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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000,
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4 @c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/variables
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7 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top
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8 @chapter Variables
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9 @cindex variable
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10
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11 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value.
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12 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the
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13 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for
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14 symbols.
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15
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16 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented
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17 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp
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18 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable
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19 name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the
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20 symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as
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21 a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}.
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22
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23 The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual
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24 form of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp
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25 objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program
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26 is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the
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27 variable.
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28
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29 @menu
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30 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere.
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31 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change.
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32 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily.
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33 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values.
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34 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable.
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35 * Tips for Defining:: Things you should think about when you
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36 define a variable.
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37 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names
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38 are known only at run time.
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39 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables.
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40 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values.
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41 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer.
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42 * Frame-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one frame.
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43 * Future Local Variables:: New kinds of local values we might add some day.
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44 * File Local Variables:: Handling local variable lists in files.
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45 * Variable Aliases:: Variables that are aliases for other variables.
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46 * Variables with Restricted Values:: Non-constant variables whose value can
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47 @emph{not} be an arbitrary Lisp object.
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48 @end menu
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49
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50 @node Global Variables
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51 @section Global Variables
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52 @cindex global variable
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53
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54 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that
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55 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect
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56 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains
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57 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the
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58 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable.
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59
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60 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example,
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61
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62 @example
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63 (setq x '(a b))
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64 @end example
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65
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66 @noindent
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67 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that
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68 @code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the
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69 variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value.
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70
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71 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol
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72 by itself as an expression. Thus,
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73
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74 @example
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75 @group
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76 x @result{} (a b)
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77 @end group
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78 @end example
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79
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80 @noindent
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81 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed.
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82
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83 If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the old
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84 one:
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85
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86 @example
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87 @group
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88 x
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89 @result{} (a b)
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90 @end group
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91 @group
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92 (setq x 4)
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93 @result{} 4
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94 @end group
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95 @group
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96 x
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97 @result{} 4
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98 @end group
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99 @end example
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100
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101 @node Constant Variables
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102 @section Variables that Never Change
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103 @kindex setting-constant
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104 @cindex keyword symbol
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105 @cindex variable with constant value
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106 @cindex constant variables
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107 @cindex symbol that evaluates to itself
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108 @cindex symbol with constant value
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109
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110 In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. These
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111 include @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name starts
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112 with @samp{:} (these are called @dfn{keywords}). These symbols cannot
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113 be rebound, nor can their values be changed. Any attempt to set or bind
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114 @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. The
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115 same is true for a keyword (a symbol whose name starts with @samp{:}),
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116 if it is interned in the standard obarray, except that setting such a
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117 symbol to itself is not an error.
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118
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119 @example
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120 @group
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121 nil @equiv{} 'nil
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122 @result{} nil
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123 @end group
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124 @group
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125 (setq nil 500)
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126 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil
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127 @end group
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128 @end example
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129
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130 @defun keywordp object
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131 function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol whose name
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132 starts with @samp{:}, interned in the standard obarray, and returns
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133 @code{nil} otherwise.
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134 @end defun
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135
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136 @node Local Variables
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137 @section Local Variables
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138 @cindex binding local variables
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139 @cindex local variables
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140 @cindex local binding
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141 @cindex global binding
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142
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143 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded
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144 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that
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145 exist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes.
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146 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are
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147 called @dfn{local variables}.
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148
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149 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive
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150 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let}
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151 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified
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152 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form.
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153
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154 @cindex shadowing of variables
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155 Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of
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156 one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over,
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157 the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the
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158 previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and
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159 local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}).
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160
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161 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local,
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162 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or
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163 previous local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we
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164 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value.
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165
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166 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value.
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167 Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the
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168 local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the
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169 local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value
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170 is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a
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171 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does
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172 not create a new binding.
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173
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174 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where
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175 (conceptually) the global value is kept.
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176
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177 @cindex current binding
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178 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for
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179 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a
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180 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the
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181 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called
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182 @dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no
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183 local bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding.
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184 We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existing
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185 binding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns
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186 the value of its current binding.
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187
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188 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create
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189 local bindings.
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190
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191 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}
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192 This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then
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193 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form
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194 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}.
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195
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196 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case
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197 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form
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198 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is
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199 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form}
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200 is omitted, @code{nil} is used.
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201
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202 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the
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203 order they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them.
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204 Here is an example of this: @code{z} is bound to the old value of
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205 @code{y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{y}, which is 1.
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206
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207 @example
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208 @group
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209 (setq y 2)
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210 @result{} 2
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211 @end group
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212 @group
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213 (let ((y 1)
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214 (z y))
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215 (list y z))
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216 @result{} (1 2)
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217 @end group
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218 @end example
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219 @end defspec
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220
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221 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}
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222 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right
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223 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for
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224 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can
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225 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*}
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226 form. Compare the following example with the example above for
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227 @code{let}.
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228
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229 @example
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230 @group
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231 (setq y 2)
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232 @result{} 2
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233 @end group
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234 @group
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235 (let* ((y 1)
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236 (z y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{y}.}
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237 (list y z))
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238 @result{} (1 1)
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239 @end group
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240 @end example
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241 @end defspec
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242
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243 Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local
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244 bindings:
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245
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246 @itemize @bullet
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247 @item
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248 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}).
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249
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250 @item
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251 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}).
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252
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253 @item
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254 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}).
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255 @end itemize
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256
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257 Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local
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258 Variables}) and frame-local bindings (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}); a
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259 few variables have terminal-local bindings (@pxref{Multiple Displays}).
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260 These kinds of bindings work somewhat like ordinary local bindings, but
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261 they are localized depending on ``where'' you are in Emacs, rather than
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262 localized in time.
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263
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264 @defvar max-specpdl-size
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265 @anchor{Definition of max-specpdl-size}
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266 @cindex variable limit error
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267 @cindex evaluation error
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268 @cindex infinite recursion
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269 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable
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270 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Cleanups,,
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271 Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits}) that are allowed before signaling an
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272 error (with data @code{"Variable binding depth exceeds
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273 max-specpdl-size"}).
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274
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275 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way
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276 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function.
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277 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting.
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278 @xref{Definition of max-lisp-eval-depth,, Eval}.
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279
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280 The default value is 1000. Entry to the Lisp debugger increases the
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281 value, if there is little room left, to make sure the debugger itself
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282 has room to execute.
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283 @end defvar
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284
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285 @node Void Variables
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286 @section When a Variable is ``Void''
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287 @kindex void-variable
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288 @cindex void variable
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289
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290 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we
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291 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the
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292 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to
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293 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than
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294 a value.
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295
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296 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol
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297 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any
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298 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not
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299 have any value.
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300
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301 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more
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302 using @code{makunbound}.
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303
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304 @defun makunbound symbol
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305 This function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void.
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306 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal
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307 the error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again.
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308
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309 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}.
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310
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311 @example
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312 @group
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313 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.}
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314 @result{} x
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315 @end group
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316 @group
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317 x
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318 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x
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319 @end group
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320 @end example
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321
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322 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most
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323 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void
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324 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings
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325 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as
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326 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from
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327 the construct that made it, the previous local or global binding is
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328 reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly
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329 reexposed binding was void all along.
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330
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331 @smallexample
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332 @group
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333 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.}
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334 @result{} 1
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335 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.}
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336 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.}
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337 x)
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338 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x
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339 @end group
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340 @group
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341 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.}
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342 @result{} 1
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343
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344 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.}
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345 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.}
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346 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.}
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347 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.}
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348 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x
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349 @end group
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350
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351 @group
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352 (let ((x 2))
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353 (let ((x 3))
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354 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.}
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355 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.}
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356 @result{} 2
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357 @end group
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358 @end smallexample
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359 @end defun
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360
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361 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is
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362 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has
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363 always been void.
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364
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365 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is
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366 currently void.
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367
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368 @defun boundp variable
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369 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void;
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370 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns
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371 @code{nil} otherwise.
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372
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373 @smallexample
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374 @group
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375 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.}
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376 @result{} nil
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377 @end group
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378 @group
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379 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.}
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380 (boundp 'abracadabra))
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381 @result{} t
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382 @end group
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383 @group
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384 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.}
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385 @result{} nil
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386 @end group
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387 @group
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388 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.}
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389 @result{} 5
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390 @end group
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391 @group
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392 (boundp 'abracadabra)
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393 @result{} t
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394 @end group
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395 @end smallexample
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396 @end defun
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397
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398 @node Defining Variables
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399 @section Defining Global Variables
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400 @cindex variable definition
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401
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402 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable
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403 with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst}
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404 or @code{defvar}.
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405
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406 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform
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407 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be
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408 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system
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409 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they
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410 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and
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411 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and
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412 variables in a program.
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413
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414 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily
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415 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the value
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416 should ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a
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417 variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar}
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418 declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization:
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419 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while
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420 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void.
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421
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422 @ignore
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423 One would expect user option variables to be defined with
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424 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this
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425 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded:
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426 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is
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427 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init
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428 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For
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429 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}.
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430 @end ignore
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431
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432 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]]
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433 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can also
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434 initialize and document it. The definition informs a person reading
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435 your code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set or
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436 changed. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be
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437 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}.
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438
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439 If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar}
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440 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol}
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441 already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not even
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442 evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value}
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443 is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case.
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444
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445 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer,
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446 @code{defvar} operates on the default value, which is buffer-independent,
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447 not the current (buffer-local) binding. It sets the default value if
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448 the default value is void. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}.
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449
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450 When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} in
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451 Emacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of
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452 @code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally, without
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453 testing whether its value is void.
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454
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455 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation
|
|
456 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of
|
|
457 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is
|
|
458 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The
|
|
459 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property.
|
|
460
|
|
461 If the variable is a user option that users would want to set
|
|
462 interactively, you should use @samp{*} as the first character of
|
|
463 @var{doc-string}. This lets users set the variable conveniently using
|
|
464 the @code{set-variable} command. Note that you should nearly always
|
|
465 use @code{defcustom} instead of @code{defvar} to define these
|
|
466 variables, so that users can use @kbd{M-x customize} and related
|
|
467 commands to set them. @xref{Customization}.
|
|
468
|
|
469 Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does not
|
|
470 initialize it:
|
|
471
|
|
472 @example
|
|
473 @group
|
|
474 (defvar foo)
|
|
475 @result{} foo
|
|
476 @end group
|
|
477 @end example
|
|
478
|
|
479 This example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and gives
|
|
480 it a documentation string:
|
|
481
|
|
482 @example
|
|
483 @group
|
|
484 (defvar bar 23
|
|
485 "The normal weight of a bar.")
|
|
486 @result{} bar
|
|
487 @end group
|
|
488 @end example
|
|
489
|
|
490 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar},
|
|
491 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar}
|
|
492 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an error
|
|
493 if it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.)
|
|
494
|
|
495 @example
|
|
496 @group
|
|
497 (defvar bar (1+ nil)
|
|
498 "*The normal weight of a bar.")
|
|
499 @result{} bar
|
|
500 @end group
|
|
501 @group
|
|
502 bar
|
|
503 @result{} 23
|
|
504 @end group
|
|
505 @end example
|
|
506
|
|
507 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form:
|
|
508
|
|
509 @example
|
|
510 @group
|
|
511 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string})
|
|
512 @equiv{}
|
|
513 (progn
|
|
514 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol}))
|
|
515 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value}))
|
|
516 (if '@var{doc-string}
|
|
517 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string}))
|
|
518 '@var{symbol})
|
|
519 @end group
|
|
520 @end example
|
|
521
|
|
522 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used
|
|
523 at top level in a file where its value does not matter.
|
|
524 @end defspec
|
|
525
|
|
526 @defspec defconst symbol value [doc-string]
|
|
527 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it.
|
|
528 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standard
|
|
529 global value, established here, that should not be changed by the user
|
|
530 or by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the
|
|
531 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}.
|
|
532
|
|
533 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of
|
|
534 @var{symbol} to the result. If @var{symbol} does have a buffer-local
|
|
535 binding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} sets the default value,
|
|
536 not the buffer-local value. (But you should not be making
|
|
537 buffer-local bindings for a symbol that is defined with
|
|
538 @code{defconst}.)
|
|
539
|
|
540 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed
|
|
541 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding).
|
|
542 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory.
|
|
543
|
|
544 @example
|
|
545 @group
|
|
546 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.")
|
|
547 @result{} pi
|
|
548 @end group
|
|
549 @group
|
|
550 (setq pi 3)
|
|
551 @result{} pi
|
|
552 @end group
|
|
553 @group
|
|
554 pi
|
|
555 @result{} 3
|
|
556 @end group
|
|
557 @end example
|
|
558 @end defspec
|
|
559
|
|
560 @defun user-variable-p variable
|
|
561 @cindex user option
|
|
562 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a
|
|
563 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and
|
|
564 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the
|
|
565 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.)
|
|
566
|
|
567 User option variables are distinguished from other variables either
|
|
568 though being declared using @code{defcustom}@footnote{They may also be
|
|
569 declared equivalently in @file{cus-start.el}.} or by the first character
|
|
570 of their @code{variable-documentation} property. If the property exists
|
|
571 and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, then the variable
|
|
572 is a user option. Aliases of user options are also user options.
|
|
573 @end defun
|
|
574
|
|
575 @kindex variable-interactive
|
|
576 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property,
|
|
577 the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading the
|
|
578 new value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it were
|
|
579 specified in @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However,
|
|
580 this feature is largely obsoleted by @code{defcustom}
|
|
581 (@pxref{Customization}).
|
|
582
|
|
583 @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special
|
|
584 forms are used while the variable has a local binding (made with
|
|
585 @code{let}, or a function argument), they set the local-binding's
|
|
586 value; the top-level binding is not changed. This is not what you
|
|
587 usually want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top level in
|
|
588 a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make sure to
|
|
589 load the file before making a local binding for the variable.
|
|
590
|
|
591 @node Tips for Defining
|
|
592 @section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly
|
|
593
|
|
594 When you define a variable whose value is a function, or a list of
|
|
595 functions, use a name that ends in @samp{-function} or
|
|
596 @samp{-functions}, respectively.
|
|
597
|
|
598 There are several other variable name conventions;
|
|
599 here is a complete list:
|
|
600
|
|
601 @table @samp
|
|
602 @item @dots{}-hook
|
|
603 The variable is a normal hook (@pxref{Hooks}).
|
|
604
|
|
605 @item @dots{}-function
|
|
606 The value is a function.
|
|
607
|
|
608 @item @dots{}-functions
|
|
609 The value is a list of functions.
|
|
610
|
|
611 @item @dots{}-form
|
|
612 The value is a form (an expression).
|
|
613
|
|
614 @item @dots{}-forms
|
|
615 The value is a list of forms (expressions).
|
|
616
|
|
617 @item @dots{}-predicate
|
|
618 The value is a predicate---a function of one argument that returns
|
|
619 non-@code{nil} for ``good'' arguments and @code{nil} for ``bad''
|
|
620 arguments.
|
|
621
|
|
622 @item @dots{}-flag
|
|
623 The value is significant only as to whether it is @code{nil} or not.
|
|
624
|
|
625 @item @dots{}-program
|
|
626 The value is a program name.
|
|
627
|
|
628 @item @dots{}-command
|
|
629 The value is a whole shell command.
|
|
630
|
|
631 @item @dots{}-switches
|
|
632 The value specifies options for a command.
|
|
633 @end table
|
|
634
|
|
635 When you define a variable, always consider whether you should mark
|
|
636 it as ``risky''; see @ref{File Local Variables}.
|
|
637
|
|
638 When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicated
|
|
639 value (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put the
|
|
640 entire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this:
|
|
641
|
|
642 @example
|
|
643 (defvar my-mode-map
|
|
644 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap)))
|
|
645 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command)
|
|
646 @dots{}
|
|
647 map)
|
|
648 @var{docstring})
|
|
649 @end example
|
|
650
|
|
651 @noindent
|
|
652 This method has several benefits. First, if the user quits while
|
|
653 loading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized or
|
|
654 initialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized,
|
|
655 reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading the
|
|
656 file once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that is
|
|
657 important if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (such
|
|
658 as, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with
|
|
659 @kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely.
|
|
660
|
|
661 Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage:
|
|
662 it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names the
|
|
663 variable. Here's a safe way to avoid that:
|
|
664
|
|
665 @example
|
|
666 (defvar my-mode-map nil
|
|
667 @var{docstring})
|
|
668 (unless my-mode-map
|
|
669 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap)))
|
|
670 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command)
|
|
671 @dots{}
|
|
672 (setq my-mode-map map)))
|
|
673 @end example
|
|
674
|
|
675 @noindent
|
|
676 This has all the same advantages as putting the initialization inside
|
|
677 the @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once on
|
|
678 each form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable.
|
|
679
|
|
680 But be careful not to write the code like this:
|
|
681
|
|
682 @example
|
|
683 (defvar my-mode-map nil
|
|
684 @var{docstring})
|
|
685 (unless my-mode-map
|
|
686 (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap))
|
|
687 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command)
|
|
688 @dots{})
|
|
689 @end example
|
|
690
|
|
691 @noindent
|
|
692 This code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more than
|
|
693 one step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves the
|
|
694 variable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Once
|
|
695 that happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; it
|
|
696 will remain incomplete.
|
|
697
|
|
698 @node Accessing Variables
|
|
699 @section Accessing Variable Values
|
|
700
|
|
701 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which
|
|
702 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the
|
|
703 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what
|
|
704 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which
|
|
705 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}.
|
|
706
|
|
707 @defun symbol-value symbol
|
|
708 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in
|
|
709 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it
|
|
710 has no local bindings.
|
|
711
|
|
712 @example
|
|
713 @group
|
|
714 (setq abracadabra 5)
|
|
715 @result{} 5
|
|
716 @end group
|
|
717 @group
|
|
718 (setq foo 9)
|
|
719 @result{} 9
|
|
720 @end group
|
|
721
|
|
722 @group
|
|
723 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}}
|
|
724 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.}
|
|
725 (let ((abracadabra 'foo))
|
|
726 (symbol-value 'abracadabra))
|
|
727 @result{} foo
|
|
728 @end group
|
|
729
|
|
730 @group
|
|
731 ;; @r{Here, the value of @code{abracadabra},}
|
|
732 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},}
|
|
733 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.}
|
|
734 (let ((abracadabra 'foo))
|
|
735 (symbol-value abracadabra))
|
|
736 @result{} 9
|
|
737 @end group
|
|
738
|
|
739 @group
|
|
740 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)
|
|
741 @result{} 5
|
|
742 @end group
|
|
743 @end example
|
|
744
|
|
745 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of
|
|
746 @var{symbol} is void.
|
|
747 @end defun
|
|
748
|
|
749 @node Setting Variables
|
|
750 @section How to Alter a Variable Value
|
|
751
|
|
752 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special
|
|
753 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at
|
|
754 run time, use the function @code{set}.
|
|
755
|
|
756 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{}
|
|
757 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's
|
|
758 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of
|
|
759 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing
|
|
760 binding of the symbol is changed.
|
|
761
|
|
762 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you
|
|
763 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The
|
|
764 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.''
|
|
765
|
|
766 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}.
|
|
767
|
|
768 @example
|
|
769 @group
|
|
770 (setq x (1+ 2))
|
|
771 @result{} 3
|
|
772 @end group
|
|
773 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.}
|
|
774 @result{} 3
|
|
775 @group
|
|
776 (let ((x 5))
|
|
777 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.}
|
|
778 x)
|
|
779 @result{} 6
|
|
780 @end group
|
|
781 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.}
|
|
782 @result{} 3
|
|
783 @end example
|
|
784
|
|
785 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first
|
|
786 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the
|
|
787 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on:
|
|
788
|
|
789 @example
|
|
790 @group
|
|
791 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before}
|
|
792 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.}
|
|
793 @result{} 11
|
|
794 @end group
|
|
795 @end example
|
|
796 @end defspec
|
|
797
|
|
798 @defun set symbol value
|
|
799 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns
|
|
800 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for
|
|
801 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set.
|
|
802
|
|
803 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is
|
|
804 set; shadowed bindings are not affected.
|
|
805
|
|
806 @example
|
|
807 @group
|
|
808 (set one 1)
|
|
809 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one
|
|
810 @end group
|
|
811 @group
|
|
812 (set 'one 1)
|
|
813 @result{} 1
|
|
814 @end group
|
|
815 @group
|
|
816 (set 'two 'one)
|
|
817 @result{} one
|
|
818 @end group
|
|
819 @group
|
|
820 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.}
|
|
821 @result{} 2
|
|
822 @end group
|
|
823 @group
|
|
824 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.}
|
|
825 @result{} 2
|
|
826 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,}
|
|
827 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.}
|
|
828 one)
|
|
829 @result{} 3
|
|
830 @end group
|
|
831 @group
|
|
832 one
|
|
833 @result{} 2
|
|
834 @end group
|
|
835 @end example
|
|
836
|
|
837 If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument}
|
|
838 error is signaled.
|
|
839
|
|
840 @example
|
|
841 (set '(x y) 'z)
|
|
842 @error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y)
|
|
843 @end example
|
|
844
|
|
845 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than
|
|
846 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use
|
|
847 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the
|
|
848 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used;
|
|
849 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing
|
|
850 at run time which variable to set. For example, the command
|
|
851 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then
|
|
852 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}.
|
|
853
|
|
854 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local
|
|
855 @quotation
|
|
856 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the
|
|
857 symbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings.
|
|
858 In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set}
|
|
859 always affects the most local existing binding.
|
|
860 @end quotation
|
|
861 @end defun
|
|
862
|
|
863 @node Variable Scoping
|
|
864 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings
|
|
865
|
|
866 A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings,
|
|
867 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global
|
|
868 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over
|
|
869 the others.
|
|
870
|
|
871 @cindex scope
|
|
872 @cindex extent
|
|
873 @cindex dynamic scoping
|
|
874 @cindex lexical scoping
|
|
875 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and
|
|
876 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in
|
|
877 the source code the binding can be accessed. ``Indefinite scope'' means
|
|
878 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable
|
|
879 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is
|
|
880 executing, the binding exists. ``Dynamic extent'' means that the binding
|
|
881 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it.
|
|
882
|
|
883 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called
|
|
884 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use
|
|
885 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be
|
|
886 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable.
|
|
887
|
|
888 @cindex CL note---special variables
|
|
889 @quotation
|
|
890 @b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp are
|
|
891 dynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp.
|
|
892 @end quotation
|
|
893
|
|
894 @menu
|
|
895 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible.
|
|
896 Comparison with other languages.
|
|
897 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists.
|
|
898 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping.
|
|
899 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems.
|
|
900 @end menu
|
|
901
|
|
902 @node Scope
|
|
903 @subsection Scope
|
|
904
|
|
905 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings.
|
|
906 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a
|
|
907 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function
|
|
908 definitions:
|
|
909
|
|
910 @example
|
|
911 @group
|
|
912 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.}
|
|
913 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.}
|
|
914 @end group
|
|
915
|
|
916 @group
|
|
917 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.}
|
|
918 (list x))
|
|
919 @end group
|
|
920 @end example
|
|
921
|
|
922 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in
|
|
923 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because
|
|
924 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function
|
|
925 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically-scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user}
|
|
926 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in
|
|
927 @code{binder}, depending on the circumstances:
|
|
928
|
|
929 @itemize @bullet
|
|
930 @item
|
|
931 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all,
|
|
932 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from
|
|
933 @code{binder}.
|
|
934
|
|
935 @item
|
|
936 If we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then the
|
|
937 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}:
|
|
938
|
|
939 @example
|
|
940 @group
|
|
941 (defun foo (lose)
|
|
942 (user))
|
|
943 @end group
|
|
944 @end example
|
|
945
|
|
946 @item
|
|
947 However, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder},
|
|
948 then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in
|
|
949 @code{user}:
|
|
950
|
|
951 @example
|
|
952 (defun foo (x)
|
|
953 (user))
|
|
954 @end example
|
|
955
|
|
956 @noindent
|
|
957 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}.
|
|
958 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in
|
|
959 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound
|
|
960 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}.
|
|
961 @end itemize
|
|
962
|
|
963 Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of
|
|
964 lexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offer
|
|
965 dynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm,
|
|
966 there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particular
|
|
967 variable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, but
|
|
968 implementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier.
|
|
969
|
|
970 @node Extent
|
|
971 @subsection Extent
|
|
972
|
|
973 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a
|
|
974 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while
|
|
975 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic
|
|
976 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages,
|
|
977 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent.
|
|
978
|
|
979 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This
|
|
980 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form
|
|
981 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support
|
|
982 this, but Emacs Lisp does not.
|
|
983
|
|
984 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a
|
|
985 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. This
|
|
986 would work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp,
|
|
987 because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n}
|
|
988 is no longer bound to the actual argument 2.
|
|
989
|
|
990 @example
|
|
991 (defun make-add (n)
|
|
992 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.}
|
|
993 @result{} make-add
|
|
994 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}}
|
|
995 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.}
|
|
996 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m))
|
|
997 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.}
|
|
998 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n
|
|
999 @end example
|
|
1000
|
|
1001 @cindex closures not available
|
|
1002 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures,'' objects that are like functions
|
|
1003 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have
|
|
1004 closures.
|
|
1005
|
|
1006 @node Impl of Scope
|
|
1007 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping
|
|
1008 @cindex deep binding
|
|
1009
|
|
1010 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually
|
|
1011 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is
|
|
1012 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems.
|
|
1013
|
|
1014 Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs.
|
|
1015 At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings
|
|
1016 onto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. We
|
|
1017 can pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the binding
|
|
1018 construct.
|
|
1019
|
|
1020 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to
|
|
1021 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is
|
|
1022 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the
|
|
1023 current binding, then store the new value into that binding.
|
|
1024
|
|
1025 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it
|
|
1026 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is
|
|
1027 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function
|
|
1028 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the
|
|
1029 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite.
|
|
1030
|
|
1031 @cindex shallow binding
|
|
1032 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a
|
|
1033 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard
|
|
1034 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the
|
|
1035 symbol.
|
|
1036
|
|
1037 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in
|
|
1038 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value
|
|
1039 (belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the new
|
|
1040 local value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping
|
|
1041 the old value off the stack, into the value cell.
|
|
1042
|
|
1043 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep
|
|
1044 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a
|
|
1045 binding.
|
|
1046
|
|
1047 @node Using Scoping
|
|
1048 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping
|
|
1049
|
|
1050 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a
|
|
1051 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs
|
|
1052 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique:
|
|
1053
|
|
1054 @itemize @bullet
|
|
1055 @item
|
|
1056 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close
|
|
1057 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within
|
|
1058 one program.
|
|
1059
|
|
1060 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see
|
|
1061 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses
|
|
1062 elsewhere.
|
|
1063
|
|
1064 @item
|
|
1065 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all
|
|
1066 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever
|
|
1067 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable
|
|
1068 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case
|
|
1069 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it
|
|
1070 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it.
|
|
1071
|
|
1072 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what
|
|
1073 the effect will be.
|
|
1074 @end itemize
|
|
1075
|
|
1076 In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}.
|
|
1077 This helps other people understand your program by telling them to look
|
|
1078 for inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the byte
|
|
1079 compiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don't
|
|
1080 use short names like @code{x}.
|
|
1081
|
|
1082 @node Buffer-Local Variables
|
|
1083 @section Buffer-Local Variables
|
|
1084 @cindex variable, buffer-local
|
|
1085 @cindex buffer-local variables
|
|
1086
|
|
1087 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming
|
|
1088 languages in one form or another. Emacs, however, also supports additional,
|
|
1089 unusual kinds of variable binding: @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which
|
|
1090 apply only in one buffer, and @dfn{frame-local} bindings, which apply only in
|
|
1091 one frame. Having different values for a variable in different buffers
|
|
1092 and/or frames is an important customization method.
|
|
1093
|
|
1094 This section describes buffer-local bindings; for frame-local
|
|
1095 bindings, see the following section, @ref{Frame-Local Variables}. (A few
|
|
1096 variables have bindings that are local to each terminal; see
|
|
1097 @ref{Multiple Displays}.)
|
|
1098
|
|
1099 @menu
|
|
1100 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts.
|
|
1101 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings.
|
|
1102 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers
|
|
1103 that don't have their own buffer-local values.
|
|
1104 @end menu
|
|
1105
|
|
1106 @node Intro to Buffer-Local
|
|
1107 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables
|
|
1108
|
|
1109 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a
|
|
1110 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is
|
|
1111 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while
|
|
1112 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding,
|
|
1113 so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change is
|
|
1114 visible only in the buffer where you made it.
|
|
1115
|
|
1116 The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with any
|
|
1117 specific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases,
|
|
1118 this is the global binding.
|
|
1119
|
|
1120 A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in
|
|
1121 other buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers that
|
|
1122 don't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes all
|
|
1123 newly-created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that does
|
|
1124 not have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding
|
|
1125 (assuming there are no frame-local bindings to complicate the matter),
|
|
1126 so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the default
|
|
1127 binding.
|
|
1128
|
|
1129 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change
|
|
1130 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and
|
|
1131 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only
|
|
1132 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable
|
|
1133 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and
|
|
1134 then setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}.
|
|
1135
|
|
1136 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with
|
|
1137 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typically
|
|
1138 use. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including
|
|
1139 those yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unless
|
|
1140 they are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings.
|
|
1141
|
|
1142 @cindex automatically buffer-local
|
|
1143 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as
|
|
1144 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling
|
|
1145 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the
|
|
1146 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More
|
|
1147 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes
|
|
1148 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All
|
|
1149 buffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual,
|
|
1150 but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the current
|
|
1151 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving
|
|
1152 the default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannot
|
|
1153 be changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it is
|
|
1154 with @code{setq-default}.
|
|
1155
|
|
1156 @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local or frame-local
|
|
1157 bindings in one or more buffers, @code{let} rebinds the binding that's
|
|
1158 currently in effect. For instance, if the current buffer has a
|
|
1159 buffer-local value, @code{let} temporarily rebinds that. If no
|
|
1160 buffer-local or frame-local bindings are in effect, @code{let} rebinds
|
|
1161 the default value. If inside the @code{let} you then change to a
|
|
1162 different current buffer in which a different binding is in effect,
|
|
1163 you won't see the @code{let} binding any more. And if you exit the
|
|
1164 @code{let} while still in the other buffer, you won't see the
|
|
1165 unbinding occur (though it will occur properly). Here is an example
|
|
1166 to illustrate:
|
|
1167
|
|
1168 @example
|
|
1169 @group
|
|
1170 (setq foo 'g)
|
|
1171 (set-buffer "a")
|
|
1172 (make-local-variable 'foo)
|
|
1173 @end group
|
|
1174 (setq foo 'a)
|
|
1175 (let ((foo 'temp))
|
|
1176 ;; foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{let binding in buffer @samp{a}}
|
|
1177 (set-buffer "b")
|
|
1178 ;; foo @result{} 'g ; @r{the global value since foo is not local in @samp{b}}
|
|
1179 @var{body}@dots{})
|
|
1180 @group
|
|
1181 foo @result{} 'g ; @r{exiting restored the local value in buffer @samp{a},}
|
|
1182 ; @r{but we don't see that in buffer @samp{b}}
|
|
1183 @end group
|
|
1184 @group
|
|
1185 (set-buffer "a") ; @r{verify the local value was restored}
|
|
1186 foo @result{} 'a
|
|
1187 @end group
|
|
1188 @end example
|
|
1189
|
|
1190 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the
|
|
1191 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}.
|
|
1192
|
|
1193 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local
|
|
1194 values when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, The
|
|
1195 GNU Emacs Manual}.
|
|
1196
|
|
1197 @node Creating Buffer-Local
|
|
1198 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings
|
|
1199
|
|
1200 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable
|
|
1201 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for
|
|
1202 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value
|
|
1203 returned is @var{variable}.
|
|
1204
|
|
1205 @c Emacs 19 feature
|
|
1206 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value
|
|
1207 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains
|
|
1208 void.
|
|
1209
|
|
1210 @example
|
|
1211 @group
|
|
1212 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:}
|
|
1213 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.}
|
|
1214 @result{} 5
|
|
1215 @end group
|
|
1216 @group
|
|
1217 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.}
|
|
1218 @result{} foo
|
|
1219 @end group
|
|
1220 @group
|
|
1221 foo ; @r{That did not change}
|
|
1222 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.}
|
|
1223 @end group
|
|
1224 @group
|
|
1225 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value}
|
|
1226 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.}
|
|
1227 @end group
|
|
1228 @group
|
|
1229 foo
|
|
1230 @result{} 6
|
|
1231 @end group
|
|
1232
|
|
1233 @group
|
|
1234 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.}
|
|
1235 (save-excursion
|
|
1236 (set-buffer "b2")
|
|
1237 foo)
|
|
1238 @result{} 5
|
|
1239 @end group
|
|
1240 @end example
|
|
1241
|
|
1242 Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that
|
|
1243 variable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do this
|
|
1244 is not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This is
|
|
1245 because @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds of
|
|
1246 bindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for.
|
|
1247
|
|
1248 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error. Such
|
|
1249 variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. @xref{Multiple
|
|
1250 Displays}.
|
|
1251
|
|
1252 @strong{Warning:} do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hook
|
|
1253 variable. The hook variables are automatically made buffer-local as
|
|
1254 needed if you use the @var{local} argument to @code{add-hook} or
|
|
1255 @code{remove-hook}.
|
|
1256 @end deffn
|
|
1257
|
|
1258 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable
|
|
1259 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically
|
|
1260 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it
|
|
1261 local to the current buffer at the time.
|
|
1262
|
|
1263 A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with
|
|
1264 @code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-local
|
|
1265 binding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or
|
|
1266 @code{setq}), while the variable does not have a @code{let}-style
|
|
1267 binding that was made in the current buffer, does so.
|
|
1268
|
|
1269 If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling this
|
|
1270 command will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable}
|
|
1271 already has a default value, that value remains unchanged.
|
|
1272 Subsequently calling @code{makunbound} on @var{variable} will result
|
|
1273 in a void buffer-local value and leave the default value unaffected.
|
|
1274
|
|
1275 The value returned is @var{variable}.
|
|
1276
|
|
1277 @strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use
|
|
1278 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simply
|
|
1279 because users @emph{might} want to customize them differently in
|
|
1280 different buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wish
|
|
1281 to. It is better to leave the choice to them.
|
|
1282
|
|
1283 The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucial
|
|
1284 that no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when a
|
|
1285 variable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which depends
|
|
1286 on having separate values in separate buffers, then using
|
|
1287 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution.
|
|
1288 @end deffn
|
|
1289
|
|
1290 @defun local-variable-p variable &optional buffer
|
|
1291 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer
|
|
1292 @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise,
|
|
1293 @code{nil}.
|
|
1294 @end defun
|
|
1295
|
|
1296 @defun local-variable-if-set-p variable &optional buffer
|
|
1297 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} will become buffer-local in
|
|
1298 buffer @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer) if it is
|
|
1299 set there.
|
|
1300 @end defun
|
|
1301
|
|
1302 @defun buffer-local-value variable buffer
|
|
1303 This function returns the buffer-local binding of @var{variable} (a
|
|
1304 symbol) in buffer @var{buffer}. If @var{variable} does not have a
|
|
1305 buffer-local binding in buffer @var{buffer}, it returns the default
|
|
1306 value (@pxref{Default Value}) of @var{variable} instead.
|
|
1307 @end defun
|
|
1308
|
|
1309 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer
|
|
1310 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in
|
|
1311 buffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer is
|
|
1312 used.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) in
|
|
1313 which each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value.
|
|
1314 However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void,
|
|
1315 then the variable appears directly in the resulting list.
|
|
1316
|
|
1317 @example
|
|
1318 @group
|
|
1319 (make-local-variable 'foobar)
|
|
1320 (makunbound 'foobar)
|
|
1321 (make-local-variable 'bind-me)
|
|
1322 (setq bind-me 69)
|
|
1323 @end group
|
|
1324 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables))
|
|
1325 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:}
|
|
1326 @result{} ((mark-active . nil)
|
|
1327 (buffer-undo-list . nil)
|
|
1328 (mode-name . "Fundamental")
|
|
1329 @dots{}
|
|
1330 @group
|
|
1331 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.}
|
|
1332 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:}
|
|
1333 foobar
|
|
1334 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:}
|
|
1335 (bind-me . 69))
|
|
1336 @end group
|
|
1337 @end example
|
|
1338
|
|
1339 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this
|
|
1340 list does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables.
|
|
1341 @end defun
|
|
1342
|
|
1343 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable
|
|
1344 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for
|
|
1345 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the
|
|
1346 default binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. This
|
|
1347 typically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since the
|
|
1348 default value is usually different from the buffer-local value just
|
|
1349 eliminated.
|
|
1350
|
|
1351 If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automatically
|
|
1352 becomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible in
|
|
1353 the current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will
|
|
1354 once again create a buffer-local binding for it.
|
|
1355
|
|
1356 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}.
|
|
1357
|
|
1358 This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one
|
|
1359 buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create
|
|
1360 buffer-local variables interactively.
|
|
1361 @end deffn
|
|
1362
|
|
1363 @defun kill-all-local-variables
|
|
1364 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the
|
|
1365 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent.'' As a
|
|
1366 result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables.
|
|
1367
|
|
1368 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the
|
|
1369 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the
|
|
1370 value of @code{(standard-syntax-table)}, the case table to
|
|
1371 @code{(standard-case-table)}, and the abbrev table to the value of
|
|
1372 @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}.
|
|
1373
|
|
1374 The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook
|
|
1375 @code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below).
|
|
1376
|
|
1377 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the
|
|
1378 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects
|
|
1379 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the
|
|
1380 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent.
|
|
1381
|
|
1382 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}.
|
|
1383 @end defun
|
|
1384
|
|
1385 @defvar change-major-mode-hook
|
|
1386 The function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hook
|
|
1387 before it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrange
|
|
1388 for something special to be done if the user switches to a different
|
|
1389 major mode. It is also useful for buffer-specific minor modes
|
|
1390 that should be forgotten if the user changes the major mode.
|
|
1391
|
|
1392 For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that it will
|
|
1393 disappear after doing its job and will not interfere with the
|
|
1394 subsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}.
|
|
1395 @end defvar
|
|
1396
|
|
1397 @c Emacs 19 feature
|
|
1398 @cindex permanent local variable
|
|
1399 A buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a
|
|
1400 symbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}.
|
|
1401 Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file
|
|
1402 came from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents.
|
|
1403
|
|
1404 @node Default Value
|
|
1405 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable
|
|
1406 @cindex default value
|
|
1407
|
|
1408 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also
|
|
1409 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in
|
|
1410 effect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame has
|
|
1411 its own binding for the variable.
|
|
1412
|
|
1413 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and
|
|
1414 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current
|
|
1415 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use
|
|
1416 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of
|
|
1417 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when
|
|
1418 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for
|
|
1419 this variable.
|
|
1420
|
|
1421 @c Emacs 19 feature
|
|
1422 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the
|
|
1423 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any
|
|
1424 buffer-local or frame-local value.
|
|
1425
|
|
1426 @defun default-value symbol
|
|
1427 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value
|
|
1428 that is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values for
|
|
1429 this variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent
|
|
1430 to @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}).
|
|
1431 @end defun
|
|
1432
|
|
1433 @c Emacs 19 feature
|
|
1434 @defun default-boundp symbol
|
|
1435 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s
|
|
1436 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns
|
|
1437 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error.
|
|
1438
|
|
1439 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to
|
|
1440 @code{symbol-value}.
|
|
1441 @end defun
|
|
1442
|
|
1443 @defspec setq-default [symbol form]@dots{}
|
|
1444 This special form gives each @var{symbol} a new default value, which is
|
|
1445 the result of evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. It does not
|
|
1446 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{form}. The value of the
|
|
1447 @code{setq-default} form is the value of the last @var{form}.
|
|
1448
|
|
1449 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not
|
|
1450 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same
|
|
1451 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current
|
|
1452 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long
|
|
1453 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the
|
|
1454 current buffer sees.
|
|
1455
|
|
1456 @example
|
|
1457 @group
|
|
1458 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:}
|
|
1459 (make-local-variable 'buffer-local)
|
|
1460 @result{} buffer-local
|
|
1461 @end group
|
|
1462 @group
|
|
1463 (setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo)
|
|
1464 @result{} value-in-foo
|
|
1465 @end group
|
|
1466 @group
|
|
1467 (setq-default buffer-local 'new-default)
|
|
1468 @result{} new-default
|
|
1469 @end group
|
|
1470 @group
|
|
1471 buffer-local
|
|
1472 @result{} value-in-foo
|
|
1473 @end group
|
|
1474 @group
|
|
1475 (default-value 'buffer-local)
|
|
1476 @result{} new-default
|
|
1477 @end group
|
|
1478
|
|
1479 @group
|
|
1480 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:}
|
|
1481 buffer-local
|
|
1482 @result{} new-default
|
|
1483 @end group
|
|
1484 @group
|
|
1485 (default-value 'buffer-local)
|
|
1486 @result{} new-default
|
|
1487 @end group
|
|
1488 @group
|
|
1489 (setq buffer-local 'another-default)
|
|
1490 @result{} another-default
|
|
1491 @end group
|
|
1492 @group
|
|
1493 (default-value 'buffer-local)
|
|
1494 @result{} another-default
|
|
1495 @end group
|
|
1496
|
|
1497 @group
|
|
1498 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:}
|
|
1499 buffer-local
|
|
1500 @result{} value-in-foo
|
|
1501 (default-value 'buffer-local)
|
|
1502 @result{} another-default
|
|
1503 @end group
|
|
1504 @end example
|
|
1505 @end defspec
|
|
1506
|
|
1507 @defun set-default symbol value
|
|
1508 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is
|
|
1509 an ordinary evaluated argument.
|
|
1510
|
|
1511 @example
|
|
1512 @group
|
|
1513 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23)
|
|
1514 @result{} 23
|
|
1515 @end group
|
|
1516 @group
|
|
1517 (default-value 'a)
|
|
1518 @result{} 23
|
|
1519 @end group
|
|
1520 @end example
|
|
1521 @end defun
|
|
1522
|
|
1523 @node Frame-Local Variables
|
|
1524 @section Frame-Local Variables
|
|
1525 @cindex frame-local variables
|
|
1526
|
|
1527 Just as variables can have buffer-local bindings, they can also have
|
|
1528 frame-local bindings. These bindings belong to one frame, and are in
|
|
1529 effect when that frame is selected. Frame-local bindings are actually
|
|
1530 frame parameters: you create a frame-local binding in a specific frame
|
|
1531 by calling @code{modify-frame-parameters} and specifying the variable
|
|
1532 name as the parameter name.
|
|
1533
|
|
1534 To enable frame-local bindings for a certain variable, call the function
|
|
1535 @code{make-variable-frame-local}.
|
|
1536
|
|
1537 @deffn Command make-variable-frame-local variable
|
|
1538 Enable the use of frame-local bindings for @var{variable}. This does
|
|
1539 not in itself create any frame-local bindings for the variable; however,
|
|
1540 if some frame already has a value for @var{variable} as a frame
|
|
1541 parameter, that value automatically becomes a frame-local binding.
|
|
1542
|
|
1543 If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling this
|
|
1544 command will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable}
|
|
1545 already has a default value, that value remains unchanged.
|
|
1546
|
|
1547 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error,
|
|
1548 because such variables cannot have frame-local bindings as well.
|
|
1549 @xref{Multiple Displays}. A few variables that are implemented
|
|
1550 specially in Emacs can be buffer-local, but can never be frame-local.
|
|
1551
|
|
1552 This command returns @var{variable}.
|
|
1553 @end deffn
|
|
1554
|
|
1555 Buffer-local bindings take precedence over frame-local bindings. Thus,
|
|
1556 consider a variable @code{foo}: if the current buffer has a buffer-local
|
|
1557 binding for @code{foo}, that binding is active; otherwise, if the
|
|
1558 selected frame has a frame-local binding for @code{foo}, that binding is
|
|
1559 active; otherwise, the default binding of @code{foo} is active.
|
|
1560
|
|
1561 Here is an example. First we prepare a few bindings for @code{foo}:
|
|
1562
|
|
1563 @example
|
|
1564 (setq f1 (selected-frame))
|
|
1565 (make-variable-frame-local 'foo)
|
|
1566
|
|
1567 ;; @r{Make a buffer-local binding for @code{foo} in @samp{b1}.}
|
|
1568 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1"))
|
|
1569 (make-local-variable 'foo)
|
|
1570 (setq foo '(b 1))
|
|
1571
|
|
1572 ;; @r{Make a frame-local binding for @code{foo} in a new frame.}
|
|
1573 ;; @r{Store that frame in @code{f2}.}
|
|
1574 (setq f2 (make-frame))
|
|
1575 (modify-frame-parameters f2 '((foo . (f 2))))
|
|
1576 @end example
|
|
1577
|
|
1578 Now we examine @code{foo} in various contexts. Whenever the
|
|
1579 buffer @samp{b1} is current, its buffer-local binding is in effect,
|
|
1580 regardless of the selected frame:
|
|
1581
|
|
1582 @example
|
|
1583 (select-frame f1)
|
|
1584 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1"))
|
|
1585 foo
|
|
1586 @result{} (b 1)
|
|
1587
|
|
1588 (select-frame f2)
|
|
1589 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1"))
|
|
1590 foo
|
|
1591 @result{} (b 1)
|
|
1592 @end example
|
|
1593
|
|
1594 @noindent
|
|
1595 Otherwise, the frame gets a chance to provide the binding; when frame
|
|
1596 @code{f2} is selected, its frame-local binding is in effect:
|
|
1597
|
|
1598 @example
|
|
1599 (select-frame f2)
|
|
1600 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*"))
|
|
1601 foo
|
|
1602 @result{} (f 2)
|
|
1603 @end example
|
|
1604
|
|
1605 @noindent
|
|
1606 When neither the current buffer nor the selected frame provides
|
|
1607 a binding, the default binding is used:
|
|
1608
|
|
1609 @example
|
|
1610 (select-frame f1)
|
|
1611 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*"))
|
|
1612 foo
|
|
1613 @result{} nil
|
|
1614 @end example
|
|
1615
|
|
1616 @noindent
|
|
1617 When the active binding of a variable is a frame-local binding, setting
|
|
1618 the variable changes that binding. You can observe the result with
|
|
1619 @code{frame-parameters}:
|
|
1620
|
|
1621 @example
|
|
1622 (select-frame f2)
|
|
1623 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*"))
|
|
1624 (setq foo 'nobody)
|
|
1625 (assq 'foo (frame-parameters f2))
|
|
1626 @result{} (foo . nobody)
|
|
1627 @end example
|
|
1628
|
|
1629 @node Future Local Variables
|
|
1630 @section Possible Future Local Variables
|
|
1631
|
|
1632 We have considered the idea of bindings that are local to a category
|
|
1633 of frames---for example, all color frames, or all frames with dark
|
|
1634 backgrounds. We have not implemented them because it is not clear that
|
|
1635 this feature is really useful. You can get more or less the same
|
|
1636 results by adding a function to @code{after-make-frame-functions}, set up to
|
|
1637 define a particular frame parameter according to the appropriate
|
|
1638 conditions for each frame.
|
|
1639
|
|
1640 It would also be possible to implement window-local bindings. We
|
|
1641 don't know of many situations where they would be useful, and it seems
|
|
1642 that indirect buffers (@pxref{Indirect Buffers}) with buffer-local
|
|
1643 bindings offer a way to handle these situations more robustly.
|
|
1644
|
|
1645 If sufficient application is found for either of these two kinds of
|
|
1646 local bindings, we will provide it in a subsequent Emacs version.
|
|
1647
|
|
1648 @node File Local Variables
|
|
1649 @section File Local Variables
|
|
1650 @cindex file local variables
|
|
1651
|
|
1652 A file can specify local variable values; Emacs uses these to create
|
|
1653 buffer-local bindings for those variables in the buffer visiting that
|
|
1654 file. @xref{File variables, , Local Variables in Files, emacs, The
|
|
1655 GNU Emacs Manual}, for basic information about file local variables.
|
|
1656 This section describes the functions and variables that affect
|
|
1657 processing of file local variables.
|
|
1658
|
|
1659 @defopt enable-local-variables
|
|
1660 This variable controls whether to process file local variables.
|
|
1661 The possible values are:
|
|
1662
|
|
1663 @table @asis
|
|
1664 @item @code{t} (the default)
|
|
1665 Set the safe variables, and query (once) about any unsafe variables.
|
|
1666 @item @code{:safe}
|
|
1667 Set only the safe variables and do not query.
|
|
1668 @item @code{:all}
|
|
1669 Set all the variables and do not query.
|
|
1670 @item @code{nil}
|
|
1671 Don't set any variables.
|
|
1672 @item anything else
|
|
1673 Query (once) about all the variables.
|
|
1674 @end table
|
|
1675 @end defopt
|
|
1676
|
|
1677 @defun hack-local-variables &optional mode-only
|
|
1678 This function parses, and binds or evaluates as appropriate, any local
|
|
1679 variables specified by the contents of the current buffer. The variable
|
|
1680 @code{enable-local-variables} has its effect here. However, this
|
|
1681 function does not look for the @samp{mode:} local variable in the
|
|
1682 @w{@samp{-*-}} line. @code{set-auto-mode} does that, also taking
|
|
1683 @code{enable-local-variables} into account (@pxref{Auto Major Mode}).
|
|
1684
|
|
1685 If the optional argument @var{mode-only} is non-@code{nil}, then all
|
|
1686 this function does is return @code{t} if the @w{@samp{-*-}} line or
|
|
1687 the local variables list specifies a mode and @code{nil} otherwise.
|
|
1688 It does not set the mode nor any other file local variable.
|
|
1689 @end defun
|
|
1690
|
|
1691 If a file local variable could specify a function that would
|
|
1692 be called later, or an expression that would be executed later, simply
|
|
1693 visiting a file could take over your Emacs. Emacs takes several
|
|
1694 measures to prevent this.
|
|
1695
|
|
1696 @cindex safe local variable
|
|
1697 You can specify safe values for a variable with a
|
|
1698 @code{safe-local-variable} property. The property has to be
|
|
1699 a function of one argument; any value is safe if the function
|
|
1700 returns non-@code{nil} given that value. Many commonly encountered
|
|
1701 file variables standardly have @code{safe-local-variable} properties,
|
|
1702 including @code{fill-column}, @code{fill-prefix}, and
|
|
1703 @code{indent-tabs-mode}. For boolean-valued variables that are safe,
|
|
1704 use @code{booleanp} as the property value. Lambda expressions should
|
|
1705 be quoted so that @code{describe-variable} can display the predicate.
|
|
1706
|
|
1707 @defopt safe-local-variable-values
|
|
1708 This variable provides another way to mark some variable values as
|
|
1709 safe. It is a list of cons cells @code{(@var{var} . @var{val})},
|
|
1710 where @var{var} is a variable name and @var{val} is a value which is
|
|
1711 safe for that variable.
|
|
1712
|
|
1713 When Emacs asks the user whether or not to obey a set of file local
|
|
1714 variable specifications, the user can choose to mark them as safe.
|
|
1715 Doing so adds those variable/value pairs to
|
|
1716 @code{safe-local-variable-values}, and saves it to the user's custom
|
|
1717 file.
|
|
1718 @end defopt
|
|
1719
|
|
1720 @defun safe-local-variable-p sym val
|
|
1721 This function returns non-@code{nil} if it is safe to give @var{sym}
|
|
1722 the value @var{val}, based on the above criteria.
|
|
1723 @end defun
|
|
1724
|
|
1725 @c @cindex risky local variable Duplicates risky-local-variable
|
|
1726 Some variables are considered @dfn{risky}. A variable whose name
|
|
1727 ends in any of @samp{-command}, @samp{-frame-alist}, @samp{-function},
|
|
1728 @samp{-functions}, @samp{-hook}, @samp{-hooks}, @samp{-form},
|
|
1729 @samp{-forms}, @samp{-map}, @samp{-map-alist}, @samp{-mode-alist},
|
|
1730 @samp{-program}, or @samp{-predicate} is considered risky. The
|
|
1731 variables @samp{font-lock-keywords}, @samp{font-lock-keywords}
|
|
1732 followed by a digit, and @samp{font-lock-syntactic-keywords} are also
|
|
1733 considered risky. Finally, any variable whose name has a
|
|
1734 non-@code{nil} @code{risky-local-variable} property is considered
|
|
1735 risky.
|
|
1736
|
|
1737 @defun risky-local-variable-p sym
|
|
1738 This function returns non-@code{nil} if @var{sym} is a risky variable,
|
|
1739 based on the above criteria.
|
|
1740 @end defun
|
|
1741
|
|
1742 If a variable is risky, it will not be entered automatically into
|
|
1743 @code{safe-local-variable-values} as described above. Therefore,
|
|
1744 Emacs will always query before setting a risky variable, unless the
|
|
1745 user explicitly allows the setting by customizing
|
|
1746 @code{safe-local-variable-values} directly.
|
|
1747
|
|
1748 @defvar ignored-local-variables
|
|
1749 This variable holds a list of variables that should not be given local
|
|
1750 values by files. Any value specified for one of these variables is
|
|
1751 completely ignored.
|
|
1752 @end defvar
|
|
1753
|
|
1754 The @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' is also a potential loophole, so Emacs
|
|
1755 normally asks for confirmation before handling it.
|
|
1756
|
|
1757 @defopt enable-local-eval
|
|
1758 This variable controls processing of @samp{Eval:} in @samp{-*-} lines
|
|
1759 or local variables
|
|
1760 lists in files being visited. A value of @code{t} means process them
|
|
1761 unconditionally; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else means ask
|
|
1762 the user what to do for each file. The default value is @code{maybe}.
|
|
1763 @end defopt
|
|
1764
|
|
1765 @defopt safe-local-eval-forms
|
|
1766 This variable holds a list of expressions that are safe to
|
|
1767 evaluate when found in the @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' in a file
|
|
1768 local variables list.
|
|
1769 @end defopt
|
|
1770
|
|
1771 If the expression is a function call and the function has a
|
|
1772 @code{safe-local-eval-function} property, the property value
|
|
1773 determines whether the expression is safe to evaluate. The property
|
|
1774 value can be a predicate to call to test the expression, a list of
|
|
1775 such predicates (it's safe if any predicate succeeds), or @code{t}
|
|
1776 (always safe provided the arguments are constant).
|
|
1777
|
|
1778 Text properties are also potential loopholes, since their values
|
|
1779 could include functions to call. So Emacs discards all text
|
|
1780 properties from string values specified for file local variables.
|
|
1781
|
|
1782 @node Variable Aliases
|
|
1783 @section Variable Aliases
|
|
1784 @cindex variable aliases
|
|
1785
|
|
1786 It is sometimes useful to make two variables synonyms, so that both
|
|
1787 variables always have the same value, and changing either one also
|
|
1788 changes the other. Whenever you change the name of a
|
|
1789 variable---either because you realize its old name was not well
|
|
1790 chosen, or because its meaning has partly changed---it can be useful
|
|
1791 to keep the old name as an @emph{alias} of the new one for
|
|
1792 compatibility. You can do this with @code{defvaralias}.
|
|
1793
|
|
1794 @defun defvaralias new-alias base-variable &optional docstring
|
|
1795 This function defines the symbol @var{new-alias} as a variable alias
|
|
1796 for symbol @var{base-variable}. This means that retrieving the value
|
|
1797 of @var{new-alias} returns the value of @var{base-variable}, and
|
|
1798 changing the value of @var{new-alias} changes the value of
|
|
1799 @var{base-variable}. The two aliased variable names always share the
|
|
1800 same value and the same bindings.
|
|
1801
|
|
1802 If the @var{docstring} argument is non-@code{nil}, it specifies the
|
|
1803 documentation for @var{new-alias}; otherwise, the alias gets the same
|
|
1804 documentation as @var{base-variable} has, if any, unless
|
|
1805 @var{base-variable} is itself an alias, in which case @var{new-alias} gets
|
|
1806 the documentation of the variable at the end of the chain of aliases.
|
|
1807
|
|
1808 This function returns @var{base-variable}.
|
|
1809 @end defun
|
|
1810
|
|
1811 Variable aliases are convenient for replacing an old name for a
|
|
1812 variable with a new name. @code{make-obsolete-variable} declares that
|
|
1813 the old name is obsolete and therefore that it may be removed at some
|
|
1814 stage in the future.
|
|
1815
|
|
1816 @defun make-obsolete-variable obsolete-name current-name &optional when
|
|
1817 This function makes the byte-compiler warn that the variable
|
|
1818 @var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, it is
|
|
1819 the variable's new name; then the warning message says to use
|
|
1820 @var{current-name} instead of @var{obsolete-name}. If @var{current-name}
|
|
1821 is a string, this is the message and there is no replacement variable.
|
|
1822
|
|
1823 If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the
|
|
1824 variable was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release
|
|
1825 number.
|
|
1826 @end defun
|
|
1827
|
|
1828 You can make two variables synonyms and declare one obsolete at the
|
|
1829 same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-variable-alias}.
|
|
1830
|
|
1831 @defmac define-obsolete-variable-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring
|
|
1832 This macro marks the variable @var{obsolete-name} as obsolete and also
|
|
1833 makes it an alias for the variable @var{current-name}. It is
|
|
1834 equivalent to the following:
|
|
1835
|
|
1836 @example
|
|
1837 (defvaralias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring})
|
|
1838 (make-obsolete-variable @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when})
|
|
1839 @end example
|
|
1840 @end defmac
|
|
1841
|
|
1842 @defun indirect-variable variable
|
|
1843 This function returns the variable at the end of the chain of aliases
|
|
1844 of @var{variable}. If @var{variable} is not a symbol, or if @var{variable} is
|
|
1845 not defined as an alias, the function returns @var{variable}.
|
|
1846
|
|
1847 This function signals a @code{cyclic-variable-indirection} error if
|
|
1848 there is a loop in the chain of symbols.
|
|
1849 @end defun
|
|
1850
|
|
1851 @example
|
|
1852 (defvaralias 'foo 'bar)
|
|
1853 (indirect-variable 'foo)
|
|
1854 @result{} bar
|
|
1855 (indirect-variable 'bar)
|
|
1856 @result{} bar
|
|
1857 (setq bar 2)
|
|
1858 bar
|
|
1859 @result{} 2
|
|
1860 @group
|
|
1861 foo
|
|
1862 @result{} 2
|
|
1863 @end group
|
|
1864 (setq foo 0)
|
|
1865 bar
|
|
1866 @result{} 0
|
|
1867 foo
|
|
1868 @result{} 0
|
|
1869 @end example
|
|
1870
|
|
1871 @node Variables with Restricted Values
|
|
1872 @section Variables with Restricted Values
|
|
1873
|
|
1874 Ordinary Lisp variables can be assigned any value that is a valid
|
|
1875 Lisp object. However, certain Lisp variables are not defined in Lisp,
|
|
1876 but in C. Most of these variables are defined in the C code using
|
|
1877 @code{DEFVAR_LISP}. Like variables defined in Lisp, these can take on
|
|
1878 any value. However, some variables are defined using
|
|
1879 @code{DEFVAR_INT} or @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. @xref{Defining Lisp
|
|
1880 variables in C,, Writing Emacs Primitives}, in particular the
|
|
1881 description of functions of the type @code{syms_of_@var{filename}},
|
|
1882 for a brief discussion of the C implementation.
|
|
1883
|
|
1884 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} can only take on the values
|
|
1885 @code{nil} or @code{t}. Attempting to assign them any other value
|
|
1886 will set them to @code{t}:
|
|
1887
|
|
1888 @example
|
|
1889 (let ((display-hourglass 5))
|
|
1890 display-hourglass)
|
|
1891 @result{} t
|
|
1892 @end example
|
|
1893
|
|
1894 @defvar byte-boolean-vars
|
|
1895 This variable holds a list of all variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}.
|
|
1896 @end defvar
|
|
1897
|
|
1898 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_INT} can only take on integer values.
|
|
1899 Attempting to assign them any other value will result in an error:
|
|
1900
|
|
1901 @example
|
|
1902 (setq window-min-height 5.0)
|
|
1903 @error{} Wrong type argument: integerp, 5.0
|
|
1904 @end example
|
|
1905
|
|
1906 @ignore
|
|
1907 arch-tag: 5ff62c44-2b51-47bb-99d4-fea5aeec5d3e
|
|
1908 @end ignore
|