Mercurial > emacs
annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 57047:d9865d46a2a8
Add menu items for Sieve and PGG.
author | Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org> |
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date | Fri, 10 Sep 2004 11:25:00 +0000 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 8 @chapter Numbers |
9 @cindex integers | |
10 @cindex numbers | |
11 | |
12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2 |
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second |
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
6510 | 19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. |
20 | |
21 @menu | |
22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
32 @end menu | |
33 | |
34 @node Integer Basics | |
35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
36 @section Integer Basics | |
37 | |
38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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39 minimum range is @minus{}268435456 to 268435455 (29 bits; i.e., |
27193 | 40 @ifnottex |
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41 -2**28 |
27193 | 42 @end ifnottex |
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43 @tex |
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44 @math{-2^{28}} |
6510 | 45 @end tex |
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46 to |
27193 | 47 @ifnottex |
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48 2**28 - 1), |
27193 | 49 @end ifnottex |
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50 @tex |
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51 @math{2^{28}-1}), |
6510 | 52 @end tex |
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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54 chapter assume an integer has 29 bits. |
6510 | 55 @cindex overflow |
56 | |
57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
58 initial sign and optional final period. | |
59 | |
60 @example | |
61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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65 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
68 @end example | |
69 | |
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70 @cindex integers in specific radix |
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71 @cindex radix for reading an integer |
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72 @cindex base for reading an integer |
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73 @cindex hex numbers |
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74 @cindex octal numbers |
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75 @cindex reading numbers in hex, octal, and binary |
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76 In addition, the Lisp reader recognizes a syntax for integers in |
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77 bases other than 10: @samp{#B@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in |
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78 binary (radix 2), @samp{#O@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in octal |
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79 (radix 8), @samp{#X@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in hexadecimal |
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80 (radix 16), and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} |
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81 in radix @var{radix} (where @var{radix} is between 2 and 36, |
48700 | 82 inclusively). Case is not significant for the letter after @samp{#} |
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83 (@samp{B}, @samp{O}, etc.) that denotes the radix. |
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84 |
6510 | 85 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the |
86 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
87 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
88 | |
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89 In 29-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 90 |
91 @example | |
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92 0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 93 @end example |
94 | |
95 @noindent | |
96 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
97 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
98 | |
99 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
100 | |
101 @example | |
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102 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 103 @end example |
104 | |
105 @noindent | |
106 @cindex two's complement | |
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107 @minus{}1 is represented as 29 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 108 complement} notation.) |
109 | |
110 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
111 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
112 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
113 | |
114 @example | |
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115 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 116 @end example |
117 | |
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118 In this implementation, the largest 29-bit binary integer value is |
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119 268,435,455 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 120 |
121 @example | |
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122 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 123 @end example |
124 | |
125 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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126 outside their range, when you add 1 to 268,435,455, the value is the |
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127 negative integer @minus{}268,435,456: |
6510 | 128 |
129 @example | |
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130 (+ 1 268435455) |
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131 @result{} -268435456 |
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132 @result{} 1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 133 @end example |
134 | |
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135 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for |
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136 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual |
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137 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often |
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138 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument |
6510 | 139 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. |
140 | |
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141 @defvar most-positive-fixnum |
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142 The value of this variable is the largest integer that Emacs Lisp |
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143 can handle. |
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144 @end defvar |
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145 |
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146 @defvar most-negative-fixnum |
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147 The value of this variable is the smallest integer that Emacs Lisp can |
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148 handle. It is negative. |
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149 @end defvar |
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150 |
6510 | 151 @node Float Basics |
152 @section Floating Point Basics | |
153 | |
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154 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are |
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155 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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156 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type |
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157 @code{double} on the machine you are using. |
6510 | 158 |
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159 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal |
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160 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For |
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161 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and |
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162 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose |
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163 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign |
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164 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}. |
6510 | 165 |
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166 @cindex @acronym{IEEE} floating point |
6510 | 167 @cindex positive infinity |
168 @cindex negative infinity | |
169 @cindex infinity | |
170 @cindex NaN | |
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171 Most modern computers support the @acronym{IEEE} floating point standard, |
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172 which provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point |
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173 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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174 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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175 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(/ 0.0 0.0)} returns a |
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176 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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177 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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178 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp |
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179 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for |
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180 these special floating point values: |
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181 |
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182 @table @asis |
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183 @item positive infinity |
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184 @samp{1.0e+INF} |
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185 @item negative infinity |
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186 @samp{-1.0e+INF} |
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187 @item Not-a-number |
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188 @samp{0.0e+NaN}. |
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189 @end table |
6510 | 190 |
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191 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary |
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192 zero in @acronym{IEEE} floating point (although @code{equal} and |
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193 @code{=} consider them equal values). |
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194 |
6510 | 195 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating |
196 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
197 | |
198 @defun logb number | |
199 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
200 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
201 down to an integer. | |
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202 |
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203 @example |
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204 (logb 10) |
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205 @result{} 3 |
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206 (logb 10.0e20) |
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207 @result{} 69 |
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208 @end example |
6510 | 209 @end defun |
210 | |
211 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
212 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
213 | |
214 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or | |
215 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp} | |
216 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the | |
217 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop} | |
218 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also | |
219 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in | |
220 @ref{Predicates on Markers}. | |
221 | |
222 @defun floatp object | |
223 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
224 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
225 | |
226 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
227 @end defun | |
228 | |
229 @defun integerp object | |
230 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
231 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
232 @end defun | |
233 | |
234 @defun numberp object | |
235 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
236 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
237 @end defun | |
238 | |
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239 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 240 @cindex natural numbers |
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241 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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242 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 243 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
244 considered non-negative. | |
245 | |
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246 @findex natnump |
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247 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 248 @end defun |
249 | |
250 @defun zerop number | |
251 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
252 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
253 | |
254 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}. | |
255 @end defun | |
256 | |
257 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
258 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
259 @cindex number equality | |
260 | |
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261 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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262 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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263 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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264 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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265 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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266 of the objects. |
6510 | 267 |
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268 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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269 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are |
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270 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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271 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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272 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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273 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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274 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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275 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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276 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 277 |
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278 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it treats |
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279 two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both integers, or |
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280 both floating point) and the same value. By contrast, @code{=} can |
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281 treat an integer and a floating point number as equal. |
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282 |
6510 | 283 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not |
284 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
285 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
286 Here's a function to do this: | |
287 | |
288 @example | |
289 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
290 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 291 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
292 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
293 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
294 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 295 @end example |
296 | |
297 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
298 @quotation | |
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299 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 300 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
301 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
302 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
303 limited range of integer values. | |
304 @end quotation | |
305 | |
306 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
307 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
308 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
309 @end defun | |
310 | |
311 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
312 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
313 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
314 @end defun | |
315 | |
316 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
317 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
318 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
319 @end defun | |
320 | |
321 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
322 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
323 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
324 otherwise. | |
325 @end defun | |
326 | |
327 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
328 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
329 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
330 otherwise. | |
331 @end defun | |
332 | |
333 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
334 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
335 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
336 otherwise. | |
337 @end defun | |
338 | |
339 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
340 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
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341 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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342 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 343 |
344 @example | |
345 (max 20) | |
346 @result{} 20 | |
347 (max 1 2.5) | |
348 @result{} 2.5 | |
349 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
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350 @result{} 3.0 |
6510 | 351 @end example |
352 @end defun | |
353 | |
354 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
355 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
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356 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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357 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 358 |
359 @example | |
360 (min -4 1) | |
361 @result{} -4 | |
362 @end example | |
363 @end defun | |
364 | |
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365 @defun abs number |
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366 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}. |
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367 @end defun |
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368 |
6510 | 369 @node Numeric Conversions |
370 @section Numeric Conversions | |
371 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
372 | |
373 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
374 | |
375 @defun float number | |
376 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
377 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
378 it unchanged. | |
379 @end defun | |
380 | |
381 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
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382 they differ in how they round. All accept an argument @var{number} |
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383 and an optional argument @var{divisor}. Both arguments may be |
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384 integers or floating point numbers. @var{divisor} may also be |
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385 @code{nil}. If @var{divisor} is @code{nil} or omitted, these |
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386 functions convert @var{number} to an integer, or return it unchanged |
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387 if it already is an integer. If @var{divisor} is non-@code{nil}, they |
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388 divide @var{number} by @var{divisor} and convert the result to an |
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389 integer. An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. |
6510 | 390 |
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391 @defun truncate number &optional divisor |
6510 | 392 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards |
393 zero. | |
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394 |
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395 @example |
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396 (truncate 1.2) |
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397 @result{} 1 |
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398 (truncate 1.7) |
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399 @result{} 1 |
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400 (truncate -1.2) |
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401 @result{} -1 |
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402 (truncate -1.7) |
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403 @result{} -1 |
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404 @end example |
6510 | 405 @end defun |
406 | |
407 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
408 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
409 (towards negative infinity). | |
410 | |
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411 If @var{divisor} is specified, this uses the kind of division |
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412 operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward. |
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413 |
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414 @example |
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415 (floor 1.2) |
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416 @result{} 1 |
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417 (floor 1.7) |
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418 @result{} 1 |
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419 (floor -1.2) |
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420 @result{} -2 |
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421 (floor -1.7) |
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422 @result{} -2 |
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423 (floor 5.99 3) |
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424 @result{} 1 |
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425 @end example |
6510 | 426 @end defun |
427 | |
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428 @defun ceiling number &optional divisor |
6510 | 429 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward |
430 (towards positive infinity). | |
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431 |
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432 @example |
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433 (ceiling 1.2) |
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434 @result{} 2 |
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435 (ceiling 1.7) |
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436 @result{} 2 |
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437 (ceiling -1.2) |
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438 @result{} -1 |
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439 (ceiling -1.7) |
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440 @result{} -1 |
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441 @end example |
6510 | 442 @end defun |
443 | |
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444 @defun round number &optional divisor |
6510 | 445 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the |
12098 | 446 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
447 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
448 depending on your machine. | |
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449 |
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450 @example |
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451 (round 1.2) |
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452 @result{} 1 |
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453 (round 1.7) |
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454 @result{} 2 |
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455 (round -1.2) |
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456 @result{} -1 |
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457 (round -1.7) |
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458 @result{} -2 |
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459 @end example |
6510 | 460 @end defun |
461 | |
462 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
463 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
464 | |
465 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
466 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
467 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
468 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
469 commonly used. | |
470 | |
471 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
472 if any argument is floating. | |
473 | |
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474 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions |
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475 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} may evaluate to |
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476 @minus{}268435456, depending on your hardware. |
6510 | 477 |
478 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
479 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
480 For example, | |
481 | |
482 @example | |
483 (setq foo 4) | |
484 @result{} 4 | |
485 (1+ foo) | |
486 @result{} 5 | |
487 @end example | |
488 | |
12098 | 489 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
490 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 491 |
492 @example | |
493 foo | |
494 @result{} 4 | |
495 @end example | |
496 | |
497 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
498 like this: | |
499 | |
500 @example | |
501 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
502 @result{} 5 | |
503 @end example | |
504 @end defun | |
505 | |
506 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
507 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
508 @end defun | |
509 | |
510 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
511 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 512 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 513 |
514 @example | |
515 (+) | |
516 @result{} 0 | |
517 (+ 1) | |
518 @result{} 1 | |
519 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
520 @result{} 10 | |
521 @end example | |
522 @end defun | |
523 | |
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524 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers |
6510 | 525 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. |
526 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
527 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
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528 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, |
12098 | 529 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 530 |
531 @example | |
532 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
533 @result{} 0 | |
534 (- 10) | |
535 @result{} -10 | |
536 (-) | |
537 @result{} 0 | |
538 @end example | |
539 @end defun | |
540 | |
541 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
542 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 543 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 544 |
545 @example | |
546 (*) | |
547 @result{} 1 | |
548 (* 1) | |
549 @result{} 1 | |
550 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
551 @result{} 24 | |
552 @end example | |
553 @end defun | |
554 | |
555 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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556 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 557 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
558 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
559 number or a marker. | |
560 | |
561 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
562 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
563 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
564 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
565 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
566 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
567 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
568 | |
569 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
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570 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. |
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571 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either |
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572 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports @acronym{IEEE} floating point; |
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573 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error. |
6510 | 574 |
575 @example | |
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576 @group |
6510 | 577 (/ 6 2) |
578 @result{} 3 | |
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579 @end group |
6510 | 580 (/ 5 2) |
581 @result{} 2 | |
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582 (/ 5.0 2) |
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583 @result{} 2.5 |
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584 (/ 5 2.0) |
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585 @result{} 2.5 |
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586 (/ 5.0 2.0) |
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587 @result{} 2.5 |
6510 | 588 (/ 25 3 2) |
589 @result{} 4 | |
590 (/ -17 6) | |
591 @result{} -2 | |
592 @end example | |
593 | |
594 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
595 machines. | |
596 @end defun | |
597 | |
598 @defun % dividend divisor | |
599 @cindex remainder | |
600 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
601 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
602 | |
603 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
604 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
605 | |
606 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
607 | |
608 @example | |
609 (% 9 4) | |
610 @result{} 1 | |
611 (% -9 4) | |
612 @result{} -1 | |
613 (% 9 -4) | |
614 @result{} 1 | |
615 (% -9 -4) | |
616 @result{} -1 | |
617 @end example | |
618 | |
619 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
620 | |
621 @example | |
622 @group | |
623 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
624 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
625 @end group | |
626 @end example | |
627 | |
628 @noindent | |
629 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
630 @end defun | |
631 | |
632 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
633 @cindex modulus | |
634 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
635 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
636 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
637 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
638 | |
639 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
640 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
641 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
642 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
643 | |
644 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
645 | |
646 @example | |
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647 @group |
6510 | 648 (mod 9 4) |
649 @result{} 1 | |
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650 @end group |
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651 @group |
6510 | 652 (mod -9 4) |
653 @result{} 3 | |
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654 @end group |
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655 @group |
6510 | 656 (mod 9 -4) |
657 @result{} -3 | |
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658 @end group |
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659 @group |
6510 | 660 (mod -9 -4) |
661 @result{} -1 | |
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662 @end group |
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663 @group |
6510 | 664 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
665 @result{} .5 | |
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666 @end group |
6510 | 667 @end example |
668 | |
669 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
670 | |
671 @example | |
672 @group | |
673 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
674 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
675 @end group | |
676 @end example | |
677 | |
678 @noindent | |
12098 | 679 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
680 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
681 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 682 @end defun |
683 | |
684 @node Rounding Operations | |
685 @section Rounding Operations | |
686 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
687 | |
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688 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and |
6510 | 689 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
690 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 691 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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692 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 693 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
694 | |
695 @defun ffloor float | |
696 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
697 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
698 @end defun | |
699 | |
8017 | 700 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 701 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
702 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
703 @end defun | |
704 | |
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705 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 706 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
707 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
708 @end defun | |
709 | |
710 @defun fround float | |
711 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
712 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
713 @end defun | |
714 | |
715 @node Bitwise Operations | |
716 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
717 | |
718 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
719 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
720 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
721 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
722 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
723 | |
724 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
725 | |
726 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
727 @cindex logical shift | |
728 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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729 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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730 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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731 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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732 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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733 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 734 |
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735 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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736 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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737 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 738 |
739 @example | |
740 @group | |
741 (lsh 5 1) | |
742 @result{} 10 | |
743 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
744 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
745 | |
746 (lsh 7 1) | |
747 @result{} 14 | |
748 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
749 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
750 @end group | |
751 @end example | |
752 | |
753 @noindent | |
754 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
755 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
756 number. | |
757 | |
12098 | 758 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
759 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
760 | |
761 @example | |
762 @group | |
763 (lsh 3 2) | |
764 @result{} 12 | |
765 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
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766 00000011 @result{} 00001100 |
12098 | 767 @end group |
768 @end example | |
769 | |
770 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
771 | |
772 @example | |
773 @group | |
774 (lsh 6 -1) | |
775 @result{} 3 | |
776 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
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777 00000110 @result{} 00000011 |
12098 | 778 @end group |
779 | |
780 @group | |
781 (lsh 5 -1) | |
782 @result{} 2 | |
783 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
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784 00000101 @result{} 00000010 |
12098 | 785 @end group |
786 @end example | |
787 | |
788 @noindent | |
789 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
790 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
791 | |
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792 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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793 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 794 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
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795 268,435,455 produces @minus{}2 on a 29-bit machine: |
6510 | 796 |
797 @example | |
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798 (lsh 268435455 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 799 @result{} -2 |
800 @end example | |
801 | |
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802 In binary, in the 29-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 803 |
804 @example | |
805 @group | |
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806 ;; @r{Decimal 268,435,455} |
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807 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 808 @end group |
809 @end example | |
810 | |
811 @noindent | |
812 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
813 | |
814 @example | |
815 @group | |
816 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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817 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 818 @end group |
819 @end example | |
820 @end defun | |
821 | |
822 @defun ash integer1 count | |
823 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
824 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
825 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
826 is negative. | |
827 | |
828 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
829 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 830 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
831 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 832 |
833 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
834 looks like this: | |
835 | |
836 @example | |
837 @group | |
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838 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 |
6510 | 839 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} |
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840 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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841 @result{} |
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842 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 843 @end group |
844 @end example | |
845 | |
846 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
847 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
848 | |
849 @example | |
850 @group | |
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851 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 268435453 |
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852 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 268,435,453.} |
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853 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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|
854 @result{} |
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855 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 856 @end group |
857 @end example | |
858 | |
859 Here are other examples: | |
860 | |
861 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
862 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
863 @smallexample | |
864 @group | |
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865 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 866 |
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867 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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868 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 869 @end group |
870 @group | |
871 (ash 5 2) | |
872 @result{} 20 | |
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873 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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874 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 875 (ash -5 2) |
876 @result{} -20 | |
877 @end group | |
878 @group | |
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879 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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880 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 881 @end group |
882 @group | |
883 (ash 5 -2) | |
884 @result{} 1 | |
885 @end group | |
886 @group | |
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887 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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888 @result{} 134217726 ; = @r{0 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 889 @end group |
890 @group | |
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891 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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892 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 893 @end group |
894 @end smallexample | |
895 @end defun | |
896 | |
897 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
898 @cindex logical and | |
899 @cindex bitwise and | |
900 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
901 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
902 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
903 rather than 0.) | |
904 | |
905 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
906 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
907 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
908 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
909 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
910 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
911 | |
912 @noindent | |
913 Therefore, | |
914 | |
915 @example | |
916 @group | |
917 (logand 13 12) | |
918 @result{} 12 | |
919 @end group | |
920 @end example | |
921 | |
922 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
923 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
924 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
925 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
926 | |
927 @smallexample | |
928 @group | |
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929 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 930 |
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931 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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932 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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933 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 934 @end group |
935 | |
936 @group | |
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937 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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938 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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939 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
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940 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 941 @end group |
942 | |
943 @group | |
944 (logand) | |
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945 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 946 @end group |
947 @end smallexample | |
948 @end defun | |
949 | |
950 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
951 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
952 @cindex bitwise or | |
953 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
954 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
955 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
956 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
957 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
958 | |
959 @smallexample | |
960 @group | |
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961 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 962 |
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963 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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964 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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965 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 966 @end group |
967 | |
968 @group | |
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969 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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970 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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971 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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972 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 973 @end group |
974 @end smallexample | |
975 @end defun | |
976 | |
977 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
978 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
979 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
980 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
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981 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
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982 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
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983 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
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|
984 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 985 |
986 @smallexample | |
987 @group | |
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988 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 989 |
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990 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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|
991 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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992 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 993 @end group |
994 | |
995 @group | |
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996 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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997 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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998 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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|
999 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 1000 @end group |
1001 @end smallexample | |
1002 @end defun | |
1003 | |
1004 @defun lognot integer | |
1005 @cindex logical not | |
1006 @cindex bitwise not | |
1007 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
1008 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
1009 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
1010 | |
1011 @example | |
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1012 (lognot 5) |
6510 | 1013 @result{} -6 |
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|
1014 ;; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 1015 ;; @r{becomes} |
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1016 ;; -6 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 1017 @end example |
1018 @end defun | |
1019 | |
11230
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|
1020 @node Math Functions |
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|
1021 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 1022 @cindex transcendental functions |
1023 @cindex mathematical functions | |
1024 | |
21682
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1025 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point |
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|
1026 numbers as arguments. |
6510 | 1027 |
1028 @defun sin arg | |
1029 @defunx cos arg | |
1030 @defunx tan arg | |
1031 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
1032 in radians. | |
1033 @end defun | |
1034 | |
1035 @defun asin arg | |
25454 | 1036 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between |
27193 | 1037 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1038 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1039 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1040 @tex |
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|
1041 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1042 @end tex |
1043 and | |
27193 | 1044 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1045 pi/2 |
27193 | 1046 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1047 @tex |
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|
1048 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1049 @end tex |
53432
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|
1050 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out of |
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|
1051 range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1052 @end defun |
1053 | |
1054 @defun acos arg | |
25454 | 1055 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and |
27193 | 1056 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1057 pi |
27193 | 1058 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1059 @tex |
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|
1060 @math{\pi} |
25454 | 1061 @end tex |
53432
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|
1062 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out |
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|
1063 of range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1064 @end defun |
1065 | |
43414
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|
1066 @defun atan y &optional x |
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|
1067 The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between |
27193 | 1068 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1069 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1070 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1071 @tex |
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|
1072 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1073 @end tex |
1074 and | |
27193 | 1075 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1076 pi/2 |
27193 | 1077 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1078 @tex |
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|
1079 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1080 @end tex |
43414
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|
1081 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{y}. If the optional second |
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|
1082 argument @var{x} is given, the value of @code{(atan y x)} is the |
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|
1083 angle in radians between the vector @code{[@var{x}, @var{y}]} and the |
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|
1084 @code{X} axis. |
6510 | 1085 @end defun |
1086 | |
1087 @defun exp arg | |
22138
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|
1088 This is the exponential function; it returns |
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|
1089 @tex |
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1090 @math{e} |
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1091 @end tex |
27193 | 1092 @ifnottex |
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1093 @i{e} |
27193 | 1094 @end ifnottex |
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1095 to the power @var{arg}. |
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1096 @tex |
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1097 @math{e} |
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1098 @end tex |
27193 | 1099 @ifnottex |
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1100 @i{e} |
27193 | 1101 @end ifnottex |
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1102 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural |
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1103 logarithms. |
6510 | 1104 @end defun |
1105 | |
1106 @defun log arg &optional base | |
1107 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
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1108 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base |
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1109 @tex |
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1110 @math{e} |
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1111 @end tex |
27193 | 1112 @ifnottex |
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1113 @i{e} |
27193 | 1114 @end ifnottex |
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1115 is used. If @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} |
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1116 error. |
6510 | 1117 @end defun |
1118 | |
1119 @ignore | |
1120 @defun expm1 arg | |
1121 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1122 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
1123 is close to 1. | |
1124 @end defun | |
1125 | |
1126 @defun log1p arg | |
1127 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1128 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
1129 lose accuracy. | |
1130 @end defun | |
1131 @end ignore | |
1132 | |
1133 @defun log10 arg | |
1134 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
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1135 @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
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1136 @code{(log10 @var{x})} @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least |
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1137 approximately. |
6510 | 1138 @end defun |
1139 | |
1140 @defun expt x y | |
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1141 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
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1142 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
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1143 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible |
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1144 integer values. |
6510 | 1145 @end defun |
1146 | |
1147 @defun sqrt arg | |
1148 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
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1149 it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1150 @end defun |
1151 | |
1152 @node Random Numbers | |
1153 @section Random Numbers | |
1154 @cindex random numbers | |
1155 | |
1156 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1157 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1158 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1159 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1160 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1161 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1162 | |
1163 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1164 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1165 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1166 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1167 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1168 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1169 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1170 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1171 | |
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1172 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute |
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1173 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of |
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1174 day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number. |
6510 | 1175 |
1176 @defun random &optional limit | |
1177 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1178 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1179 | |
12067 | 1180 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1181 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1182 |
1183 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
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1184 current time of day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number. |
6510 | 1185 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! |
1186 | |
1187 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1188 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1189 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1190 @end defun | |
52401 | 1191 |
1192 @ignore | |
1193 arch-tag: 574e8dd2-d513-4616-9844-c9a27869782e | |
1194 @end ignore |