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annotate lispref/internals.texi @ 19897:d9bb216aa23f
(strokes-click-command): Doc fix.
author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Fri, 12 Sep 1997 22:41:34 +0000 |
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6451 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/internals | |
6 @node GNU Emacs Internals, Standard Errors, Tips, Top | |
7 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
8 @appendix GNU Emacs Internals | |
9 | |
10 This chapter describes how the runnable Emacs executable is dumped with | |
11 the preloaded Lisp libraries in it, how storage is allocated, and some | |
12 internal aspects of GNU Emacs that may be of interest to C programmers. | |
13 | |
14 @menu | |
15 * Building Emacs:: How to preload Lisp libraries into Emacs. | |
16 * Pure Storage:: A kludge to make preloaded Lisp functions sharable. | |
17 * Garbage Collection:: Reclaiming space for Lisp objects no longer used. | |
18 * Writing Emacs Primitives:: Writing C code for Emacs. | |
19 * Object Internals:: Data formats of buffers, windows, processes. | |
20 @end menu | |
21 | |
22 @node Building Emacs, Pure Storage, GNU Emacs Internals, GNU Emacs Internals | |
23 @appendixsec Building Emacs | |
24 @cindex building Emacs | |
25 @pindex temacs | |
26 | |
27 This section explains the steps involved in building the Emacs | |
28 executable. You don't have to know this material to build and install | |
29 Emacs, since the makefiles do all these things automatically. This | |
30 information is pertinent to Emacs maintenance. | |
31 | |
32 Compilation of the C source files in the @file{src} directory | |
33 produces an executable file called @file{temacs}, also called a | |
34 @dfn{bare impure Emacs}. It contains the Emacs Lisp interpreter and I/O | |
35 routines, but not the editing commands. | |
36 | |
37 @cindex @file{loadup.el} | |
38 The command @w{@samp{temacs -l loadup}} uses @file{temacs} to create | |
39 the real runnable Emacs executable. These arguments direct | |
40 @file{temacs} to evaluate the Lisp files specified in the file | |
41 @file{loadup.el}. These files set up the normal Emacs editing | |
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42 environment, resulting in an Emacs that is still impure but no longer |
6451 | 43 bare. |
44 | |
45 It takes a substantial time to load the standard Lisp files. Luckily, | |
46 you don't have to do this each time you run Emacs; @file{temacs} can | |
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47 dump out an executable program called @file{emacs} that has these files |
6451 | 48 preloaded. @file{emacs} starts more quickly because it does not need to |
49 load the files. This is the Emacs executable that is normally | |
50 installed. | |
51 | |
52 To create @file{emacs}, use the command @samp{temacs -batch -l loadup | |
53 dump}. The purpose of @samp{-batch} here is to prevent @file{temacs} | |
54 from trying to initialize any of its data on the terminal; this ensures | |
55 that the tables of terminal information are empty in the dumped Emacs. | |
56 The argument @samp{dump} tells @file{loadup.el} to dump a new executable | |
57 named @file{emacs}. | |
58 | |
59 Some operating systems don't support dumping. On those systems, you | |
60 must start Emacs with the @samp{temacs -l loadup} command each time you | |
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61 use it. This takes a substantial time, but since you need to start |
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62 Emacs once a day at most---or once a week if you never log out---the |
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63 extra time is not too severe a problem. |
6451 | 64 |
65 @cindex @file{site-load.el} | |
66 You can specify additional files to preload by writing a library named | |
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67 @file{site-load.el} that loads them. You may need to increase the value |
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68 of @code{PURESIZE}, in @file{src/puresize.h}, to make room for the |
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69 additional data. (Try adding increments of 20000 until it is big |
6451 | 70 enough.) However, the advantage of preloading additional files |
71 decreases as machines get faster. On modern machines, it is usually not | |
72 advisable. | |
73 | |
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74 After @file{loadup.el} reads @file{site-load.el}, it finds the |
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75 documentation strings for primitive and preloaded functions (and |
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76 variables) in the file @file{etc/DOC} where they are stored, by calling |
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77 @code{Snarf-documentation} (@pxref{Accessing Documentation}). |
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78 |
6451 | 79 @cindex @file{site-init.el} |
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80 You can specify other Lisp expressions to execute just before dumping |
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81 by putting them in a library named @file{site-init.el}. This file is |
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82 executed after the documentation strings are found. |
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83 |
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84 If you want to preload function or variable definitions, there are |
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85 three ways you can do this and make their documentation strings |
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86 accessible when you subsequently run Emacs: |
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87 |
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88 @itemize @bullet |
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89 @item |
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90 Arrange to scan these files when producing the @file{etc/DOC} file, |
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91 and load them with @file{site-load.el}. |
6451 | 92 |
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93 @item |
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94 Load the files with @file{site-init.el}, then copy the files into the |
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95 installation directory for Lisp files when you install Emacs. |
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96 |
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97 @item |
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98 Specify a non-@code{nil} value for |
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99 @code{byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings} as a local variable in each these |
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100 files, and load them with either @file{site-load.el} or |
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101 @file{site-init.el}. (This method has the drawback that the |
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102 documentation strings take up space in Emacs all the time.) |
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103 @end itemize |
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104 |
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105 It is not advisable to put anything in @file{site-load.el} or |
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106 @file{site-init.el} that would alter any of the features that users |
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107 expect in an ordinary unmodified Emacs. If you feel you must override |
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108 normal features for your site, do it with @file{default.el}, so that |
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109 users can override your changes if they wish. @xref{Start-up Summary}. |
6451 | 110 |
111 @defun dump-emacs to-file from-file | |
112 @cindex unexec | |
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113 This function dumps the current state of Emacs into an executable file |
6451 | 114 @var{to-file}. It takes symbols from @var{from-file} (this is normally |
115 the executable file @file{temacs}). | |
116 | |
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117 If you want to use this function in an Emacs that was already dumped, |
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118 you must run Emacs with @samp{-batch}. |
6451 | 119 @end defun |
120 | |
121 @deffn Command emacs-version | |
122 This function returns a string describing the version of Emacs that is | |
123 running. It is useful to include this string in bug reports. | |
124 | |
125 @example | |
126 @group | |
127 (emacs-version) | |
12098 | 128 @result{} "GNU Emacs 19.29.1 (i386-debian-linux) \ |
129 of Tue Jun 6 1995 on balloon" | |
6451 | 130 @end group |
131 @end example | |
132 | |
133 Called interactively, the function prints the same information in the | |
134 echo area. | |
135 @end deffn | |
136 | |
137 @defvar emacs-build-time | |
12098 | 138 The value of this variable is the time at which Emacs was built at the |
6451 | 139 local site. |
140 | |
141 @example | |
142 @group | |
143 emacs-build-time | |
12098 | 144 @result{} "Tue Jun 6 14:55:57 1995" |
6451 | 145 @end group |
146 @end example | |
147 @end defvar | |
148 | |
149 @defvar emacs-version | |
150 The value of this variable is the version of Emacs being run. It is a | |
12098 | 151 string such as @code{"19.29.1"}. |
6451 | 152 @end defvar |
153 | |
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154 The following two variables did not exist before Emacs version 19.23, |
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155 which reduces their usefulness at present, but we hope they will be |
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156 convenient in the future. |
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157 |
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158 @defvar emacs-major-version |
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159 The major version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version |
12098 | 160 19.29, the value is 19. |
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161 @end defvar |
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162 |
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163 @defvar emacs-minor-version |
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164 The minor version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version |
12098 | 165 19.29, the value is 29. |
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166 @end defvar |
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167 |
6451 | 168 @node Pure Storage, Garbage Collection, Building Emacs, GNU Emacs Internals |
169 @appendixsec Pure Storage | |
170 @cindex pure storage | |
171 | |
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172 Emacs Lisp uses two kinds of storage for user-created Lisp objects: |
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173 @dfn{normal storage} and @dfn{pure storage}. Normal storage is where |
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174 all the new data created during an Emacs session is kept; see the |
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175 following section for information on normal storage. Pure storage is |
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176 used for certain data in the preloaded standard Lisp files---data that |
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177 should never change during actual use of Emacs. |
6451 | 178 |
179 Pure storage is allocated only while @file{temacs} is loading the | |
180 standard preloaded Lisp libraries. In the file @file{emacs}, it is | |
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181 marked as read-only (on operating systems that permit this), so that |
6451 | 182 the memory space can be shared by all the Emacs jobs running on the |
183 machine at once. Pure storage is not expandable; a fixed amount is | |
184 allocated when Emacs is compiled, and if that is not sufficient for the | |
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185 preloaded libraries, @file{temacs} crashes. If that happens, you must |
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186 increase the compilation parameter @code{PURESIZE} in the file |
6451 | 187 @file{src/puresize.h}. This normally won't happen unless you try to |
188 preload additional libraries or add features to the standard ones. | |
189 | |
190 @defun purecopy object | |
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191 This function makes a copy of @var{object} in pure storage and returns |
6451 | 192 it. It copies strings by simply making a new string with the same |
193 characters in pure storage. It recursively copies the contents of | |
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194 vectors and cons cells. It does not make copies of other objects such |
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195 as symbols, but just returns them unchanged. It signals an error if |
6451 | 196 asked to copy markers. |
197 | |
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198 This function is a no-op except while Emacs is being built and dumped; |
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199 it is usually called only in the file @file{emacs/lisp/loaddefs.el}, but |
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200 a few packages call it just in case you decide to preload them. |
6451 | 201 @end defun |
202 | |
203 @defvar pure-bytes-used | |
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204 The value of this variable is the number of bytes of pure storage |
6451 | 205 allocated so far. Typically, in a dumped Emacs, this number is very |
206 close to the total amount of pure storage available---if it were not, | |
207 we would preallocate less. | |
208 @end defvar | |
209 | |
210 @defvar purify-flag | |
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211 This variable determines whether @code{defun} should make a copy of the |
6451 | 212 function definition in pure storage. If it is non-@code{nil}, then the |
213 function definition is copied into pure storage. | |
214 | |
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215 This flag is @code{t} while loading all of the basic functions for |
6451 | 216 building Emacs initially (allowing those functions to be sharable and |
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217 non-collectible). Dumping Emacs as an executable always writes |
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218 @code{nil} in this variable, regardless of the value it actually has |
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219 before and after dumping. |
6451 | 220 |
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221 You should not change this flag in a running Emacs. |
6451 | 222 @end defvar |
223 | |
224 @node Garbage Collection, Writing Emacs Primitives, Pure Storage, GNU Emacs Internals | |
225 @appendixsec Garbage Collection | |
226 @cindex garbage collector | |
227 | |
228 @cindex memory allocation | |
229 When a program creates a list or the user defines a new function (such | |
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230 as by loading a library), that data is placed in normal storage. If |
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231 normal storage runs low, then Emacs asks the operating system to |
6451 | 232 allocate more memory in blocks of 1k bytes. Each block is used for one |
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233 type of Lisp object, so symbols, cons cells, markers, etc., are |
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234 segregated in distinct blocks in memory. (Vectors, long strings, |
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235 buffers and certain other editing types, which are fairly large, are |
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236 allocated in individual blocks, one per object, while small strings are |
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237 packed into blocks of 8k bytes.) |
6451 | 238 |
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239 It is quite common to use some storage for a while, then release it by |
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240 (for example) killing a buffer or deleting the last pointer to an |
6451 | 241 object. Emacs provides a @dfn{garbage collector} to reclaim this |
242 abandoned storage. (This name is traditional, but ``garbage recycler'' | |
243 might be a more intuitive metaphor for this facility.) | |
244 | |
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245 The garbage collector operates by finding and marking all Lisp objects |
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246 that are still accessible to Lisp programs. To begin with, it assumes |
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247 all the symbols, their values and associated function definitions, and |
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248 any data presently on the stack, are accessible. Any objects that can |
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249 be reached indirectly through other accessible objects are also |
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250 accessible. |
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252 When marking is finished, all objects still unmarked are garbage. No |
6451 | 253 matter what the Lisp program or the user does, it is impossible to refer |
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254 to them, since there is no longer a way to reach them. Their space |
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255 might as well be reused, since no one will miss them. The second |
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256 (``sweep'') phase of the garbage collector arranges to reuse them. |
6451 | 257 |
258 @cindex free list | |
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259 The sweep phase puts unused cons cells onto a @dfn{free list} |
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260 for future allocation; likewise for symbols and markers. It compacts |
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261 the accessible strings so they occupy fewer 8k blocks; then it frees the |
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262 other 8k blocks. Vectors, buffers, windows, and other large objects are |
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263 individually allocated and freed using @code{malloc} and @code{free}. |
6451 | 264 |
265 @cindex CL note---allocate more storage | |
266 @quotation | |
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267 @b{Common Lisp note:} Unlike other Lisps, GNU Emacs Lisp does not |
6451 | 268 call the garbage collector when the free list is empty. Instead, it |
269 simply requests the operating system to allocate more storage, and | |
270 processing continues until @code{gc-cons-threshold} bytes have been | |
271 used. | |
272 | |
273 This means that you can make sure that the garbage collector will not | |
274 run during a certain portion of a Lisp program by calling the garbage | |
275 collector explicitly just before it (provided that portion of the | |
276 program does not use so much space as to force a second garbage | |
277 collection). | |
278 @end quotation | |
279 | |
280 @deffn Command garbage-collect | |
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281 This command runs a garbage collection, and returns information on |
6451 | 282 the amount of space in use. (Garbage collection can also occur |
283 spontaneously if you use more than @code{gc-cons-threshold} bytes of | |
284 Lisp data since the previous garbage collection.) | |
285 | |
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286 @code{garbage-collect} returns a list containing the following |
6451 | 287 information: |
288 | |
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289 @example |
6451 | 290 @group |
291 ((@var{used-conses} . @var{free-conses}) | |
292 (@var{used-syms} . @var{free-syms}) | |
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293 @end group |
6451 | 294 (@var{used-markers} . @var{free-markers}) |
295 @var{used-string-chars} | |
296 @var{used-vector-slots} | |
297 (@var{used-floats} . @var{free-floats})) | |
298 | |
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299 @group |
6451 | 300 (garbage-collect) |
301 @result{} ((3435 . 2332) (1688 . 0) | |
302 (57 . 417) 24510 3839 (4 . 1)) | |
303 @end group | |
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304 @end example |
6451 | 305 |
306 Here is a table explaining each element: | |
307 | |
308 @table @var | |
309 @item used-conses | |
310 The number of cons cells in use. | |
311 | |
312 @item free-conses | |
313 The number of cons cells for which space has been obtained from the | |
314 operating system, but that are not currently being used. | |
315 | |
316 @item used-syms | |
317 The number of symbols in use. | |
318 | |
319 @item free-syms | |
320 The number of symbols for which space has been obtained from the | |
321 operating system, but that are not currently being used. | |
322 | |
323 @item used-markers | |
324 The number of markers in use. | |
325 | |
326 @item free-markers | |
327 The number of markers for which space has been obtained from the | |
328 operating system, but that are not currently being used. | |
329 | |
330 @item used-string-chars | |
331 The total size of all strings, in characters. | |
332 | |
333 @item used-vector-slots | |
334 The total number of elements of existing vectors. | |
335 | |
336 @item used-floats | |
337 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
338 The number of floats in use. | |
339 | |
340 @item free-floats | |
341 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
342 The number of floats for which space has been obtained from the | |
343 operating system, but that are not currently being used. | |
344 @end table | |
345 @end deffn | |
346 | |
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347 @defopt garbage-collection-messages |
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348 If this variable is non-@code{nil}, Emacs displays a message at the |
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349 beginning and end of garbage collection. The default value is |
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350 @code{nil}, meaning there are no such messages. |
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351 @end defopt |
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352 |
6451 | 353 @defopt gc-cons-threshold |
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354 The value of this variable is the number of bytes of storage that must |
6451 | 355 be allocated for Lisp objects after one garbage collection in order to |
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356 trigger another garbage collection. A cons cell counts as eight bytes, |
6451 | 357 a string as one byte per character plus a few bytes of overhead, and so |
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358 on; space allocated to the contents of buffers does not count. Note |
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359 that the subsequent garbage collection does not happen immediately when |
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360 the threshold is exhausted, but only the next time the Lisp evaluator is |
6451 | 361 called. |
362 | |
12098 | 363 The initial threshold value is 300,000. If you specify a larger |
6451 | 364 value, garbage collection will happen less often. This reduces the |
365 amount of time spent garbage collecting, but increases total memory use. | |
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366 You may want to do this when running a program that creates lots of |
6451 | 367 Lisp data. |
368 | |
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369 You can make collections more frequent by specifying a smaller value, |
6451 | 370 down to 10,000. A value less than 10,000 will remain in effect only |
371 until the subsequent garbage collection, at which time | |
372 @code{garbage-collect} will set the threshold back to 10,000. | |
373 @end defopt | |
374 | |
375 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
376 @defun memory-limit | |
377 This function returns the address of the last byte Emacs has allocated, | |
378 divided by 1024. We divide the value by 1024 to make sure it fits in a | |
379 Lisp integer. | |
380 | |
381 You can use this to get a general idea of how your actions affect the | |
382 memory usage. | |
383 @end defun | |
384 | |
385 @node Writing Emacs Primitives, Object Internals, Garbage Collection, GNU Emacs Internals | |
386 @appendixsec Writing Emacs Primitives | |
387 @cindex primitive function internals | |
388 | |
389 Lisp primitives are Lisp functions implemented in C. The details of | |
390 interfacing the C function so that Lisp can call it are handled by a few | |
391 C macros. The only way to really understand how to write new C code is | |
392 to read the source, but we can explain some things here. | |
393 | |
394 An example of a special form is the definition of @code{or}, from | |
395 @file{eval.c}. (An ordinary function would have the same general | |
396 appearance.) | |
397 | |
398 @cindex garbage collection protection | |
399 @smallexample | |
400 @group | |
401 DEFUN ("or", For, Sor, 0, UNEVALLED, 0, | |
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402 "Eval args until one of them yields non-nil; return that value.\n\ |
6451 | 403 The remaining args are not evalled at all.\n\ |
404 @end group | |
405 @group | |
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406 If all args return nil, return nil.") |
6451 | 407 (args) |
408 Lisp_Object args; | |
409 @{ | |
410 register Lisp_Object val; | |
411 Lisp_Object args_left; | |
412 struct gcpro gcpro1; | |
413 @end group | |
414 | |
415 @group | |
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416 if (NULL (args)) |
6451 | 417 return Qnil; |
418 | |
419 args_left = args; | |
420 GCPRO1 (args_left); | |
421 @end group | |
422 | |
423 @group | |
424 do | |
425 @{ | |
426 val = Feval (Fcar (args_left)); | |
427 if (!NULL (val)) | |
428 break; | |
429 args_left = Fcdr (args_left); | |
430 @} | |
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431 while (!NULL (args_left)); |
6451 | 432 @end group |
433 | |
434 @group | |
435 UNGCPRO; | |
436 return val; | |
437 @} | |
438 @end group | |
439 @end smallexample | |
440 | |
441 Let's start with a precise explanation of the arguments to the | |
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442 @code{DEFUN} macro. Here is a template for them: |
6451 | 443 |
444 @example | |
445 DEFUN (@var{lname}, @var{fname}, @var{sname}, @var{min}, @var{max}, @var{interactive}, @var{doc}) | |
446 @end example | |
447 | |
448 @table @var | |
449 @item lname | |
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450 This is the name of the Lisp symbol to define as the function name; in |
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451 the example above, it is @code{or}. |
6451 | 452 |
453 @item fname | |
454 This is the C function name for this function. This is | |
455 the name that is used in C code for calling the function. The name is, | |
456 by convention, @samp{F} prepended to the Lisp name, with all dashes | |
457 (@samp{-}) in the Lisp name changed to underscores. Thus, to call this | |
458 function from C code, call @code{For}. Remember that the arguments must | |
459 be of type @code{Lisp_Object}; various macros and functions for creating | |
460 values of type @code{Lisp_Object} are declared in the file | |
461 @file{lisp.h}. | |
462 | |
463 @item sname | |
464 This is a C variable name to use for a structure that holds the data for | |
465 the subr object that represents the function in Lisp. This structure | |
466 conveys the Lisp symbol name to the initialization routine that will | |
467 create the symbol and store the subr object as its definition. By | |
468 convention, this name is always @var{fname} with @samp{F} replaced with | |
469 @samp{S}. | |
470 | |
471 @item min | |
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472 This is the minimum number of arguments that the function requires. The |
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473 function @code{or} allows a minimum of zero arguments. |
6451 | 474 |
475 @item max | |
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476 This is the maximum number of arguments that the function accepts, if |
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477 there is a fixed maximum. Alternatively, it can be @code{UNEVALLED}, |
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478 indicating a special form that receives unevaluated arguments, or |
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479 @code{MANY}, indicating an unlimited number of evaluated arguments (the |
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480 equivalent of @code{&rest}). Both @code{UNEVALLED} and @code{MANY} are |
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481 macros. If @var{max} is a number, it may not be less than @var{min} and |
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482 it may not be greater than seven. |
6451 | 483 |
484 @item interactive | |
485 This is an interactive specification, a string such as might be used as | |
486 the argument of @code{interactive} in a Lisp function. In the case of | |
487 @code{or}, it is 0 (a null pointer), indicating that @code{or} cannot be | |
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488 called interactively. A value of @code{""} indicates a function that |
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489 should receive no arguments when called interactively. |
6451 | 490 |
491 @item doc | |
492 This is the documentation string. It is written just like a | |
493 documentation string for a function defined in Lisp, except you must | |
494 write @samp{\n\} at the end of each line. In particular, the first line | |
495 should be a single sentence. | |
496 @end table | |
497 | |
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498 After the call to the @code{DEFUN} macro, you must write the argument |
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499 name list that every C function must have, followed by ordinary C |
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500 declarations for the arguments. For a function with a fixed maximum |
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501 number of arguments, declare a C argument for each Lisp argument, and |
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502 give them all type @code{Lisp_Object}. When a Lisp function has no |
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503 upper limit on the number of arguments, its implementation in C actually |
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504 receives exactly two arguments: the first is the number of Lisp |
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505 arguments, and the second is the address of a block containing their |
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506 values. They have types @code{int} and @w{@code{Lisp_Object *}}. |
6451 | 507 |
508 Within the function @code{For} itself, note the use of the macros | |
509 @code{GCPRO1} and @code{UNGCPRO}. @code{GCPRO1} is used to ``protect'' | |
510 a variable from garbage collection---to inform the garbage collector that | |
511 it must look in that variable and regard its contents as an accessible | |
512 object. This is necessary whenever you call @code{Feval} or anything | |
513 that can directly or indirectly call @code{Feval}. At such a time, any | |
514 Lisp object that you intend to refer to again must be protected somehow. | |
515 @code{UNGCPRO} cancels the protection of the variables that are | |
516 protected in the current function. It is necessary to do this explicitly. | |
517 | |
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518 For most data types, it suffices to protect at least one pointer to |
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519 the object; as long as the object is not recycled, all pointers to it |
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520 remain valid. This is not so for strings, because the garbage collector |
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521 can move them. When the garbage collector moves a string, it relocates |
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522 all the pointers it knows about; any other pointers become invalid. |
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523 Therefore, you must protect all pointers to strings across any point |
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524 where garbage collection may be possible. |
6451 | 525 |
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526 The macro @code{GCPRO1} protects just one local variable. If you want |
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527 to protect two, use @code{GCPRO2} instead; repeating @code{GCPRO1} will |
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528 not work. Macros @code{GCPRO3} and @code{GCPRO4} also exist. |
6451 | 529 |
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530 These macros implicitly use local variables such as @code{gcpro1}; you |
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531 must declare these explicitly, with type @code{struct gcpro}. Thus, if |
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532 you use @code{GCPRO2}, you must declare @code{gcpro1} and @code{gcpro2}. |
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533 Alas, we can't explain all the tricky details here. |
6451 | 534 |
10487 | 535 You must not use C initializers for static or global variables unless |
536 they are never written once Emacs is dumped. These variables with | |
537 initializers are allocated in an area of memory that becomes read-only | |
538 (on certain operating systems) as a result of dumping Emacs. @xref{Pure | |
539 Storage}. | |
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540 |
10487 | 541 Do not use static variables within functions---place all static |
542 variables at top level in the file. This is necessary because Emacs on | |
543 some operating systems defines the keyword @code{static} as a null | |
544 macro. (This definition is used because those systems put all variables | |
545 declared static in a place that becomes read-only after dumping, whether | |
546 they have initializers or not.) | |
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547 |
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548 Defining the C function is not enough to make a Lisp primitive |
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549 available; you must also create the Lisp symbol for the primitive and |
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550 store a suitable subr object in its function cell. The code looks like |
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551 this: |
6451 | 552 |
553 @example | |
554 defsubr (&@var{subr-structure-name}); | |
555 @end example | |
556 | |
557 @noindent | |
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558 Here @var{subr-structure-name} is the name you used as the third |
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559 argument to @code{DEFUN}. |
6451 | 560 |
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561 If you add a new primitive to a file that already has Lisp primitives |
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562 defined in it, find the function (near the end of the file) named |
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563 @code{syms_of_@var{something}}, and add the call to @code{defsubr} |
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564 there. If the file doesn't have this function, or if you create a new |
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565 file, add to it a @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} (e.g., |
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566 @code{syms_of_myfile}). Then find the spot in @file{emacs.c} where all |
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567 of these functions are called, and add a call to |
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568 @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} there. |
6451 | 569 |
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570 The function @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} is also the place to define |
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571 any C variables that are to be visible as Lisp variables. |
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572 @code{DEFVAR_LISP} makes a C variable of type @code{Lisp_Object} visible |
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573 in Lisp. @code{DEFVAR_INT} makes a C variable of type @code{int} |
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574 visible in Lisp with a value that is always an integer. |
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575 @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} makes a C variable of type @code{int} visible in Lisp |
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576 with a value that is either @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
6451 | 577 |
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578 Here is another example function, with more complicated arguments. |
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579 This comes from the code for the X Window System, and it demonstrates |
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580 the use of macros and functions to manipulate Lisp objects. |
6451 | 581 |
582 @smallexample | |
583 @group | |
584 DEFUN ("coordinates-in-window-p", Fcoordinates_in_window_p, | |
585 Scoordinates_in_window_p, 2, 2, | |
586 "xSpecify coordinate pair: \nXExpression which evals to window: ", | |
587 "Return non-nil if POSITIONS is in WINDOW.\n\ | |
588 \(POSITIONS is a list, (SCREEN-X SCREEN-Y)\)\n\ | |
589 @end group | |
590 @group | |
591 Returned value is list of positions expressed\n\ | |
592 relative to window upper left corner.") | |
593 (coordinate, window) | |
594 register Lisp_Object coordinate, window; | |
595 @{ | |
596 register Lisp_Object xcoord, ycoord; | |
597 @end group | |
598 | |
599 @group | |
600 if (!CONSP (coordinate)) wrong_type_argument (Qlistp, coordinate); | |
601 CHECK_WINDOW (window, 2); | |
602 xcoord = Fcar (coordinate); | |
603 ycoord = Fcar (Fcdr (coordinate)); | |
604 CHECK_NUMBER (xcoord, 0); | |
605 CHECK_NUMBER (ycoord, 1); | |
606 @end group | |
607 @group | |
608 if ((XINT (xcoord) < XINT (XWINDOW (window)->left)) | |
609 || (XINT (xcoord) >= (XINT (XWINDOW (window)->left) | |
610 + XINT (XWINDOW (window)->width)))) | |
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611 return Qnil; |
6451 | 612 XFASTINT (xcoord) -= XFASTINT (XWINDOW (window)->left); |
613 @end group | |
614 @group | |
615 if (XINT (ycoord) == (screen_height - 1)) | |
616 return Qnil; | |
617 @end group | |
618 @group | |
619 if ((XINT (ycoord) < XINT (XWINDOW (window)->top)) | |
620 || (XINT (ycoord) >= (XINT (XWINDOW (window)->top) | |
621 + XINT (XWINDOW (window)->height)) - 1)) | |
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622 return Qnil; |
6451 | 623 @end group |
624 @group | |
625 XFASTINT (ycoord) -= XFASTINT (XWINDOW (window)->top); | |
626 return (Fcons (xcoord, Fcons (ycoord, Qnil))); | |
627 @} | |
628 @end group | |
629 @end smallexample | |
630 | |
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631 Note that C code cannot call functions by name unless they are defined |
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632 in C. The way to call a function written in Lisp is to use |
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633 @code{Ffuncall}, which embodies the Lisp function @code{funcall}. Since |
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634 the Lisp function @code{funcall} accepts an unlimited number of |
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635 arguments, in C it takes two: the number of Lisp-level arguments, and a |
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636 one-dimensional array containing their values. The first Lisp-level |
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637 argument is the Lisp function to call, and the rest are the arguments to |
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638 pass to it. Since @code{Ffuncall} can call the evaluator, you must |
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639 protect pointers from garbage collection around the call to |
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640 @code{Ffuncall}. |
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641 |
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642 The C functions @code{call0}, @code{call1}, @code{call2}, and so on, |
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643 provide handy ways to call a Lisp function conveniently with a fixed |
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644 number of arguments. They work by calling @code{Ffuncall}. |
6451 | 645 |
646 @file{eval.c} is a very good file to look through for examples; | |
647 @file{lisp.h} contains the definitions for some important macros and | |
648 functions. | |
649 | |
650 @node Object Internals, , Writing Emacs Primitives, GNU Emacs Internals | |
651 @appendixsec Object Internals | |
652 @cindex object internals | |
653 | |
654 GNU Emacs Lisp manipulates many different types of data. The actual | |
655 data are stored in a heap and the only access that programs have to it is | |
656 through pointers. Pointers are thirty-two bits wide in most | |
657 implementations. Depending on the operating system and type of machine | |
658 for which you compile Emacs, twenty-four to twenty-six bits are used to | |
659 address the object, and the remaining six to eight bits are used for a | |
660 tag that identifies the object's type. | |
661 | |
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662 Because Lisp objects are represented as tagged pointers, it is always |
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663 possible to determine the Lisp data type of any object. The C data type |
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664 @code{Lisp_Object} can hold any Lisp object of any data type. Ordinary |
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665 variables have type @code{Lisp_Object}, which means they can hold any |
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666 type of Lisp value; you can determine the actual data type only at run |
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667 time. The same is true for function arguments; if you want a function |
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668 to accept only a certain type of argument, you must check the type |
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669 explicitly using a suitable predicate (@pxref{Type Predicates}). |
6451 | 670 @cindex type checking internals |
671 | |
672 @menu | |
673 * Buffer Internals:: Components of a buffer structure. | |
674 * Window Internals:: Components of a window structure. | |
675 * Process Internals:: Components of a process structure. | |
676 @end menu | |
677 | |
678 @node Buffer Internals, Window Internals, Object Internals, Object Internals | |
679 @appendixsubsec Buffer Internals | |
680 @cindex internals, of buffer | |
681 @cindex buffer internals | |
682 | |
683 Buffers contain fields not directly accessible by the Lisp programmer. | |
684 We describe them here, naming them by the names used in the C code. | |
685 Many are accessible indirectly in Lisp programs via Lisp primitives. | |
686 | |
687 @table @code | |
688 @item name | |
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689 The buffer name is a string that names the buffer. It is guaranteed to |
6451 | 690 be unique. @xref{Buffer Names}. |
691 | |
692 @item save_modified | |
693 This field contains the time when the buffer was last saved, as an integer. | |
694 @xref{Buffer Modification}. | |
695 | |
696 @item modtime | |
697 This field contains the modification time of the visited file. It is | |
698 set when the file is written or read. Every time the buffer is written | |
699 to the file, this field is compared to the modification time of the | |
700 file. @xref{Buffer Modification}. | |
701 | |
702 @item auto_save_modified | |
703 This field contains the time when the buffer was last auto-saved. | |
704 | |
705 @item last_window_start | |
706 This field contains the @code{window-start} position in the buffer as of | |
707 the last time the buffer was displayed in a window. | |
708 | |
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709 @item undo_list |
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710 This field points to the buffer's undo list. @xref{Undo}. |
6451 | 711 |
712 @item syntax_table_v | |
713 This field contains the syntax table for the buffer. @xref{Syntax Tables}. | |
714 | |
715 @item downcase_table | |
716 This field contains the conversion table for converting text to lower case. | |
717 @xref{Case Table}. | |
718 | |
719 @item upcase_table | |
720 This field contains the conversion table for converting text to upper case. | |
721 @xref{Case Table}. | |
722 | |
723 @item case_canon_table | |
724 This field contains the conversion table for canonicalizing text for | |
725 case-folding search. @xref{Case Table}. | |
726 | |
727 @item case_eqv_table | |
728 This field contains the equivalence table for case-folding search. | |
729 @xref{Case Table}. | |
730 | |
731 @item display_table | |
732 This field contains the buffer's display table, or @code{nil} if it doesn't | |
733 have one. @xref{Display Tables}. | |
734 | |
735 @item markers | |
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736 This field contains the chain of all markers that currently point into |
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737 the buffer. Deletion of text in the buffer, and motion of the buffer's |
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738 gap, must check each of these markers and perhaps update it. |
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739 @xref{Markers}. |
6451 | 740 |
741 @item backed_up | |
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742 This field is a flag that tells whether a backup file has been made |
6451 | 743 for the visited file of this buffer. |
744 | |
745 @item mark | |
746 This field contains the mark for the buffer. The mark is a marker, | |
747 hence it is also included on the list @code{markers}. @xref{The Mark}. | |
748 | |
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749 @item mark_active |
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750 This field is non-@code{nil} if the buffer's mark is active. |
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751 |
6451 | 752 @item local_var_alist |
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753 This field contains the association list describing the variables local |
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754 in this buffer, and their values, with the exception of local variables |
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755 that have special slots in the buffer object. (Those slots are omitted |
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756 from this table.) @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. |
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757 |
12098 | 758 @item base_buffer |
759 This field holds the buffer's base buffer (if it is an indirect buffer), | |
760 or @code{nil}. | |
761 | |
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762 @item keymap |
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763 This field holds the buffer's local keymap. @xref{Keymaps}. |
6451 | 764 |
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765 @item overlay_center |
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766 This field holds the current overlay center position. @xref{Overlays}. |
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767 |
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768 @item overlays_before |
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769 This field holds a list of the overlays in this buffer that end at or |
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770 before the current overlay center position. They are sorted in order of |
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771 decreasing end position. |
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772 |
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773 @item overlays_after |
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774 This field holds a list of the overlays in this buffer that end after |
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775 the current overlay center position. They are sorted in order of |
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776 increasing beginning position. |
6451 | 777 @end table |
778 | |
779 @node Window Internals, Process Internals, Buffer Internals, Object Internals | |
780 @appendixsubsec Window Internals | |
781 @cindex internals, of window | |
782 @cindex window internals | |
783 | |
784 Windows have the following accessible fields: | |
785 | |
786 @table @code | |
787 @item frame | |
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788 The frame that this window is on. |
6451 | 789 |
790 @item mini_p | |
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791 Non-@code{nil} if this window is a minibuffer window. |
6451 | 792 |
793 @item buffer | |
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794 The buffer that the window is displaying. This may change often during |
6451 | 795 the life of the window. |
796 | |
797 @item dedicated | |
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798 Non-@code{nil} if this window is dedicated to its buffer. |
6451 | 799 |
800 @item pointm | |
801 @cindex window point internals | |
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802 This is the value of point in the current buffer when this window is |
6451 | 803 selected; when it is not selected, it retains its previous value. |
804 | |
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805 @item start |
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806 The position in the buffer that is the first character to be displayed |
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807 in the window. |
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808 |
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809 @item force_start |
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810 If this flag is non-@code{nil}, it says that the window has been |
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811 scrolled explicitly by the Lisp program. This affects what the next |
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812 redisplay does if point is off the screen: instead of scrolling the |
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813 window to show the text around point, it moves point to a location that |
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814 is on the screen. |
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815 |
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816 @item last_modified |
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817 The @code{modified} field of the window's buffer, as of the last time |
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818 a redisplay completed in this window. |
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819 |
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820 @item last_point |
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821 The buffer's value of point, as of the last time |
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822 a redisplay completed in this window. |
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823 |
6451 | 824 @item left |
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825 This is the left-hand edge of the window, measured in columns. (The |
6451 | 826 leftmost column on the screen is @w{column 0}.) |
827 | |
828 @item top | |
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829 This is the top edge of the window, measured in lines. (The top line on |
6451 | 830 the screen is @w{line 0}.) |
831 | |
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832 @item height |
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833 The height of the window, measured in lines. |
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834 |
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835 @item width |
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836 The width of the window, measured in columns. |
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837 |
6451 | 838 @item next |
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839 This is the window that is the next in the chain of siblings. It is |
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840 @code{nil} in a window that is the rightmost or bottommost of a group of |
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841 siblings. |
6451 | 842 |
843 @item prev | |
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844 This is the window that is the previous in the chain of siblings. It is |
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845 @code{nil} in a window that is the leftmost or topmost of a group of |
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846 siblings. |
6451 | 847 |
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848 @item parent |
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849 Internally, Emacs arranges windows in a tree; each group of siblings has |
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850 a parent window whose area includes all the siblings. This field points |
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851 to a window's parent. |
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852 |
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853 Parent windows do not display buffers, and play little role in display |
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854 except to shape their child windows. Emacs Lisp programs usually have |
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855 no access to the parent windows; they operate on the windows at the |
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856 leaves of the tree, which actually display buffers. |
6451 | 857 |
858 @item hscroll | |
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859 This is the number of columns that the display in the window is scrolled |
6451 | 860 horizontally to the left. Normally, this is 0. |
861 | |
862 @item use_time | |
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863 This is the last time that the window was selected. The function |
6451 | 864 @code{get-lru-window} uses this field. |
865 | |
866 @item display_table | |
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867 The window's display table, or @code{nil} if none is specified for it. |
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868 |
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869 @item update_mode_line |
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870 Non-@code{nil} means this window's mode line needs to be updated. |
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871 |
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872 @item base_line_number |
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873 The line number of a certain position in the buffer, or @code{nil}. |
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874 This is used for displaying the line number of point in the mode line. |
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875 |
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876 @item base_line_pos |
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877 The position in the buffer for which the line number is known, or |
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878 @code{nil} meaning none is known. |
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879 |
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880 @item region_showing |
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881 If the region (or part of it) is highlighted in this window, this field |
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882 holds the mark position that made one end of that region. Otherwise, |
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883 this field is @code{nil}. |
6451 | 884 @end table |
885 | |
886 @node Process Internals, , Window Internals, Object Internals | |
887 @appendixsubsec Process Internals | |
888 @cindex internals, of process | |
889 @cindex process internals | |
890 | |
891 The fields of a process are: | |
892 | |
893 @table @code | |
894 @item name | |
895 A string, the name of the process. | |
896 | |
897 @item command | |
898 A list containing the command arguments that were used to start this | |
899 process. | |
900 | |
901 @item filter | |
902 A function used to accept output from the process instead of a buffer, | |
903 or @code{nil}. | |
904 | |
905 @item sentinel | |
906 A function called whenever the process receives a signal, or @code{nil}. | |
907 | |
908 @item buffer | |
909 The associated buffer of the process. | |
910 | |
911 @item pid | |
912 An integer, the Unix process @sc{id}. | |
913 | |
914 @item childp | |
915 A flag, non-@code{nil} if this is really a child process. | |
916 It is @code{nil} for a network connection. | |
917 | |
918 @item mark | |
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919 A marker indicating the position of the end of the last output from this |
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920 process inserted into the buffer. This is often but not always the end |
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921 of the buffer. |
6451 | 922 |
923 @item kill_without_query | |
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924 If this is non-@code{nil}, killing Emacs while this process is still |
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925 running does not ask for confirmation about killing the process. |
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926 |
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927 @item raw_status_low |
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928 @itemx raw_status_high |
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929 These two fields record 16 bits each of the process status returned by |
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930 the @code{wait} system call. |
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931 |
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932 @item status |
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933 The process status, as @code{process-status} should return it. |
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934 |
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935 @item tick |
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936 @itemx update_tick |
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937 If these two fields are not equal, a change in the status of the process |
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938 needs to be reported, either by running the sentinel or by inserting a |
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939 message in the process buffer. |
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940 |
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941 @item pty_flag |
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942 Non-@code{nil} if communication with the subprocess uses a @sc{pty}; |
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943 @code{nil} if it uses a pipe. |
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944 |
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945 @item infd |
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946 The file descriptor for input from the process. |
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947 |
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948 @item outfd |
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949 The file descriptor for output to the process. |
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950 |
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951 @item subtty |
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952 The file descriptor for the terminal that the subprocess is using. (On |
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953 some systems, there is no need to record this, so the value is |
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954 @code{nil}.) |
12098 | 955 |
956 @item tty_name | |
957 The name of the terminal that the subprocess is using, | |
958 or @code{nil} if it is using pipes. | |
6451 | 959 @end table |