | |
1237 (delete '(2) '((2) (1) (2))) | |
13229 | 1238 @result{} ((1)) |
6558 | 1239 @end group |
1240 @end example | |
1241 @end defun | |
1242 | |
1243 @quotation | |
1244 @b{Common Lisp note:} The functions @code{member} and @code{delete} in | |
1245 GNU Emacs Lisp are derived from Maclisp, not Common Lisp. The Common | |
1246 Lisp versions do not use @code{equal} to compare elements. | |
1247 @end quotation | |
1248 | |
12098 | 1249 See also the function @code{add-to-list}, in @ref{Setting Variables}, |
1250 for another way to add an element to a list stored in a variable. | |
1251 | |
6558 | 1252 @node Association Lists |
1253 @section Association Lists | |
1254 @cindex association list | |
1255 @cindex alist | |
1256 | |
1257 An @dfn{association list}, or @dfn{alist} for short, records a mapping | |
1258 from keys to values. It is a list of cons cells called | |
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1259 @dfn{associations}: the @sc{car} of each cons cell is the @dfn{key}, and the |
6558 | 1260 @sc{cdr} is the @dfn{associated value}.@footnote{This usage of ``key'' |
1261 is not related to the term ``key sequence''; it means a value used to | |
1262 look up an item in a table. In this case, the table is the alist, and | |
1263 the alist associations are the items.} | |
1264 | |
1265 Here is an example of an alist. The key @code{pine} is associated with | |
1266 the value @code{cones}; the key @code{oak} is associated with | |
1267 @code{acorns}; and the key @code{maple} is associated with @code{seeds}. | |
1268 | |
1269 @example | |
1270 @group | |
1271 '((pine . cones) | |
1272 (oak . acorns) | |
1273 (maple . seeds)) | |
1274 @end group | |
1275 @end example | |
1276 | |
1277 The associated values in an alist may be any Lisp objects; so may the | |
1278 keys. For example, in the following alist, the symbol @code{a} is | |
1279 associated with the number @code{1}, and the string @code{"b"} is | |
1280 associated with the @emph{list} @code{(2 3)}, which is the @sc{cdr} of | |
1281 the alist element: | |
1282 | |
1283 @example | |
1284 ((a . 1) ("b" 2 3)) | |
1285 @end example | |
1286 | |
1287 Sometimes it is better to design an alist to store the associated | |
1288 value in the @sc{car} of the @sc{cdr} of the element. Here is an | |
1289 example: | |
1290 | |
1291 @example | |
1292 '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow)) | |
1293 @end example | |
1294 | |
1295 @noindent | |
1296 Here we regard @code{red} as the value associated with @code{rose}. One | |
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1297 advantage of this kind of alist is that you can store other related |
6558 | 1298 information---even a list of other items---in the @sc{cdr} of the |
1299 @sc{cdr}. One disadvantage is that you cannot use @code{rassq} (see | |
1300 below) to find the element containing a given value. When neither of | |
1301 these considerations is important, the choice is a matter of taste, as | |
1302 long as you are consistent about it for any given alist. | |
1303 | |
1304 Note that the same alist shown above could be regarded as having the | |
1305 associated value in the @sc{cdr} of the element; the value associated | |
1306 with @code{rose} would be the list @code{(red)}. | |
1307 | |
1308 Association lists are often used to record information that you might | |
1309 otherwise keep on a stack, since new associations may be added easily to | |
1310 the front of the list. When searching an association list for an | |
1311 association with a given key, the first one found is returned, if there | |
1312 is more than one. | |
1313 | |
1314 In Emacs Lisp, it is @emph{not} an error if an element of an | |
1315 association list is not a cons cell. The alist search functions simply | |
1316 ignore such elements. Many other versions of Lisp signal errors in such | |
1317 cases. | |
1318 | |
1319 Note that property lists are similar to association lists in several | |
1320 respects. A property list behaves like an association list in which | |
1321 each key can occur only once. @xref{Property Lists}, for a comparison | |
1322 of property lists and association lists. | |
1323 | |
1324 @defun assoc key alist | |
1325 This function returns the first association for @var{key} in | |
1326 @var{alist}. It compares @var{key} against the alist elements using | |
1327 @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}). It returns @code{nil} if no | |
1328 association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{equal} to @var{key}. | |
1329 For example: | |
1330 | |
1331 @smallexample | |
1332 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1333 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1334 (assoc 'oak trees) | |
1335 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1336 (cdr (assoc 'oak trees)) | |
1337 @result{} acorns | |
1338 (assoc 'birch trees) | |
1339 @result{} nil | |
1340 @end smallexample | |
1341 | |
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1342 Here is another example, in which the keys and values are not symbols: |
6558 | 1343 |
1344 @smallexample | |
1345 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1346 '((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1347 (3 "Pitch Pine") | |
1348 (5 "White Pine"))) | |
1349 | |
1350 (cdr (assoc 3 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1351 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") | |
1352 (cdr (assoc 2 needles-per-cluster)) | |
1353 @result{} ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
1354 @end smallexample | |
1355 @end defun | |
1356 | |
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1357 The functions @code{assoc-ignore-representation} and |
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1358 @code{assoc-ignore-case} are much like @code{assoc} except using |
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1359 @code{compare-strings} to do the comparison. @xref{Text Comparison}. |
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1360 |
12067 | 1361 @defun rassoc value alist |
1362 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1363 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1364 a @sc{cdr} @code{equal} to @var{value}. | |
1365 | |
1366 @code{rassoc} is like @code{assoc} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1367 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1368 this as ``reverse @code{assoc}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1369 @end defun | |
1370 | |
6558 | 1371 @defun assq key alist |
1372 This function is like @code{assoc} in that it returns the first | |
1373 association for @var{key} in @var{alist}, but it makes the comparison | |
1374 using @code{eq} instead of @code{equal}. @code{assq} returns @code{nil} | |
1375 if no association in @var{alist} has a @sc{car} @code{eq} to @var{key}. | |
1376 This function is used more often than @code{assoc}, since @code{eq} is | |
1377 faster than @code{equal} and most alists use symbols as keys. | |
1378 @xref{Equality Predicates}. | |
1379 | |
1380 @smallexample | |
1381 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1382 @result{} ((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds)) | |
1383 (assq 'pine trees) | |
1384 @result{} (pine . cones) | |
1385 @end smallexample | |
1386 | |
1387 On the other hand, @code{assq} is not usually useful in alists where the | |
1388 keys may not be symbols: | |
1389 | |
1390 @smallexample | |
1391 (setq leaves | |
1392 '(("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1393 ("compound leaves" . horsechestnut))) | |
1394 | |
1395 (assq "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1396 @result{} nil | |
1397 (assoc "simple leaves" leaves) | |
1398 @result{} ("simple leaves" . oak) | |
1399 @end smallexample | |
1400 @end defun | |
1401 | |
1402 @defun rassq value alist | |
1403 This function returns the first association with value @var{value} in | |
1404 @var{alist}. It returns @code{nil} if no association in @var{alist} has | |
1405 a @sc{cdr} @code{eq} to @var{value}. | |
1406 | |
1407 @code{rassq} is like @code{assq} except that it compares the @sc{cdr} of | |
1408 each @var{alist} association instead of the @sc{car}. You can think of | |
1409 this as ``reverse @code{assq}'', finding the key for a given value. | |
1410 | |
1411 For example: | |
1412 | |
1413 @smallexample | |
1414 (setq trees '((pine . cones) (oak . acorns) (maple . seeds))) | |
1415 | |
1416 (rassq 'acorns trees) | |
1417 @result{} (oak . acorns) | |
1418 (rassq 'spores trees) | |
1419 @result{} nil | |
1420 @end smallexample | |
1421 | |
1422 Note that @code{rassq} cannot search for a value stored in the @sc{car} | |
1423 of the @sc{cdr} of an element: | |
1424 | |
1425 @smallexample | |
1426 (setq colors '((rose red) (lily white) (buttercup yellow))) | |
1427 | |
1428 (rassq 'white colors) | |
1429 @result{} nil | |
1430 @end smallexample | |
1431 | |
1432 In this case, the @sc{cdr} of the association @code{(lily white)} is not | |
1433 the symbol @code{white}, but rather the list @code{(white)}. This | |
1434 becomes clearer if the association is written in dotted pair notation: | |
1435 | |
1436 @smallexample | |
1437 (lily white) @equiv{} (lily . (white)) | |
1438 @end smallexample | |
1439 @end defun | |
1440 | |
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1441 @tindex assoc-default |
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1442 @defun assoc-default key alist test default |
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1443 This function searches @var{alist} for a match for @var{key}. For each |
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1444 element of @var{alist}, it compares the element (if it is an atom) or |
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1445 the element's @sc{car} (if it is a cons) against @var{key}, by calling |
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1446 @var{test} with two arguments: the element or its @sc{car}, and |
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1447 @var{key}. The arguments are passed in that order so that you can get |
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1448 useful results using @code{string-match} with an alist that contains |
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1449 regular expressions (@pxref{Regexp Search}). If @var{test} is omitted |
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1450 or @code{nil}, @code{equal} is used for comparison. |
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1451 |
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1452 If an alist element matches @var{key} by this criterion, |
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1453 then @code{assoc-default} returns a value based on this element. |
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1454 If the element is a cons, then the value is the element's @sc{cdr}. |
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1455 Otherwise, the return value is @var{default}. |
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1456 |
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1457 If no alist element matches @var{key}, @code{assoc-default} returns |
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1458 @code{nil}. |
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1459 @end defun |
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1460 |
6558 | 1461 @defun copy-alist alist |
1462 @cindex copying alists | |
1463 This function returns a two-level deep copy of @var{alist}: it creates a | |
1464 new copy of each association, so that you can alter the associations of | |
1465 the new alist without changing the old one. | |
1466 | |
1467 @smallexample | |
1468 @group | |
1469 (setq needles-per-cluster | |
1470 '((2 . ("Austrian Pine" "Red Pine")) | |
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1471 (3 . ("Pitch Pine")) |
7734 | 1472 @end group |
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1473 (5 . ("White Pine")))) |
6558 | 1474 @result{} |
1475 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1476 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1477 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1478 |
1479 (setq copy (copy-alist needles-per-cluster)) | |
1480 @result{} | |
1481 ((2 "Austrian Pine" "Red Pine") | |
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1482 (3 "Pitch Pine") |
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1483 (5 "White Pine")) |
6558 | 1484 |
1485 (eq needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1486 @result{} nil | |
1487 (equal needles-per-cluster copy) | |
1488 @result{} t | |
1489 (eq (car needles-per-cluster) (car copy)) | |
1490 @result{} nil | |
1491 (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) | |
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1492 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
7734 | 1493 @group |
6558 | 1494 (eq (cdr (car (cdr needles-per-cluster))) |
1495 (cdr (car (cdr copy)))) | |
1496 @result{} t | |
1497 @end group | |
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1498 @end smallexample |
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1499 |
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1500 This example shows how @code{copy-alist} makes it possible to change |
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1501 the associations of one copy without affecting the other: |
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1502 |
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1503 @smallexample |
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1504 @group |
11137 | 1505 (setcdr (assq 3 copy) '("Martian Vacuum Pine")) |
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1506 (cdr (assq 3 needles-per-cluster)) |
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1507 @result{} ("Pitch Pine") |
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1508 @end group |
6558 | 1509 @end smallexample |
1510 @end defun | |
1511 | |
1512 |