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author Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
date Sun, 04 Feb 1996 21:11:50 +0000 (1996-02-04)
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/control
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6 @node Control Structures, Variables, Evaluation, Top
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7 @chapter Control Structures
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8 @cindex special forms for control structures
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9 @cindex control structures
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10
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11 A Lisp program consists of expressions or @dfn{forms} (@pxref{Forms}).
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12 We control the order of execution of the forms by enclosing them in
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13 @dfn{control structures}. Control structures are special forms which
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14 control when, whether, or how many times to execute the forms they
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15 contain.
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16
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17 The simplest order of execution is sequential execution: first form
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18 @var{a}, then form @var{b}, and so on. This is what happens when you
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19 write several forms in succession in the body of a function, or at top
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20 level in a file of Lisp code---the forms are executed in the order
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21 written. We call this @dfn{textual order}. For example, if a function
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22 body consists of two forms @var{a} and @var{b}, evaluation of the
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23 function evaluates first @var{a} and then @var{b}, and the function's
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24 value is the value of @var{b}.
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25
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26 Explicit control structures make possible an order of execution other
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27 than sequential.
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28
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29 Emacs Lisp provides several kinds of control structure, including
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30 other varieties of sequencing, conditionals, iteration, and (controlled)
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31 jumps---all discussed below. The built-in control structures are
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32 special forms since their subforms are not necessarily evaluated or not
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33 evaluated sequentially. You can use macros to define your own control
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34 structure constructs (@pxref{Macros}).
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35
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36 @menu
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37 * Sequencing:: Evaluation in textual order.
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38 * Conditionals:: @code{if}, @code{cond}.
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39 * Combining Conditions:: @code{and}, @code{or}, @code{not}.
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40 * Iteration:: @code{while} loops.
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41 * Nonlocal Exits:: Jumping out of a sequence.
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42 @end menu
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43
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44 @node Sequencing
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45 @section Sequencing
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46
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47 Evaluating forms in the order they appear is the most common way
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48 control passes from one form to another. In some contexts, such as in a
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49 function body, this happens automatically. Elsewhere you must use a
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50 control structure construct to do this: @code{progn}, the simplest
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51 control construct of Lisp.
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52
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53 A @code{progn} special form looks like this:
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54
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55 @example
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56 @group
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57 (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} @dots{})
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58 @end group
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59 @end example
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60
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61 @noindent
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62 and it says to execute the forms @var{a}, @var{b}, @var{c} and so on, in
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63 that order. These forms are called the body of the @code{progn} form.
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64 The value of the last form in the body becomes the value of the entire
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65 @code{progn}.
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66
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67 @cindex implicit @code{progn}
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68 In the early days of Lisp, @code{progn} was the only way to execute
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69 two or more forms in succession and use the value of the last of them.
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70 But programmers found they often needed to use a @code{progn} in the
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71 body of a function, where (at that time) only one form was allowed. So
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72 the body of a function was made into an ``implicit @code{progn}'':
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73 several forms are allowed just as in the body of an actual @code{progn}.
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74 Many other control structures likewise contain an implicit @code{progn}.
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75 As a result, @code{progn} is not used as often as it used to be. It is
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76 needed now most often inside an @code{unwind-protect}, @code{and},
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77 @code{or}, or in the @var{then}-part of an @code{if}.
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78
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79 @defspec progn forms@dots{}
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80 This special form evaluates all of the @var{forms}, in textual
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81 order, returning the result of the final form.
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82
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83 @example
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84 @group
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85 (progn (print "The first form")
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86 (print "The second form")
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87 (print "The third form"))
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88 @print{} "The first form"
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89 @print{} "The second form"
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90 @print{} "The third form"
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91 @result{} "The third form"
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92 @end group
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93 @end example
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94 @end defspec
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95
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96 Two other control constructs likewise evaluate a series of forms but return
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97 a different value:
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98
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99 @defspec prog1 form1 forms@dots{}
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100 This special form evaluates @var{form1} and all of the @var{forms}, in
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101 textual order, returning the result of @var{form1}.
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102
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103 @example
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104 @group
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105 (prog1 (print "The first form")
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106 (print "The second form")
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107 (print "The third form"))
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108 @print{} "The first form"
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109 @print{} "The second form"
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110 @print{} "The third form"
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111 @result{} "The first form"
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112 @end group
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113 @end example
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114
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115 Here is a way to remove the first element from a list in the variable
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116 @code{x}, then return the value of that former element:
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117
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118 @example
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119 (prog1 (car x) (setq x (cdr x)))
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120 @end example
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121 @end defspec
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122
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123 @defspec prog2 form1 form2 forms@dots{}
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124 This special form evaluates @var{form1}, @var{form2}, and all of the
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125 following @var{forms}, in textual order, returning the result of
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126 @var{form2}.
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127
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128 @example
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129 @group
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130 (prog2 (print "The first form")
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131 (print "The second form")
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132 (print "The third form"))
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133 @print{} "The first form"
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134 @print{} "The second form"
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135 @print{} "The third form"
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136 @result{} "The second form"
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137 @end group
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138 @end example
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139 @end defspec
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140
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141 @node Conditionals
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142 @section Conditionals
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143 @cindex conditional evaluation
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144
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145 Conditional control structures choose among alternatives. Emacs Lisp
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146 has two conditional forms: @code{if}, which is much the same as in other
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147 languages, and @code{cond}, which is a generalized case statement.
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148
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149 @defspec if condition then-form else-forms@dots{}
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150 @code{if} chooses between the @var{then-form} and the @var{else-forms}
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151 based on the value of @var{condition}. If the evaluated @var{condition} is
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152 non-@code{nil}, @var{then-form} is evaluated and the result returned.
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153 Otherwise, the @var{else-forms} are evaluated in textual order, and the
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154 value of the last one is returned. (The @var{else} part of @code{if} is
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155 an example of an implicit @code{progn}. @xref{Sequencing}.)
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156
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157 If @var{condition} has the value @code{nil}, and no @var{else-forms} are
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158 given, @code{if} returns @code{nil}.
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159
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160 @code{if} is a special form because the branch that is not selected is
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161 never evaluated---it is ignored. Thus, in the example below,
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162 @code{true} is not printed because @code{print} is never called.
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163
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164 @example
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165 @group
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166 (if nil
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167 (print 'true)
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168 'very-false)
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169 @result{} very-false
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170 @end group
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171 @end example
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172 @end defspec
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173
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174 @defspec cond clause@dots{}
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175 @code{cond} chooses among an arbitrary number of alternatives. Each
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176 @var{clause} in the @code{cond} must be a list. The @sc{car} of this
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177 list is the @var{condition}; the remaining elements, if any, the
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178 @var{body-forms}. Thus, a clause looks like this:
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179
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180 @example
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181 (@var{condition} @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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182 @end example
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183
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184 @code{cond} tries the clauses in textual order, by evaluating the
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185 @var{condition} of each clause. If the value of @var{condition} is
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186 non-@code{nil}, the clause ``succeeds''; then @code{cond} evaluates its
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187 @var{body-forms}, and the value of the last of @var{body-forms} becomes
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188 the value of the @code{cond}. The remaining clauses are ignored.
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189
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190 If the value of @var{condition} is @code{nil}, the clause ``fails'', so
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191 the @code{cond} moves on to the following clause, trying its
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192 @var{condition}.
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193
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194 If every @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil}, so that every clause
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195 fails, @code{cond} returns @code{nil}.
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196
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197 A clause may also look like this:
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198
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199 @example
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200 (@var{condition})
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201 @end example
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202
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203 @noindent
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204 Then, if @var{condition} is non-@code{nil} when tested, the value of
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205 @var{condition} becomes the value of the @code{cond} form.
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206
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207 The following example has four clauses, which test for the cases where
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208 the value of @code{x} is a number, string, buffer and symbol,
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209 respectively:
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210
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211 @example
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212 @group
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213 (cond ((numberp x) x)
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214 ((stringp x) x)
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215 ((bufferp x)
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216 (setq temporary-hack x) ; @r{multiple body-forms}
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217 (buffer-name x)) ; @r{in one clause}
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218 ((symbolp x) (symbol-value x)))
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219 @end group
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220 @end example
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221
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222 Often we want to execute the last clause whenever none of the previous
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223 clauses was successful. To do this, we use @code{t} as the
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224 @var{condition} of the last clause, like this: @code{(t
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225 @var{body-forms})}. The form @code{t} evaluates to @code{t}, which is
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226 never @code{nil}, so this clause never fails, provided the @code{cond}
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227 gets to it at all.
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228
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229 For example,
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230
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231 @example
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232 @group
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233 (cond ((eq a 'hack) 'foo)
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234 (t "default"))
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235 @result{} "default"
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236 @end group
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237 @end example
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238
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239 @noindent
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240 This expression is a @code{cond} which returns @code{foo} if the value
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241 of @code{a} is 1, and returns the string @code{"default"} otherwise.
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242 @end defspec
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243
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244 Any conditional construct can be expressed with @code{cond} or with
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245 @code{if}. Therefore, the choice between them is a matter of style.
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246 For example:
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247
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248 @example
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249 @group
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250 (if @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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251 @equiv{}
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252 (cond (@var{a} @var{b}) (t @var{c}))
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253 @end group
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254 @end example
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255
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256 @node Combining Conditions
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257 @section Constructs for Combining Conditions
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258
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259 This section describes three constructs that are often used together
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260 with @code{if} and @code{cond} to express complicated conditions. The
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261 constructs @code{and} and @code{or} can also be used individually as
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262 kinds of multiple conditional constructs.
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263
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264 @defun not condition
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265 This function tests for the falsehood of @var{condition}. It returns
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266 @code{t} if @var{condition} is @code{nil}, and @code{nil} otherwise.
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267 The function @code{not} is identical to @code{null}, and we recommend
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268 using the name @code{null} if you are testing for an empty list.
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269 @end defun
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270
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271 @defspec and conditions@dots{}
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272 The @code{and} special form tests whether all the @var{conditions} are
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273 true. It works by evaluating the @var{conditions} one by one in the
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274 order written.
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275
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276 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to @code{nil}, then the result
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277 of the @code{and} must be @code{nil} regardless of the remaining
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278 @var{conditions}; so @code{and} returns right away, ignoring the
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279 remaining @var{conditions}.
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280
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281 If all the @var{conditions} turn out non-@code{nil}, then the value of
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282 the last of them becomes the value of the @code{and} form.
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283
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284 Here is an example. The first condition returns the integer 1, which is
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285 not @code{nil}. Similarly, the second condition returns the integer 2,
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286 which is not @code{nil}. The third condition is @code{nil}, so the
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287 remaining condition is never evaluated.
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288
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289 @example
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290 @group
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291 (and (print 1) (print 2) nil (print 3))
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292 @print{} 1
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293 @print{} 2
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294 @result{} nil
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295 @end group
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296 @end example
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297
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298 Here is a more realistic example of using @code{and}:
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299
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300 @example
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301 @group
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302 (if (and (consp foo) (eq (car foo) 'x))
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303 (message "foo is a list starting with x"))
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304 @end group
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305 @end example
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306
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307 @noindent
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308 Note that @code{(car foo)} is not executed if @code{(consp foo)} returns
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309 @code{nil}, thus avoiding an error.
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310
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311 @code{and} can be expressed in terms of either @code{if} or @code{cond}.
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312 For example:
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313
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314 @example
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315 @group
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316 (and @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
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317 @equiv{}
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318 (if @var{arg1} (if @var{arg2} @var{arg3}))
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319 @equiv{}
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320 (cond (@var{arg1} (cond (@var{arg2} @var{arg3}))))
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321 @end group
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322 @end example
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323 @end defspec
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324
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325 @defspec or conditions@dots{}
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326 The @code{or} special form tests whether at least one of the
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327 @var{conditions} is true. It works by evaluating all the
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328 @var{conditions} one by one in the order written.
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329
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330 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to a non-@code{nil} value, then
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331 the result of the @code{or} must be non-@code{nil}; so @code{or} returns
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332 right away, ignoring the remaining @var{conditions}. The value it
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333 returns is the non-@code{nil} value of the condition just evaluated.
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334
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335 If all the @var{conditions} turn out @code{nil}, then the @code{or}
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336 expression returns @code{nil}.
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337
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338 For example, this expression tests whether @code{x} is either 0 or
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339 @code{nil}:
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340
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341 @example
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342 (or (eq x nil) (eq x 0))
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343 @end example
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344
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345 Like the @code{and} construct, @code{or} can be written in terms of
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346 @code{cond}. For example:
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347
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348 @example
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349 @group
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350 (or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
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351 @equiv{}
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352 (cond (@var{arg1})
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353 (@var{arg2})
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354 (@var{arg3}))
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355 @end group
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356 @end example
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357
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358 You could almost write @code{or} in terms of @code{if}, but not quite:
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359
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360 @example
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361 @group
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362 (if @var{arg1} @var{arg1}
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363 (if @var{arg2} @var{arg2}
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364 @var{arg3}))
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365 @end group
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366 @end example
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367
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368 @noindent
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369 This is not completely equivalent because it can evaluate @var{arg1} or
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370 @var{arg2} twice. By contrast, @code{(or @var{arg1} @var{arg2}
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371 @var{arg3})} never evaluates any argument more than once.
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372 @end defspec
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373
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374 @node Iteration
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375 @section Iteration
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376 @cindex iteration
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377 @cindex recursion
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378
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379 Iteration means executing part of a program repetitively. For
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380 example, you might want to repeat some computation once for each element
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381 of a list, or once for each integer from 0 to @var{n}. You can do this
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382 in Emacs Lisp with the special form @code{while}:
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383
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384 @defspec while condition forms@dots{}
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385 @code{while} first evaluates @var{condition}. If the result is
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386 non-@code{nil}, it evaluates @var{forms} in textual order. Then it
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387 reevaluates @var{condition}, and if the result is non-@code{nil}, it
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388 evaluates @var{forms} again. This process repeats until @var{condition}
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389 evaluates to @code{nil}.
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390
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391 There is no limit on the number of iterations that may occur. The loop
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392 will continue until either @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil} or
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393 until an error or @code{throw} jumps out of it (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}).
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394
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395 The value of a @code{while} form is always @code{nil}.
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396
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397 @example
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398 @group
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399 (setq num 0)
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400 @result{} 0
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401 @end group
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402 @group
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403 (while (< num 4)
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404 (princ (format "Iteration %d." num))
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405 (setq num (1+ num)))
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406 @print{} Iteration 0.
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407 @print{} Iteration 1.
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408 @print{} Iteration 2.
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409 @print{} Iteration 3.
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410 @result{} nil
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411 @end group
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412 @end example
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413
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414 If you would like to execute something on each iteration before the
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415 end-test, put it together with the end-test in a @code{progn} as the
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416 first argument of @code{while}, as shown here:
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417
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418 @example
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419 @group
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420 (while (progn
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421 (forward-line 1)
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422 (not (looking-at "^$"))))
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423 @end group
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424 @end example
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425
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426 @noindent
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427 This moves forward one line and continues moving by lines until it
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428 reaches an empty. It is unusual in that the @code{while} has no body,
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429 just the end test (which also does the real work of moving point).
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430 @end defspec
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431
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432 @node Nonlocal Exits
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433 @section Nonlocal Exits
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434 @cindex nonlocal exits
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435
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436 A @dfn{nonlocal exit} is a transfer of control from one point in a
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437 program to another remote point. Nonlocal exits can occur in Emacs Lisp
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438 as a result of errors; you can also use them under explicit control.
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439 Nonlocal exits unbind all variable bindings made by the constructs being
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440 exited.
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441
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442 @menu
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443 * Catch and Throw:: Nonlocal exits for the program's own purposes.
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444 * Examples of Catch:: Showing how such nonlocal exits can be written.
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445 * Errors:: How errors are signaled and handled.
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446 * Cleanups:: Arranging to run a cleanup form if an error happens.
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447 @end menu
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448
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449 @node Catch and Throw
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450 @subsection Explicit Nonlocal Exits: @code{catch} and @code{throw}
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451
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452 Most control constructs affect only the flow of control within the
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453 construct itself. The function @code{throw} is the exception to this
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454 rule of normal program execution: it performs a nonlocal exit on
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455 request. (There are other exceptions, but they are for error handling
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456 only.) @code{throw} is used inside a @code{catch}, and jumps back to
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457 that @code{catch}. For example:
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458
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459 @example
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460 @group
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461 (catch 'foo
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462 (progn
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463 @dots{}
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464 (throw 'foo t)
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465 @dots{}))
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466 @end group
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467 @end example
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468
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469 @noindent
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470 The @code{throw} transfers control straight back to the corresponding
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471 @code{catch}, which returns immediately. The code following the
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472 @code{throw} is not executed. The second argument of @code{throw} is used
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473 as the return value of the @code{catch}.
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474
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475 The @code{throw} and the @code{catch} are matched through the first
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476 argument: @code{throw} searches for a @code{catch} whose first argument
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477 is @code{eq} to the one specified. Thus, in the above example, the
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478 @code{throw} specifies @code{foo}, and the @code{catch} specifies the
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479 same symbol, so that @code{catch} is applicable. If there is more than
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480 one applicable @code{catch}, the innermost one takes precedence.
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481
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482 Executing @code{throw} exits all Lisp constructs up to the matching
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483 @code{catch}, including function calls. When binding constructs such as
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484 @code{let} or function calls are exited in this way, the bindings are
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485 unbound, just as they are when these constructs exit normally
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486 (@pxref{Local Variables}). Likewise, @code{throw} restores the buffer
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487 and position saved by @code{save-excursion} (@pxref{Excursions}), and
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488 the narrowing status saved by @code{save-restriction} and the window
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489 selection saved by @code{save-window-excursion} (@pxref{Window
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490 Configurations}). It also runs any cleanups established with the
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491 @code{unwind-protect} special form when it exits that form
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492 (@pxref{Cleanups}).
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493
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494 The @code{throw} need not appear lexically within the @code{catch}
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495 that it jumps to. It can equally well be called from another function
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496 called within the @code{catch}. As long as the @code{throw} takes place
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497 chronologically after entry to the @code{catch}, and chronologically
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498 before exit from it, it has access to that @code{catch}. This is why
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499 @code{throw} can be used in commands such as @code{exit-recursive-edit}
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500 that throw back to the editor command loop (@pxref{Recursive Editing}).
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501
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502 @cindex CL note---only @code{throw} in Emacs
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503 @quotation
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504 @b{Common Lisp note:} Most other versions of Lisp, including Common Lisp,
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505 have several ways of transferring control nonsequentially: @code{return},
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506 @code{return-from}, and @code{go}, for example. Emacs Lisp has only
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507 @code{throw}.
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508 @end quotation
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509
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510 @defspec catch tag body@dots{}
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511 @cindex tag on run time stack
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512 @code{catch} establishes a return point for the @code{throw} function. The
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513 return point is distinguished from other such return points by @var{tag},
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514 which may be any Lisp object. The argument @var{tag} is evaluated normally
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515 before the return point is established.
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516
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517 With the return point in effect, @code{catch} evaluates the forms of the
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518 @var{body} in textual order. If the forms execute normally, without
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519 error or nonlocal exit, the value of the last body form is returned from
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520 the @code{catch}.
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521
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522 If a @code{throw} is done within @var{body} specifying the same value
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523 @var{tag}, the @code{catch} exits immediately; the value it returns is
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524 whatever was specified as the second argument of @code{throw}.
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525 @end defspec
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526
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527 @defun throw tag value
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528 The purpose of @code{throw} is to return from a return point previously
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529 established with @code{catch}. The argument @var{tag} is used to choose
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530 among the various existing return points; it must be @code{eq} to the value
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531 specified in the @code{catch}. If multiple return points match @var{tag},
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532 the innermost one is used.
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533
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534 The argument @var{value} is used as the value to return from that
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535 @code{catch}.
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536
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537 @kindex no-catch
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538 If no return point is in effect with tag @var{tag}, then a @code{no-catch}
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539 error is signaled with data @code{(@var{tag} @var{value})}.
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540 @end defun
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541
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542 @node Examples of Catch
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543 @subsection Examples of @code{catch} and @code{throw}
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544
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545 One way to use @code{catch} and @code{throw} is to exit from a doubly
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546 nested loop. (In most languages, this would be done with a ``go to''.)
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547 Here we compute @code{(foo @var{i} @var{j})} for @var{i} and @var{j}
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548 varying from 0 to 9:
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549
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550 @example
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551 @group
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552 (defun search-foo ()
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553 (catch 'loop
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554 (let ((i 0))
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555 (while (< i 10)
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556 (let ((j 0))
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557 (while (< j 10)
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558 (if (foo i j)
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559 (throw 'loop (list i j)))
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560 (setq j (1+ j))))
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561 (setq i (1+ i))))))
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562 @end group
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563 @end example
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564
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565 @noindent
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566 If @code{foo} ever returns non-@code{nil}, we stop immediately and return a
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567 list of @var{i} and @var{j}. If @code{foo} always returns @code{nil}, the
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568 @code{catch} returns normally, and the value is @code{nil}, since that
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569 is the result of the @code{while}.
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570
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571 Here are two tricky examples, slightly different, showing two
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572 return points at once. First, two return points with the same tag,
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573 @code{hack}:
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574
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575 @example
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576 @group
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577 (defun catch2 (tag)
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578 (catch tag
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579 (throw 'hack 'yes)))
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580 @result{} catch2
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581 @end group
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582
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583 @group
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584 (catch 'hack
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585 (print (catch2 'hack))
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586 'no)
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587 @print{} yes
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588 @result{} no
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589 @end group
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590 @end example
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591
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592 @noindent
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593 Since both return points have tags that match the @code{throw}, it goes to
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594 the inner one, the one established in @code{catch2}. Therefore,
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595 @code{catch2} returns normally with value @code{yes}, and this value is
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596 printed. Finally the second body form in the outer @code{catch}, which is
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597 @code{'no}, is evaluated and returned from the outer @code{catch}.
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598
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599 Now let's change the argument given to @code{catch2}:
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600
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601 @example
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602 @group
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603 (defun catch2 (tag)
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604 (catch tag
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605 (throw 'hack 'yes)))
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606 @result{} catch2
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607 @end group
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608
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609 @group
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610 (catch 'hack
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611 (print (catch2 'quux))
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612 'no)
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613 @result{} yes
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614 @end group
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615 @end example
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616
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617 @noindent
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618 We still have two return points, but this time only the outer one has
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619 the tag @code{hack}; the inner one has the tag @code{quux} instead.
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620 Therefore, @code{throw} makes the outer @code{catch} return the value
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621 @code{yes}. The function @code{print} is never called, and the
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622 body-form @code{'no} is never evaluated.
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623
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624 @node Errors
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625 @subsection Errors
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626 @cindex errors
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627
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628 When Emacs Lisp attempts to evaluate a form that, for some reason,
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629 cannot be evaluated, it @dfn{signals} an @dfn{error}.
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630
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631 When an error is signaled, Emacs's default reaction is to print an
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632 error message and terminate execution of the current command. This is
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633 the right thing to do in most cases, such as if you type @kbd{C-f} at
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634 the end of the buffer.
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635
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636 In complicated programs, simple termination may not be what you want.
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637 For example, the program may have made temporary changes in data
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638 structures, or created temporary buffers that should be deleted before
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639 the program is finished. In such cases, you would use
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640 @code{unwind-protect} to establish @dfn{cleanup expressions} to be
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641 evaluated in case of error. (@xref{Cleanups}.) Occasionally, you may
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642 wish the program to continue execution despite an error in a subroutine.
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643 In these cases, you would use @code{condition-case} to establish
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644 @dfn{error handlers} to recover control in case of error.
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645
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646 Resist the temptation to use error handling to transfer control from
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647 one part of the program to another; use @code{catch} and @code{throw}
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648 instead. @xref{Catch and Throw}.
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649
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650 @menu
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651 * Signaling Errors:: How to report an error.
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652 * Processing of Errors:: What Emacs does when you report an error.
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653 * Handling Errors:: How you can trap errors and continue execution.
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654 * Error Symbols:: How errors are classified for trapping them.
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655 @end menu
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656
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657 @node Signaling Errors
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658 @subsubsection How to Signal an Error
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659 @cindex signaling errors
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660
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661 Most errors are signaled ``automatically'' within Lisp primitives
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662 which you call for other purposes, such as if you try to take the
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663 @sc{car} of an integer or move forward a character at the end of the
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diff changeset
664 buffer; you can also signal errors explicitly with the functions
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diff changeset
665 @code{error} and @code{signal}.
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666
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667 Quitting, which happens when the user types @kbd{C-g}, is not
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668 considered an error, but it is handled almost like an error.
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diff changeset
669 @xref{Quitting}.
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670
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671 @defun error format-string &rest args
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672 This function signals an error with an error message constructed by
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673 applying @code{format} (@pxref{String Conversion}) to
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674 @var{format-string} and @var{args}.
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675
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676 These examples show typical uses of @code{error}:
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677
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678 @example
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679 @group
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diff changeset
680 (error "You have committed an error.
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diff changeset
681 Try something else.")
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diff changeset
682 @error{} You have committed an error.
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683 Try something else.
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684 @end group
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685
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686 @group
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diff changeset
687 (error "You have committed %d errors." 10)
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diff changeset
688 @error{} You have committed 10 errors.
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689 @end group
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690 @end example
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691
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692 @code{error} works by calling @code{signal} with two arguments: the
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693 error symbol @code{error}, and a list containing the string returned by
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694 @code{format}.
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695
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696 If you want to use your own string as an error message verbatim, don't
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697 just write @code{(error @var{string})}. If @var{string} contains
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698 @samp{%}, it will be interpreted as a format specifier, with undesirable
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699 results. Instead, use @code{(error "%s" @var{string})}.
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700 @end defun
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701
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702 @defun signal error-symbol data
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703 This function signals an error named by @var{error-symbol}. The
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704 argument @var{data} is a list of additional Lisp objects relevant to the
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705 circumstances of the error.
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706
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707 The argument @var{error-symbol} must be an @dfn{error symbol}---a symbol
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708 bearing a property @code{error-conditions} whose value is a list of
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diff changeset
709 condition names. This is how Emacs Lisp classifies different sorts of
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710 errors.
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diff changeset
711
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712 The number and significance of the objects in @var{data} depends on
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713 @var{error-symbol}. For example, with a @code{wrong-type-arg} error,
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714 there are two objects in the list: a predicate that describes the type
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diff changeset
715 that was expected, and the object that failed to fit that type.
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diff changeset
716 @xref{Error Symbols}, for a description of error symbols.
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717
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718 Both @var{error-symbol} and @var{data} are available to any error
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diff changeset
719 handlers that handle the error: @code{condition-case} binds a local
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720 variable to a list of the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} .@:
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diff changeset
721 @var{data})} (@pxref{Handling Errors}). If the error is not handled,
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722 these two values are used in printing the error message.
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723
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724 The function @code{signal} never returns (though in older Emacs versions
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725 it could sometimes return).
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diff changeset
726
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727 @smallexample
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728 @group
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729 (signal 'wrong-number-of-arguments '(x y))
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diff changeset
730 @error{} Wrong number of arguments: x, y
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731 @end group
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732
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733 @group
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734 (signal 'no-such-error '("My unknown error condition."))
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diff changeset
735 @error{} peculiar error: "My unknown error condition."
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diff changeset
736 @end group
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diff changeset
737 @end smallexample
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diff changeset
738 @end defun
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diff changeset
739
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diff changeset
740 @cindex CL note---no continuable errors
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diff changeset
741 @quotation
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diff changeset
742 @b{Common Lisp note:} Emacs Lisp has nothing like the Common Lisp
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diff changeset
743 concept of continuable errors.
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diff changeset
744 @end quotation
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745
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diff changeset
746 @node Processing of Errors
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diff changeset
747 @subsubsection How Emacs Processes Errors
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diff changeset
748
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diff changeset
749 When an error is signaled, @code{signal} searches for an active
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750 @dfn{handler} for the error. A handler is a sequence of Lisp
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751 expressions designated to be executed if an error happens in part of the
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752 Lisp program. If the error has an applicable handler, the handler is
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753 executed, and control resumes following the handler. The handler
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diff changeset
754 executes in the environment of the @code{condition-case} that
6453
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755 established it; all functions called within that @code{condition-case}
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756 have already been exited, and the handler cannot return to them.
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757
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758 If there is no applicable handler for the error, the current command is
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759 terminated and control returns to the editor command loop, because the
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diff changeset
760 command loop has an implicit handler for all kinds of errors. The
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diff changeset
761 command loop's handler uses the error symbol and associated data to
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diff changeset
762 print an error message.
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763
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diff changeset
764 @cindex @code{debug-on-error} use
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diff changeset
765 An error that has no explicit handler may call the Lisp debugger. The
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diff changeset
766 debugger is enabled if the variable @code{debug-on-error} (@pxref{Error
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diff changeset
767 Debugging}) is non-@code{nil}. Unlike error handlers, the debugger runs
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diff changeset
768 in the environment of the error, so that you can examine values of
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diff changeset
769 variables precisely as they were at the time of the error.
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diff changeset
770
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diff changeset
771 @node Handling Errors
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diff changeset
772 @subsubsection Writing Code to Handle Errors
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diff changeset
773 @cindex error handler
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diff changeset
774 @cindex handling errors
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diff changeset
775
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776 The usual effect of signaling an error is to terminate the command
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diff changeset
777 that is running and return immediately to the Emacs editor command loop.
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diff changeset
778 You can arrange to trap errors occurring in a part of your program by
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diff changeset
779 establishing an error handler, with the special form
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diff changeset
780 @code{condition-case}. A simple example looks like this:
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diff changeset
781
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diff changeset
782 @example
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diff changeset
783 @group
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diff changeset
784 (condition-case nil
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785 (delete-file filename)
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diff changeset
786 (error nil))
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787 @end group
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788 @end example
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diff changeset
789
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diff changeset
790 @noindent
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diff changeset
791 This deletes the file named @var{filename}, catching any error and
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792 returning @code{nil} if an error occurs.
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793
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794 The second argument of @code{condition-case} is called the
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diff changeset
795 @dfn{protected form}. (In the example above, the protected form is a
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796 call to @code{delete-file}.) The error handlers go into effect when
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797 this form begins execution and are deactivated when this form returns.
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798 They remain in effect for all the intervening time. In particular, they
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diff changeset
799 are in effect during the execution of functions called by this form, in
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diff changeset
800 their subroutines, and so on. This is a good thing, since, strictly
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801 speaking, errors can be signaled only by Lisp primitives (including
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diff changeset
802 @code{signal} and @code{error}) called by the protected form, not by the
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diff changeset
803 protected form itself.
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diff changeset
804
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805 The arguments after the protected form are handlers. Each handler
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diff changeset
806 lists one or more @dfn{condition names} (which are symbols) to specify
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807 which errors it will handle. The error symbol specified when an error
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808 is signaled also defines a list of condition names. A handler applies
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809 to an error if they have any condition names in common. In the example
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810 above, there is one handler, and it specifies one condition name,
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diff changeset
811 @code{error}, which covers all errors.
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diff changeset
812
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diff changeset
813 The search for an applicable handler checks all the established handlers
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diff changeset
814 starting with the most recently established one. Thus, if two nested
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diff changeset
815 @code{condition-case} forms offer to handle the same error, the inner of
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diff changeset
816 the two will actually handle it.
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diff changeset
817
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818 When an error is handled, control returns to the handler. Before this
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819 happens, Emacs unbinds all variable bindings made by binding constructs
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820 that are being exited and executes the cleanups of all
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821 @code{unwind-protect} forms that are exited. Once control arrives at
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822 the handler, the body of the handler is executed.
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823
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824 After execution of the handler body, execution continues by returning
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parents:
diff changeset
825 from the @code{condition-case} form. Because the protected form is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
826 exited completely before execution of the handler, the handler cannot
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
827 resume execution at the point of the error, nor can it examine variable
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
828 bindings that were made within the protected form. All it can do is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
829 clean up and proceed.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
830
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
831 @code{condition-case} is often used to trap errors that are
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
832 predictable, such as failure to open a file in a call to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
833 @code{insert-file-contents}. It is also used to trap errors that are
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
834 totally unpredictable, such as when the program evaluates an expression
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
835 read from the user.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
836
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
837 Error signaling and handling have some resemblance to @code{throw} and
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
838 @code{catch}, but they are entirely separate facilities. An error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
839 cannot be caught by a @code{catch}, and a @code{throw} cannot be handled
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
840 by an error handler (though using @code{throw} when there is no suitable
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
841 @code{catch} signals an error that can be handled).
6453
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
842
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
843 @defspec condition-case var protected-form handlers@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
844 This special form establishes the error handlers @var{handlers} around
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
845 the execution of @var{protected-form}. If @var{protected-form} executes
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
846 without error, the value it returns becomes the value of the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
847 @code{condition-case} form; in this case, the @code{condition-case} has
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848 no effect. The @code{condition-case} form makes a difference when an
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
849 error occurs during @var{protected-form}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
850
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
851 Each of the @var{handlers} is a list of the form @code{(@var{conditions}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
852 @var{body}@dots{})}. Here @var{conditions} is an error condition name
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
853 to be handled, or a list of condition names; @var{body} is one or more
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
854 Lisp expressions to be executed when this handler handles an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
855 Here are examples of handlers:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
856
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
857 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
858 @group
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
859 (error nil)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
860
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
861 (arith-error (message "Division by zero"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
862
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
863 ((arith-error file-error)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
864 (message
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
865 "Either division by zero or failure to open a file"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
866 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
867 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
868
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
869 Each error that occurs has an @dfn{error symbol} that describes what
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
870 kind of error it is. The @code{error-conditions} property of this
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
871 symbol is a list of condition names (@pxref{Error Symbols}). Emacs
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
872 searches all the active @code{condition-case} forms for a handler that
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
873 specifies one or more of these condition names; the innermost matching
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874 @code{condition-case} handles the error. Within this
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
875 @code{condition-case}, the first applicable handler handles the error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877 After executing the body of the handler, the @code{condition-case}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
878 returns normally, using the value of the last form in the handler body
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
879 as the overall value.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
880
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
881 The argument @var{var} is a variable. @code{condition-case} does not
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
882 bind this variable when executing the @var{protected-form}, only when it
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883 handles an error. At that time, it binds @var{var} locally to a list of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
884 the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} . @var{data})}, giving the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
885 particulars of the error. The handler can refer to this list to decide
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
886 what to do. For example, if the error is for failure opening a file,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
887 the file name is the second element of @var{data}---the third element of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
888 @var{var}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
889
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
890 If @var{var} is @code{nil}, that means no variable is bound. Then the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
891 error symbol and associated data are not available to the handler.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
892 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
893
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
894 @cindex @code{arith-error} example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
895 Here is an example of using @code{condition-case} to handle the error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
896 that results from dividing by zero. The handler prints out a warning
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
897 message and returns a very large number.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
898
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
899 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
900 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
901 (defun safe-divide (dividend divisor)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
902 (condition-case err
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
903 ;; @r{Protected form.}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
904 (/ dividend divisor)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
905 ;; @r{The handler.}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
906 (arith-error ; @r{Condition.}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
907 (princ (format "Arithmetic error: %s" err))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
908 1000000)))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
909 @result{} safe-divide
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
910 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
911
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
912 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
913 (safe-divide 5 0)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
914 @print{} Arithmetic error: (arith-error)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
915 @result{} 1000000
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
916 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
917 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
918
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
919 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
920 The handler specifies condition name @code{arith-error} so that it will handle only division-by-zero errors. Other kinds of errors will not be handled, at least not by this @code{condition-case}. Thus,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
921
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
922 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
923 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
924 (safe-divide nil 3)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
925 @error{} Wrong type argument: integer-or-marker-p, nil
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
926 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
927 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
928
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
929 Here is a @code{condition-case} that catches all kinds of errors,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
930 including those signaled with @code{error}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
931
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
932 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
933 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
934 (setq baz 34)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
935 @result{} 34
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
936 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
937
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
938 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
939 (condition-case err
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
940 (if (eq baz 35)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
941 t
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
942 ;; @r{This is a call to the function @code{error}.}
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
943 (error "Rats! The variable %s was %s, not 35" 'baz baz))
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
944 ;; @r{This is the handler; it is not a form.}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
945 (error (princ (format "The error was: %s" err))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
946 2))
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
947 @print{} The error was: (error "Rats! The variable baz was 34, not 35")
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
948 @result{} 2
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
949 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
950 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
951
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
952 @node Error Symbols
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
953 @subsubsection Error Symbols and Condition Names
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
954 @cindex error symbol
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
955 @cindex error name
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
956 @cindex condition name
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
957 @cindex user-defined error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
958 @kindex error-conditions
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
959
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
960 When you signal an error, you specify an @dfn{error symbol} to specify
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
961 the kind of error you have in mind. Each error has one and only one
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
962 error symbol to categorize it. This is the finest classification of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
963 errors defined by the Emacs Lisp language.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
964
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
965 These narrow classifications are grouped into a hierarchy of wider
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
966 classes called @dfn{error conditions}, identified by @dfn{condition
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
967 names}. The narrowest such classes belong to the error symbols
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
968 themselves: each error symbol is also a condition name. There are also
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
969 condition names for more extensive classes, up to the condition name
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
970 @code{error} which takes in all kinds of errors. Thus, each error has
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
971 one or more condition names: @code{error}, the error symbol if that
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
972 is distinct from @code{error}, and perhaps some intermediate
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
973 classifications.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
974
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
975 In order for a symbol to be an error symbol, it must have an
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
976 @code{error-conditions} property which gives a list of condition names.
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
977 This list defines the conditions that this kind of error belongs to.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
978 (The error symbol itself, and the symbol @code{error}, should always be
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
979 members of this list.) Thus, the hierarchy of condition names is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
980 defined by the @code{error-conditions} properties of the error symbols.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
981
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
982 In addition to the @code{error-conditions} list, the error symbol
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
983 should have an @code{error-message} property whose value is a string to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
984 be printed when that error is signaled but not handled. If the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
985 @code{error-message} property exists, but is not a string, the error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
986 message @samp{peculiar error} is used.
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diff changeset
987 @cindex peculiar error
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parents:
diff changeset
988
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diff changeset
989 Here is how we define a new error symbol, @code{new-error}:
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diff changeset
990
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diff changeset
991 @example
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diff changeset
992 @group
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diff changeset
993 (put 'new-error
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diff changeset
994 'error-conditions
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diff changeset
995 '(error my-own-errors new-error))
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diff changeset
996 @result{} (error my-own-errors new-error)
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diff changeset
997 @end group
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diff changeset
998 @group
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diff changeset
999 (put 'new-error 'error-message "A new error")
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diff changeset
1000 @result{} "A new error"
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diff changeset
1001 @end group
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diff changeset
1002 @end example
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diff changeset
1003
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diff changeset
1004 @noindent
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diff changeset
1005 This error has three condition names: @code{new-error}, the narrowest
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diff changeset
1006 classification; @code{my-own-errors}, which we imagine is a wider
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diff changeset
1007 classification; and @code{error}, which is the widest of all.
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1008
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1009 The error string should start with a capital letter but it should
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1010 not end with a period. This is for consistency with the rest of Emacs.
6453
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diff changeset
1011
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1012 Naturally, Emacs will never signal @code{new-error} on its own; only
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6453
diff changeset
1013 an explicit call to @code{signal} (@pxref{Signaling Errors}) in your
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
1014 code can do this:
6453
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1015
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diff changeset
1016 @example
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diff changeset
1017 @group
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diff changeset
1018 (signal 'new-error '(x y))
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diff changeset
1019 @error{} A new error: x, y
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1020 @end group
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1021 @end example
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1022
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diff changeset
1023 This error can be handled through any of the three condition names.
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1024 This example handles @code{new-error} and any other errors in the class
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diff changeset
1025 @code{my-own-errors}:
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1026
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1027 @example
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diff changeset
1028 @group
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diff changeset
1029 (condition-case foo
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diff changeset
1030 (bar nil t)
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diff changeset
1031 (my-own-errors nil))
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1032 @end group
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1033 @end example
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1034
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diff changeset
1035 The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition
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diff changeset
1036 names---the names used to match errors with handlers. An error symbol
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parents:
diff changeset
1037 serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message
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diff changeset
1038 and list of condition names. It would be cumbersome to give
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diff changeset
1039 @code{signal} a list of condition names rather than one error symbol.
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diff changeset
1040
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diff changeset
1041 By contrast, using only error symbols without condition names would
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parents:
diff changeset
1042 seriously decrease the power of @code{condition-case}. Condition names
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parents:
diff changeset
1043 make it possible to categorize errors at various levels of generality
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diff changeset
1044 when you write an error handler. Using error symbols alone would
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parents:
diff changeset
1045 eliminate all but the narrowest level of classification.
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parents:
diff changeset
1046
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diff changeset
1047 @xref{Standard Errors}, for a list of all the standard error symbols
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diff changeset
1048 and their conditions.
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diff changeset
1049
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diff changeset
1050 @node Cleanups
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diff changeset
1051 @subsection Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits
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diff changeset
1052
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diff changeset
1053 The @code{unwind-protect} construct is essential whenever you
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diff changeset
1054 temporarily put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits
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parents:
diff changeset
1055 you to ensure the data are consistent in the event of an error or throw.
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diff changeset
1056
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diff changeset
1057 @defspec unwind-protect body cleanup-forms@dots{}
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diff changeset
1058 @cindex cleanup forms
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diff changeset
1059 @cindex protected forms
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parents:
diff changeset
1060 @cindex error cleanup
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diff changeset
1061 @cindex unwinding
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diff changeset
1062 @code{unwind-protect} executes the @var{body} with a guarantee that the
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diff changeset
1063 @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated if control leaves @var{body}, no
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diff changeset
1064 matter how that happens. The @var{body} may complete normally, or
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diff changeset
1065 execute a @code{throw} out of the @code{unwind-protect}, or cause an
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diff changeset
1066 error; in all cases, the @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated.
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diff changeset
1067
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diff changeset
1068 If the @var{body} forms finish normally, @code{unwind-protect} returns
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parents:
diff changeset
1069 the value of the last @var{body} form, after it evaluates the
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diff changeset
1070 @var{cleanup-forms}. If the @var{body} forms do not finish,
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diff changeset
1071 @code{unwind-protect} does not return any value in the normal sense.
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diff changeset
1072
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diff changeset
1073 Only the @var{body} is actually protected by the @code{unwind-protect}.
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diff changeset
1074 If any of the @var{cleanup-forms} themselves exits nonlocally (e.g., via
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diff changeset
1075 a @code{throw} or an error), @code{unwind-protect} is @emph{not}
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diff changeset
1076 guaranteed to evaluate the rest of them. If the failure of one of the
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diff changeset
1077 @var{cleanup-forms} has the potential to cause trouble, then protect it
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diff changeset
1078 with another @code{unwind-protect} around that form.
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diff changeset
1079
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diff changeset
1080 The number of currently active @code{unwind-protect} forms counts,
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diff changeset
1081 together with the number of local variable bindings, against the limit
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diff changeset
1082 @code{max-specpdl-size} (@pxref{Local Variables}).
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diff changeset
1083 @end defspec
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diff changeset
1084
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diff changeset
1085 For example, here we make an invisible buffer for temporary use, and
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diff changeset
1086 make sure to kill it before finishing:
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diff changeset
1087
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diff changeset
1088 @smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
1089 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1090 (save-excursion
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parents:
diff changeset
1091 (let ((buffer (get-buffer-create " *temp*")))
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parents:
diff changeset
1092 (set-buffer buffer)
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parents:
diff changeset
1093 (unwind-protect
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parents:
diff changeset
1094 @var{body}
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parents:
diff changeset
1095 (kill-buffer buffer))))
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diff changeset
1096 @end group
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diff changeset
1097 @end smallexample
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diff changeset
1098
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diff changeset
1099 @noindent
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diff changeset
1100 You might think that we could just as well write @code{(kill-buffer
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parents:
diff changeset
1101 (current-buffer))} and dispense with the variable @code{buffer}.
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parents:
diff changeset
1102 However, the way shown above is safer, if @var{body} happens to get an
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diff changeset
1103 error after switching to a different buffer! (Alternatively, you could
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parents:
diff changeset
1104 write another @code{save-excursion} around the body, to ensure that the
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parents:
diff changeset
1105 temporary buffer becomes current in time to kill it.)
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diff changeset
1106
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1107 @findex ftp-login
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diff changeset
1108 Here is an actual example taken from the file @file{ftp.el}. It
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parents: 6453
diff changeset
1109 creates a process (@pxref{Processes}) to try to establish a connection
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diff changeset
1110 to a remote machine. As the function @code{ftp-login} is highly
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diff changeset
1111 susceptible to numerous problems that the writer of the function cannot
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diff changeset
1112 anticipate, it is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the
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diff changeset
1113 process in the event of failure. Otherwise, Emacs might fill up with
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parents: 6453
diff changeset
1114 useless subprocesses.
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1115
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1116 @smallexample
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diff changeset
1117 @group
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diff changeset
1118 (let ((win nil))
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diff changeset
1119 (unwind-protect
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diff changeset
1120 (progn
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diff changeset
1121 (setq process (ftp-setup-buffer host file))
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diff changeset
1122 (if (setq win (ftp-login process host user password))
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parents:
diff changeset
1123 (message "Logged in")
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diff changeset
1124 (error "Ftp login failed")))
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diff changeset
1125 (or win (and process (delete-process process)))))
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diff changeset
1126 @end group
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diff changeset
1127 @end smallexample
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diff changeset
1128
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diff changeset
1129 This example actually has a small bug: if the user types @kbd{C-g} to
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diff changeset
1130 quit, and the quit happens immediately after the function
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diff changeset
1131 @code{ftp-setup-buffer} returns but before the variable @code{process} is
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diff changeset
1132 set, the process will not be killed. There is no easy way to fix this bug,
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diff changeset
1133 but at least it is very unlikely.
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diff changeset
1134
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diff changeset
1135 Here is another example which uses @code{unwind-protect} to make sure
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parents:
diff changeset
1136 to kill a temporary buffer. In this example, the value returned by
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diff changeset
1137 @code{unwind-protect} is used.
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diff changeset
1138
7734
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1139 @smallexample
6453
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diff changeset
1140 (defun shell-command-string (cmd)
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diff changeset
1141 "Return the output of the shell command CMD, as a string."
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diff changeset
1142 (save-excursion
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diff changeset
1143 (set-buffer (generate-new-buffer " OS*cmd"))
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diff changeset
1144 (shell-command cmd t)
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parents:
diff changeset
1145 (unwind-protect
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diff changeset
1146 (buffer-string)
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diff changeset
1147 (kill-buffer (current-buffer)))))
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diff changeset
1148 @end smallexample