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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002,
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4 @c 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/control
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7 @node Control Structures, Variables, Evaluation, Top
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8 @chapter Control Structures
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9 @cindex special forms for control structures
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10 @cindex control structures
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11
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12 A Lisp program consists of expressions or @dfn{forms} (@pxref{Forms}).
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13 We control the order of execution of these forms by enclosing them in
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14 @dfn{control structures}. Control structures are special forms which
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15 control when, whether, or how many times to execute the forms they
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16 contain.
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17
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18 The simplest order of execution is sequential execution: first form
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19 @var{a}, then form @var{b}, and so on. This is what happens when you
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20 write several forms in succession in the body of a function, or at top
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21 level in a file of Lisp code---the forms are executed in the order
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22 written. We call this @dfn{textual order}. For example, if a function
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23 body consists of two forms @var{a} and @var{b}, evaluation of the
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24 function evaluates first @var{a} and then @var{b}. The result of
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25 evaluating @var{b} becomes the value of the function.
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26
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27 Explicit control structures make possible an order of execution other
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28 than sequential.
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29
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30 Emacs Lisp provides several kinds of control structure, including
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31 other varieties of sequencing, conditionals, iteration, and (controlled)
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32 jumps---all discussed below. The built-in control structures are
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33 special forms since their subforms are not necessarily evaluated or not
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34 evaluated sequentially. You can use macros to define your own control
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35 structure constructs (@pxref{Macros}).
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36
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37 @menu
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38 * Sequencing:: Evaluation in textual order.
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39 * Conditionals:: @code{if}, @code{cond}, @code{when}, @code{unless}.
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40 * Combining Conditions:: @code{and}, @code{or}, @code{not}.
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41 * Iteration:: @code{while} loops.
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42 * Nonlocal Exits:: Jumping out of a sequence.
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43 @end menu
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44
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45 @node Sequencing
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46 @section Sequencing
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47
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48 Evaluating forms in the order they appear is the most common way
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49 control passes from one form to another. In some contexts, such as in a
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50 function body, this happens automatically. Elsewhere you must use a
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51 control structure construct to do this: @code{progn}, the simplest
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52 control construct of Lisp.
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53
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54 A @code{progn} special form looks like this:
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55
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56 @example
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57 @group
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58 (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} @dots{})
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59 @end group
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60 @end example
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61
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62 @noindent
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63 and it says to execute the forms @var{a}, @var{b}, @var{c}, and so on, in
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64 that order. These forms are called the @dfn{body} of the @code{progn} form.
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65 The value of the last form in the body becomes the value of the entire
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66 @code{progn}. @code{(progn)} returns @code{nil}.
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67
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68 @cindex implicit @code{progn}
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69 In the early days of Lisp, @code{progn} was the only way to execute
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70 two or more forms in succession and use the value of the last of them.
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71 But programmers found they often needed to use a @code{progn} in the
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72 body of a function, where (at that time) only one form was allowed. So
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73 the body of a function was made into an ``implicit @code{progn}'':
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74 several forms are allowed just as in the body of an actual @code{progn}.
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75 Many other control structures likewise contain an implicit @code{progn}.
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76 As a result, @code{progn} is not used as much as it was many years ago.
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77 It is needed now most often inside an @code{unwind-protect}, @code{and},
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78 @code{or}, or in the @var{then}-part of an @code{if}.
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79
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80 @defspec progn forms@dots{}
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81 This special form evaluates all of the @var{forms}, in textual
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82 order, returning the result of the final form.
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83
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84 @example
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85 @group
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86 (progn (print "The first form")
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87 (print "The second form")
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88 (print "The third form"))
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89 @print{} "The first form"
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90 @print{} "The second form"
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91 @print{} "The third form"
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92 @result{} "The third form"
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93 @end group
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94 @end example
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95 @end defspec
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96
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97 Two other control constructs likewise evaluate a series of forms but return
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98 a different value:
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99
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100 @defspec prog1 form1 forms@dots{}
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101 This special form evaluates @var{form1} and all of the @var{forms}, in
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102 textual order, returning the result of @var{form1}.
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103
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104 @example
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105 @group
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106 (prog1 (print "The first form")
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107 (print "The second form")
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108 (print "The third form"))
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109 @print{} "The first form"
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110 @print{} "The second form"
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111 @print{} "The third form"
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112 @result{} "The first form"
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113 @end group
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114 @end example
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115
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116 Here is a way to remove the first element from a list in the variable
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117 @code{x}, then return the value of that former element:
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118
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119 @example
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120 (prog1 (car x) (setq x (cdr x)))
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121 @end example
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122 @end defspec
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123
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124 @defspec prog2 form1 form2 forms@dots{}
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125 This special form evaluates @var{form1}, @var{form2}, and all of the
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126 following @var{forms}, in textual order, returning the result of
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127 @var{form2}.
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128
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129 @example
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130 @group
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131 (prog2 (print "The first form")
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132 (print "The second form")
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133 (print "The third form"))
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134 @print{} "The first form"
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135 @print{} "The second form"
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136 @print{} "The third form"
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137 @result{} "The second form"
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138 @end group
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139 @end example
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140 @end defspec
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141
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142 @node Conditionals
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143 @section Conditionals
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144 @cindex conditional evaluation
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145
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146 Conditional control structures choose among alternatives. Emacs Lisp
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147 has four conditional forms: @code{if}, which is much the same as in
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148 other languages; @code{when} and @code{unless}, which are variants of
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149 @code{if}; and @code{cond}, which is a generalized case statement.
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150
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151 @defspec if condition then-form else-forms@dots{}
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152 @code{if} chooses between the @var{then-form} and the @var{else-forms}
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153 based on the value of @var{condition}. If the evaluated @var{condition} is
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154 non-@code{nil}, @var{then-form} is evaluated and the result returned.
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155 Otherwise, the @var{else-forms} are evaluated in textual order, and the
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156 value of the last one is returned. (The @var{else} part of @code{if} is
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157 an example of an implicit @code{progn}. @xref{Sequencing}.)
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158
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159 If @var{condition} has the value @code{nil}, and no @var{else-forms} are
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160 given, @code{if} returns @code{nil}.
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161
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162 @code{if} is a special form because the branch that is not selected is
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163 never evaluated---it is ignored. Thus, in the example below,
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164 @code{true} is not printed because @code{print} is never called.
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165
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166 @example
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167 @group
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168 (if nil
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169 (print 'true)
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170 'very-false)
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171 @result{} very-false
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172 @end group
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173 @end example
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174 @end defspec
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175
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176 @defmac when condition then-forms@dots{}
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177 This is a variant of @code{if} where there are no @var{else-forms},
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178 and possibly several @var{then-forms}. In particular,
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179
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180 @example
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181 (when @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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182 @end example
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183
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184 @noindent
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185 is entirely equivalent to
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186
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187 @example
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188 (if @var{condition} (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) nil)
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189 @end example
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190 @end defmac
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191
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192 @defmac unless condition forms@dots{}
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193 This is a variant of @code{if} where there is no @var{then-form}:
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194
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195 @example
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196 (unless @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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197 @end example
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198
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199 @noindent
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200 is entirely equivalent to
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201
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202 @example
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203 (if @var{condition} nil
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204 @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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205 @end example
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206 @end defmac
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207
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208 @defspec cond clause@dots{}
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209 @code{cond} chooses among an arbitrary number of alternatives. Each
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210 @var{clause} in the @code{cond} must be a list. The @sc{car} of this
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211 list is the @var{condition}; the remaining elements, if any, the
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212 @var{body-forms}. Thus, a clause looks like this:
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213
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214 @example
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215 (@var{condition} @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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216 @end example
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217
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218 @code{cond} tries the clauses in textual order, by evaluating the
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219 @var{condition} of each clause. If the value of @var{condition} is
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220 non-@code{nil}, the clause ``succeeds''; then @code{cond} evaluates its
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221 @var{body-forms}, and the value of the last of @var{body-forms} becomes
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222 the value of the @code{cond}. The remaining clauses are ignored.
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223
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224 If the value of @var{condition} is @code{nil}, the clause ``fails,'' so
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225 the @code{cond} moves on to the following clause, trying its
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226 @var{condition}.
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227
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228 If every @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil}, so that every clause
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229 fails, @code{cond} returns @code{nil}.
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230
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231 A clause may also look like this:
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232
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233 @example
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234 (@var{condition})
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235 @end example
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236
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237 @noindent
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238 Then, if @var{condition} is non-@code{nil} when tested, the value of
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239 @var{condition} becomes the value of the @code{cond} form.
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240
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241 The following example has four clauses, which test for the cases where
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242 the value of @code{x} is a number, string, buffer and symbol,
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243 respectively:
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244
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245 @example
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246 @group
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247 (cond ((numberp x) x)
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248 ((stringp x) x)
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249 ((bufferp x)
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250 (setq temporary-hack x) ; @r{multiple body-forms}
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251 (buffer-name x)) ; @r{in one clause}
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252 ((symbolp x) (symbol-value x)))
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253 @end group
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254 @end example
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255
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256 Often we want to execute the last clause whenever none of the previous
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257 clauses was successful. To do this, we use @code{t} as the
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258 @var{condition} of the last clause, like this: @code{(t
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259 @var{body-forms})}. The form @code{t} evaluates to @code{t}, which is
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260 never @code{nil}, so this clause never fails, provided the @code{cond}
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261 gets to it at all.
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262
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263 For example,
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264
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265 @example
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266 @group
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267 (setq a 5)
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268 (cond ((eq a 'hack) 'foo)
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269 (t "default"))
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270 @result{} "default"
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271 @end group
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272 @end example
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273
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274 @noindent
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275 This @code{cond} expression returns @code{foo} if the value of @code{a}
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276 is @code{hack}, and returns the string @code{"default"} otherwise.
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277 @end defspec
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278
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279 Any conditional construct can be expressed with @code{cond} or with
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280 @code{if}. Therefore, the choice between them is a matter of style.
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281 For example:
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282
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283 @example
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284 @group
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285 (if @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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286 @equiv{}
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287 (cond (@var{a} @var{b}) (t @var{c}))
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288 @end group
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289 @end example
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290
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291 @node Combining Conditions
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292 @section Constructs for Combining Conditions
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293
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294 This section describes three constructs that are often used together
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295 with @code{if} and @code{cond} to express complicated conditions. The
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296 constructs @code{and} and @code{or} can also be used individually as
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297 kinds of multiple conditional constructs.
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298
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299 @defun not condition
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300 This function tests for the falsehood of @var{condition}. It returns
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301 @code{t} if @var{condition} is @code{nil}, and @code{nil} otherwise.
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302 The function @code{not} is identical to @code{null}, and we recommend
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303 using the name @code{null} if you are testing for an empty list.
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304 @end defun
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305
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306 @defspec and conditions@dots{}
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307 The @code{and} special form tests whether all the @var{conditions} are
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308 true. It works by evaluating the @var{conditions} one by one in the
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309 order written.
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310
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311 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to @code{nil}, then the result
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312 of the @code{and} must be @code{nil} regardless of the remaining
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313 @var{conditions}; so @code{and} returns @code{nil} right away, ignoring
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314 the remaining @var{conditions}.
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315
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316 If all the @var{conditions} turn out non-@code{nil}, then the value of
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317 the last of them becomes the value of the @code{and} form. Just
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318 @code{(and)}, with no @var{conditions}, returns @code{t}, appropriate
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319 because all the @var{conditions} turned out non-@code{nil}. (Think
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320 about it; which one did not?)
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321
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322 Here is an example. The first condition returns the integer 1, which is
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323 not @code{nil}. Similarly, the second condition returns the integer 2,
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324 which is not @code{nil}. The third condition is @code{nil}, so the
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325 remaining condition is never evaluated.
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326
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327 @example
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328 @group
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329 (and (print 1) (print 2) nil (print 3))
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330 @print{} 1
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331 @print{} 2
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332 @result{} nil
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333 @end group
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334 @end example
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335
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336 Here is a more realistic example of using @code{and}:
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337
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338 @example
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339 @group
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340 (if (and (consp foo) (eq (car foo) 'x))
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341 (message "foo is a list starting with x"))
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342 @end group
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343 @end example
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344
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345 @noindent
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346 Note that @code{(car foo)} is not executed if @code{(consp foo)} returns
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347 @code{nil}, thus avoiding an error.
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348
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349 @code{and} expressions can also be written using either @code{if} or
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350 @code{cond}. Here's how:
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351
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352 @example
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353 @group
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354 (and @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
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355 @equiv{}
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356 (if @var{arg1} (if @var{arg2} @var{arg3}))
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357 @equiv{}
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358 (cond (@var{arg1} (cond (@var{arg2} @var{arg3}))))
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359 @end group
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360 @end example
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361 @end defspec
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362
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363 @defspec or conditions@dots{}
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364 The @code{or} special form tests whether at least one of the
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365 @var{conditions} is true. It works by evaluating all the
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366 @var{conditions} one by one in the order written.
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367
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368 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to a non-@code{nil} value, then
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369 the result of the @code{or} must be non-@code{nil}; so @code{or} returns
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370 right away, ignoring the remaining @var{conditions}. The value it
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371 returns is the non-@code{nil} value of the condition just evaluated.
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372
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373 If all the @var{conditions} turn out @code{nil}, then the @code{or}
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374 expression returns @code{nil}. Just @code{(or)}, with no
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375 @var{conditions}, returns @code{nil}, appropriate because all the
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376 @var{conditions} turned out @code{nil}. (Think about it; which one
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377 did not?)
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378
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379 For example, this expression tests whether @code{x} is either
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380 @code{nil} or the integer zero:
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381
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382 @example
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383 (or (eq x nil) (eq x 0))
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384 @end example
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385
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386 Like the @code{and} construct, @code{or} can be written in terms of
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387 @code{cond}. For example:
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388
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389 @example
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390 @group
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391 (or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
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392 @equiv{}
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393 (cond (@var{arg1})
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394 (@var{arg2})
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395 (@var{arg3}))
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396 @end group
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397 @end example
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398
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399 You could almost write @code{or} in terms of @code{if}, but not quite:
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400
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401 @example
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402 @group
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403 (if @var{arg1} @var{arg1}
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404 (if @var{arg2} @var{arg2}
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405 @var{arg3}))
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406 @end group
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407 @end example
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408
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409 @noindent
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410 This is not completely equivalent because it can evaluate @var{arg1} or
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411 @var{arg2} twice. By contrast, @code{(or @var{arg1} @var{arg2}
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412 @var{arg3})} never evaluates any argument more than once.
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413 @end defspec
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414
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415 @node Iteration
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416 @section Iteration
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417 @cindex iteration
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418 @cindex recursion
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419
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420 Iteration means executing part of a program repetitively. For
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421 example, you might want to repeat some computation once for each element
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422 of a list, or once for each integer from 0 to @var{n}. You can do this
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423 in Emacs Lisp with the special form @code{while}:
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424
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425 @defspec while condition forms@dots{}
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426 @code{while} first evaluates @var{condition}. If the result is
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427 non-@code{nil}, it evaluates @var{forms} in textual order. Then it
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428 reevaluates @var{condition}, and if the result is non-@code{nil}, it
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429 evaluates @var{forms} again. This process repeats until @var{condition}
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430 evaluates to @code{nil}.
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431
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432 There is no limit on the number of iterations that may occur. The loop
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433 will continue until either @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil} or
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434 until an error or @code{throw} jumps out of it (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}).
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435
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436 The value of a @code{while} form is always @code{nil}.
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437
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438 @example
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439 @group
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440 (setq num 0)
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441 @result{} 0
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442 @end group
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443 @group
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444 (while (< num 4)
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445 (princ (format "Iteration %d." num))
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446 (setq num (1+ num)))
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447 @print{} Iteration 0.
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448 @print{} Iteration 1.
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449 @print{} Iteration 2.
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450 @print{} Iteration 3.
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451 @result{} nil
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452 @end group
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453 @end example
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454
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455 To write a ``repeat...until'' loop, which will execute something on each
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456 iteration and then do the end-test, put the body followed by the
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457 end-test in a @code{progn} as the first argument of @code{while}, as
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458 shown here:
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459
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460 @example
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461 @group
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462 (while (progn
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463 (forward-line 1)
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464 (not (looking-at "^$"))))
|
|
465 @end group
|
|
466 @end example
|
|
467
|
|
468 @noindent
|
|
469 This moves forward one line and continues moving by lines until it
|
|
470 reaches an empty line. It is peculiar in that the @code{while} has no
|
|
471 body, just the end test (which also does the real work of moving point).
|
|
472 @end defspec
|
|
473
|
|
474 The @code{dolist} and @code{dotimes} macros provide convenient ways to
|
|
475 write two common kinds of loops.
|
|
476
|
|
477 @defmac dolist (var list [result]) body@dots{}
|
|
478 This construct executes @var{body} once for each element of
|
|
479 @var{list}, binding the variable @var{var} locally to hold the current
|
|
480 element. Then it returns the value of evaluating @var{result}, or
|
|
481 @code{nil} if @var{result} is omitted. For example, here is how you
|
|
482 could use @code{dolist} to define the @code{reverse} function:
|
|
483
|
|
484 @example
|
|
485 (defun reverse (list)
|
|
486 (let (value)
|
|
487 (dolist (elt list value)
|
|
488 (setq value (cons elt value)))))
|
|
489 @end example
|
|
490 @end defmac
|
|
491
|
|
492 @defmac dotimes (var count [result]) body@dots{}
|
|
493 This construct executes @var{body} once for each integer from 0
|
|
494 (inclusive) to @var{count} (exclusive), binding the variable @var{var}
|
|
495 to the integer for the current iteration. Then it returns the value
|
|
496 of evaluating @var{result}, or @code{nil} if @var{result} is omitted.
|
|
497 Here is an example of using @code{dotimes} to do something 100 times:
|
|
498
|
|
499 @example
|
|
500 (dotimes (i 100)
|
|
501 (insert "I will not obey absurd orders\n"))
|
|
502 @end example
|
|
503 @end defmac
|
|
504
|
|
505 @node Nonlocal Exits
|
|
506 @section Nonlocal Exits
|
|
507 @cindex nonlocal exits
|
|
508
|
|
509 A @dfn{nonlocal exit} is a transfer of control from one point in a
|
|
510 program to another remote point. Nonlocal exits can occur in Emacs Lisp
|
|
511 as a result of errors; you can also use them under explicit control.
|
|
512 Nonlocal exits unbind all variable bindings made by the constructs being
|
|
513 exited.
|
|
514
|
|
515 @menu
|
|
516 * Catch and Throw:: Nonlocal exits for the program's own purposes.
|
|
517 * Examples of Catch:: Showing how such nonlocal exits can be written.
|
|
518 * Errors:: How errors are signaled and handled.
|
|
519 * Cleanups:: Arranging to run a cleanup form if an error happens.
|
|
520 @end menu
|
|
521
|
|
522 @node Catch and Throw
|
|
523 @subsection Explicit Nonlocal Exits: @code{catch} and @code{throw}
|
|
524
|
|
525 Most control constructs affect only the flow of control within the
|
|
526 construct itself. The function @code{throw} is the exception to this
|
|
527 rule of normal program execution: it performs a nonlocal exit on
|
|
528 request. (There are other exceptions, but they are for error handling
|
|
529 only.) @code{throw} is used inside a @code{catch}, and jumps back to
|
|
530 that @code{catch}. For example:
|
|
531
|
|
532 @example
|
|
533 @group
|
|
534 (defun foo-outer ()
|
|
535 (catch 'foo
|
|
536 (foo-inner)))
|
|
537
|
|
538 (defun foo-inner ()
|
|
539 @dots{}
|
|
540 (if x
|
|
541 (throw 'foo t))
|
|
542 @dots{})
|
|
543 @end group
|
|
544 @end example
|
|
545
|
|
546 @noindent
|
|
547 The @code{throw} form, if executed, transfers control straight back to
|
|
548 the corresponding @code{catch}, which returns immediately. The code
|
|
549 following the @code{throw} is not executed. The second argument of
|
|
550 @code{throw} is used as the return value of the @code{catch}.
|
|
551
|
|
552 The function @code{throw} finds the matching @code{catch} based on the
|
|
553 first argument: it searches for a @code{catch} whose first argument is
|
|
554 @code{eq} to the one specified in the @code{throw}. If there is more
|
|
555 than one applicable @code{catch}, the innermost one takes precedence.
|
|
556 Thus, in the above example, the @code{throw} specifies @code{foo}, and
|
|
557 the @code{catch} in @code{foo-outer} specifies the same symbol, so that
|
|
558 @code{catch} is the applicable one (assuming there is no other matching
|
|
559 @code{catch} in between).
|
|
560
|
|
561 Executing @code{throw} exits all Lisp constructs up to the matching
|
|
562 @code{catch}, including function calls. When binding constructs such as
|
|
563 @code{let} or function calls are exited in this way, the bindings are
|
|
564 unbound, just as they are when these constructs exit normally
|
|
565 (@pxref{Local Variables}). Likewise, @code{throw} restores the buffer
|
|
566 and position saved by @code{save-excursion} (@pxref{Excursions}), and
|
|
567 the narrowing status saved by @code{save-restriction} and the window
|
|
568 selection saved by @code{save-window-excursion} (@pxref{Window
|
|
569 Configurations}). It also runs any cleanups established with the
|
|
570 @code{unwind-protect} special form when it exits that form
|
|
571 (@pxref{Cleanups}).
|
|
572
|
|
573 The @code{throw} need not appear lexically within the @code{catch}
|
|
574 that it jumps to. It can equally well be called from another function
|
|
575 called within the @code{catch}. As long as the @code{throw} takes place
|
|
576 chronologically after entry to the @code{catch}, and chronologically
|
|
577 before exit from it, it has access to that @code{catch}. This is why
|
|
578 @code{throw} can be used in commands such as @code{exit-recursive-edit}
|
|
579 that throw back to the editor command loop (@pxref{Recursive Editing}).
|
|
580
|
|
581 @cindex CL note---only @code{throw} in Emacs
|
|
582 @quotation
|
|
583 @b{Common Lisp note:} Most other versions of Lisp, including Common Lisp,
|
|
584 have several ways of transferring control nonsequentially: @code{return},
|
|
585 @code{return-from}, and @code{go}, for example. Emacs Lisp has only
|
|
586 @code{throw}.
|
|
587 @end quotation
|
|
588
|
|
589 @defspec catch tag body@dots{}
|
|
590 @cindex tag on run time stack
|
|
591 @code{catch} establishes a return point for the @code{throw} function.
|
|
592 The return point is distinguished from other such return points by
|
|
593 @var{tag}, which may be any Lisp object except @code{nil}. The argument
|
|
594 @var{tag} is evaluated normally before the return point is established.
|
|
595
|
|
596 With the return point in effect, @code{catch} evaluates the forms of the
|
|
597 @var{body} in textual order. If the forms execute normally (without
|
|
598 error or nonlocal exit) the value of the last body form is returned from
|
|
599 the @code{catch}.
|
|
600
|
|
601 If a @code{throw} is executed during the execution of @var{body},
|
|
602 specifying the same value @var{tag}, the @code{catch} form exits
|
|
603 immediately; the value it returns is whatever was specified as the
|
|
604 second argument of @code{throw}.
|
|
605 @end defspec
|
|
606
|
|
607 @defun throw tag value
|
|
608 The purpose of @code{throw} is to return from a return point previously
|
|
609 established with @code{catch}. The argument @var{tag} is used to choose
|
|
610 among the various existing return points; it must be @code{eq} to the value
|
|
611 specified in the @code{catch}. If multiple return points match @var{tag},
|
|
612 the innermost one is used.
|
|
613
|
|
614 The argument @var{value} is used as the value to return from that
|
|
615 @code{catch}.
|
|
616
|
|
617 @kindex no-catch
|
|
618 If no return point is in effect with tag @var{tag}, then a @code{no-catch}
|
|
619 error is signaled with data @code{(@var{tag} @var{value})}.
|
|
620 @end defun
|
|
621
|
|
622 @node Examples of Catch
|
|
623 @subsection Examples of @code{catch} and @code{throw}
|
|
624
|
|
625 One way to use @code{catch} and @code{throw} is to exit from a doubly
|
|
626 nested loop. (In most languages, this would be done with a ``go to.'')
|
|
627 Here we compute @code{(foo @var{i} @var{j})} for @var{i} and @var{j}
|
|
628 varying from 0 to 9:
|
|
629
|
|
630 @example
|
|
631 @group
|
|
632 (defun search-foo ()
|
|
633 (catch 'loop
|
|
634 (let ((i 0))
|
|
635 (while (< i 10)
|
|
636 (let ((j 0))
|
|
637 (while (< j 10)
|
|
638 (if (foo i j)
|
|
639 (throw 'loop (list i j)))
|
|
640 (setq j (1+ j))))
|
|
641 (setq i (1+ i))))))
|
|
642 @end group
|
|
643 @end example
|
|
644
|
|
645 @noindent
|
|
646 If @code{foo} ever returns non-@code{nil}, we stop immediately and return a
|
|
647 list of @var{i} and @var{j}. If @code{foo} always returns @code{nil}, the
|
|
648 @code{catch} returns normally, and the value is @code{nil}, since that
|
|
649 is the result of the @code{while}.
|
|
650
|
|
651 Here are two tricky examples, slightly different, showing two
|
|
652 return points at once. First, two return points with the same tag,
|
|
653 @code{hack}:
|
|
654
|
|
655 @example
|
|
656 @group
|
|
657 (defun catch2 (tag)
|
|
658 (catch tag
|
|
659 (throw 'hack 'yes)))
|
|
660 @result{} catch2
|
|
661 @end group
|
|
662
|
|
663 @group
|
|
664 (catch 'hack
|
|
665 (print (catch2 'hack))
|
|
666 'no)
|
|
667 @print{} yes
|
|
668 @result{} no
|
|
669 @end group
|
|
670 @end example
|
|
671
|
|
672 @noindent
|
|
673 Since both return points have tags that match the @code{throw}, it goes to
|
|
674 the inner one, the one established in @code{catch2}. Therefore,
|
|
675 @code{catch2} returns normally with value @code{yes}, and this value is
|
|
676 printed. Finally the second body form in the outer @code{catch}, which is
|
|
677 @code{'no}, is evaluated and returned from the outer @code{catch}.
|
|
678
|
|
679 Now let's change the argument given to @code{catch2}:
|
|
680
|
|
681 @example
|
|
682 @group
|
|
683 (catch 'hack
|
|
684 (print (catch2 'quux))
|
|
685 'no)
|
|
686 @result{} yes
|
|
687 @end group
|
|
688 @end example
|
|
689
|
|
690 @noindent
|
|
691 We still have two return points, but this time only the outer one has
|
|
692 the tag @code{hack}; the inner one has the tag @code{quux} instead.
|
|
693 Therefore, @code{throw} makes the outer @code{catch} return the value
|
|
694 @code{yes}. The function @code{print} is never called, and the
|
|
695 body-form @code{'no} is never evaluated.
|
|
696
|
|
697 @node Errors
|
|
698 @subsection Errors
|
|
699 @cindex errors
|
|
700
|
|
701 When Emacs Lisp attempts to evaluate a form that, for some reason,
|
|
702 cannot be evaluated, it @dfn{signals} an @dfn{error}.
|
|
703
|
|
704 When an error is signaled, Emacs's default reaction is to print an
|
|
705 error message and terminate execution of the current command. This is
|
|
706 the right thing to do in most cases, such as if you type @kbd{C-f} at
|
|
707 the end of the buffer.
|
|
708
|
|
709 In complicated programs, simple termination may not be what you want.
|
|
710 For example, the program may have made temporary changes in data
|
|
711 structures, or created temporary buffers that should be deleted before
|
|
712 the program is finished. In such cases, you would use
|
|
713 @code{unwind-protect} to establish @dfn{cleanup expressions} to be
|
|
714 evaluated in case of error. (@xref{Cleanups}.) Occasionally, you may
|
|
715 wish the program to continue execution despite an error in a subroutine.
|
|
716 In these cases, you would use @code{condition-case} to establish
|
|
717 @dfn{error handlers} to recover control in case of error.
|
|
718
|
|
719 Resist the temptation to use error handling to transfer control from
|
|
720 one part of the program to another; use @code{catch} and @code{throw}
|
|
721 instead. @xref{Catch and Throw}.
|
|
722
|
|
723 @menu
|
|
724 * Signaling Errors:: How to report an error.
|
|
725 * Processing of Errors:: What Emacs does when you report an error.
|
|
726 * Handling Errors:: How you can trap errors and continue execution.
|
|
727 * Error Symbols:: How errors are classified for trapping them.
|
|
728 @end menu
|
|
729
|
|
730 @node Signaling Errors
|
|
731 @subsubsection How to Signal an Error
|
|
732 @cindex signaling errors
|
|
733
|
|
734 @dfn{Signaling} an error means beginning error processing. Error
|
|
735 processing normally aborts all or part of the running program and
|
|
736 returns to a point that is set up to handle the error
|
|
737 (@pxref{Processing of Errors}). Here we describe how to signal an
|
|
738 error.
|
|
739
|
|
740 Most errors are signaled ``automatically'' within Lisp primitives
|
|
741 which you call for other purposes, such as if you try to take the
|
|
742 @sc{car} of an integer or move forward a character at the end of the
|
|
743 buffer. You can also signal errors explicitly with the functions
|
|
744 @code{error} and @code{signal}.
|
|
745
|
|
746 Quitting, which happens when the user types @kbd{C-g}, is not
|
|
747 considered an error, but it is handled almost like an error.
|
|
748 @xref{Quitting}.
|
|
749
|
|
750 Every error specifies an error message, one way or another. The
|
|
751 message should state what is wrong (``File does not exist''), not how
|
|
752 things ought to be (``File must exist''). The convention in Emacs
|
|
753 Lisp is that error messages should start with a capital letter, but
|
|
754 should not end with any sort of punctuation.
|
|
755
|
|
756 @defun error format-string &rest args
|
|
757 This function signals an error with an error message constructed by
|
|
758 applying @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) to
|
|
759 @var{format-string} and @var{args}.
|
|
760
|
|
761 These examples show typical uses of @code{error}:
|
|
762
|
|
763 @example
|
|
764 @group
|
|
765 (error "That is an error -- try something else")
|
|
766 @error{} That is an error -- try something else
|
|
767 @end group
|
|
768
|
|
769 @group
|
|
770 (error "You have committed %d errors" 10)
|
|
771 @error{} You have committed 10 errors
|
|
772 @end group
|
|
773 @end example
|
|
774
|
|
775 @code{error} works by calling @code{signal} with two arguments: the
|
|
776 error symbol @code{error}, and a list containing the string returned by
|
|
777 @code{format}.
|
|
778
|
|
779 @strong{Warning:} If you want to use your own string as an error message
|
|
780 verbatim, don't just write @code{(error @var{string})}. If @var{string}
|
|
781 contains @samp{%}, it will be interpreted as a format specifier, with
|
|
782 undesirable results. Instead, use @code{(error "%s" @var{string})}.
|
|
783 @end defun
|
|
784
|
|
785 @defun signal error-symbol data
|
|
786 @anchor{Definition of signal}
|
|
787 This function signals an error named by @var{error-symbol}. The
|
|
788 argument @var{data} is a list of additional Lisp objects relevant to
|
|
789 the circumstances of the error.
|
|
790
|
|
791 The argument @var{error-symbol} must be an @dfn{error symbol}---a symbol
|
|
792 bearing a property @code{error-conditions} whose value is a list of
|
|
793 condition names. This is how Emacs Lisp classifies different sorts of
|
|
794 errors. @xref{Error Symbols}, for a description of error symbols,
|
|
795 error conditions and condition names.
|
|
796
|
|
797 If the error is not handled, the two arguments are used in printing
|
|
798 the error message. Normally, this error message is provided by the
|
|
799 @code{error-message} property of @var{error-symbol}. If @var{data} is
|
|
800 non-@code{nil}, this is followed by a colon and a comma separated list
|
|
801 of the unevaluated elements of @var{data}. For @code{error}, the
|
|
802 error message is the @sc{car} of @var{data} (that must be a string).
|
|
803 Subcategories of @code{file-error} are handled specially.
|
|
804
|
|
805 The number and significance of the objects in @var{data} depends on
|
|
806 @var{error-symbol}. For example, with a @code{wrong-type-arg} error,
|
|
807 there should be two objects in the list: a predicate that describes the type
|
|
808 that was expected, and the object that failed to fit that type.
|
|
809
|
|
810 Both @var{error-symbol} and @var{data} are available to any error
|
|
811 handlers that handle the error: @code{condition-case} binds a local
|
|
812 variable to a list of the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} .@:
|
|
813 @var{data})} (@pxref{Handling Errors}).
|
|
814
|
|
815 The function @code{signal} never returns (though in older Emacs versions
|
|
816 it could sometimes return).
|
|
817
|
|
818 @smallexample
|
|
819 @group
|
|
820 (signal 'wrong-number-of-arguments '(x y))
|
|
821 @error{} Wrong number of arguments: x, y
|
|
822 @end group
|
|
823
|
|
824 @group
|
|
825 (signal 'no-such-error '("My unknown error condition"))
|
|
826 @error{} peculiar error: "My unknown error condition"
|
|
827 @end group
|
|
828 @end smallexample
|
|
829 @end defun
|
|
830
|
|
831 @cindex CL note---no continuable errors
|
|
832 @quotation
|
|
833 @b{Common Lisp note:} Emacs Lisp has nothing like the Common Lisp
|
|
834 concept of continuable errors.
|
|
835 @end quotation
|
|
836
|
|
837 @node Processing of Errors
|
|
838 @subsubsection How Emacs Processes Errors
|
|
839
|
|
840 When an error is signaled, @code{signal} searches for an active
|
|
841 @dfn{handler} for the error. A handler is a sequence of Lisp
|
|
842 expressions designated to be executed if an error happens in part of the
|
|
843 Lisp program. If the error has an applicable handler, the handler is
|
|
844 executed, and control resumes following the handler. The handler
|
|
845 executes in the environment of the @code{condition-case} that
|
|
846 established it; all functions called within that @code{condition-case}
|
|
847 have already been exited, and the handler cannot return to them.
|
|
848
|
|
849 If there is no applicable handler for the error, it terminates the
|
|
850 current command and returns control to the editor command loop. (The
|
|
851 command loop has an implicit handler for all kinds of errors.) The
|
|
852 command loop's handler uses the error symbol and associated data to
|
|
853 print an error message. You can use the variable
|
|
854 @code{command-error-function} to control how this is done:
|
|
855
|
|
856 @defvar command-error-function
|
|
857 This variable, if non-@code{nil}, specifies a function to use to
|
|
858 handle errors that return control to the Emacs command loop. The
|
|
859 function should take three arguments: @var{data}, a list of the same
|
|
860 form that @code{condition-case} would bind to its variable;
|
|
861 @var{context}, a string describing the situation in which the error
|
|
862 occurred, or (more often) @code{nil}; and @var{caller}, the Lisp
|
|
863 function which called the primitive that signaled the error.
|
|
864 @end defvar
|
|
865
|
|
866 @cindex @code{debug-on-error} use
|
|
867 An error that has no explicit handler may call the Lisp debugger. The
|
|
868 debugger is enabled if the variable @code{debug-on-error} (@pxref{Error
|
|
869 Debugging}) is non-@code{nil}. Unlike error handlers, the debugger runs
|
|
870 in the environment of the error, so that you can examine values of
|
|
871 variables precisely as they were at the time of the error.
|
|
872
|
|
873 @node Handling Errors
|
|
874 @subsubsection Writing Code to Handle Errors
|
|
875 @cindex error handler
|
|
876 @cindex handling errors
|
|
877
|
|
878 The usual effect of signaling an error is to terminate the command
|
|
879 that is running and return immediately to the Emacs editor command loop.
|
|
880 You can arrange to trap errors occurring in a part of your program by
|
|
881 establishing an error handler, with the special form
|
|
882 @code{condition-case}. A simple example looks like this:
|
|
883
|
|
884 @example
|
|
885 @group
|
|
886 (condition-case nil
|
|
887 (delete-file filename)
|
|
888 (error nil))
|
|
889 @end group
|
|
890 @end example
|
|
891
|
|
892 @noindent
|
|
893 This deletes the file named @var{filename}, catching any error and
|
|
894 returning @code{nil} if an error occurs.
|
|
895
|
|
896 The @code{condition-case} construct is often used to trap errors that
|
|
897 are predictable, such as failure to open a file in a call to
|
|
898 @code{insert-file-contents}. It is also used to trap errors that are
|
|
899 totally unpredictable, such as when the program evaluates an expression
|
|
900 read from the user.
|
|
901
|
|
902 The second argument of @code{condition-case} is called the
|
|
903 @dfn{protected form}. (In the example above, the protected form is a
|
|
904 call to @code{delete-file}.) The error handlers go into effect when
|
|
905 this form begins execution and are deactivated when this form returns.
|
|
906 They remain in effect for all the intervening time. In particular, they
|
|
907 are in effect during the execution of functions called by this form, in
|
|
908 their subroutines, and so on. This is a good thing, since, strictly
|
|
909 speaking, errors can be signaled only by Lisp primitives (including
|
|
910 @code{signal} and @code{error}) called by the protected form, not by the
|
|
911 protected form itself.
|
|
912
|
|
913 The arguments after the protected form are handlers. Each handler
|
|
914 lists one or more @dfn{condition names} (which are symbols) to specify
|
|
915 which errors it will handle. The error symbol specified when an error
|
|
916 is signaled also defines a list of condition names. A handler applies
|
|
917 to an error if they have any condition names in common. In the example
|
|
918 above, there is one handler, and it specifies one condition name,
|
|
919 @code{error}, which covers all errors.
|
|
920
|
|
921 The search for an applicable handler checks all the established handlers
|
|
922 starting with the most recently established one. Thus, if two nested
|
|
923 @code{condition-case} forms offer to handle the same error, the inner of
|
|
924 the two gets to handle it.
|
|
925
|
|
926 If an error is handled by some @code{condition-case} form, this
|
|
927 ordinarily prevents the debugger from being run, even if
|
|
928 @code{debug-on-error} says this error should invoke the debugger.
|
|
929
|
|
930 If you want to be able to debug errors that are caught by a
|
|
931 @code{condition-case}, set the variable @code{debug-on-signal} to a
|
|
932 non-@code{nil} value. You can also specify that a particular handler
|
|
933 should let the debugger run first, by writing @code{debug} among the
|
|
934 conditions, like this:
|
|
935
|
|
936 @example
|
|
937 @group
|
|
938 (condition-case nil
|
|
939 (delete-file filename)
|
|
940 ((debug error) nil))
|
|
941 @end group
|
|
942 @end example
|
|
943
|
|
944 @noindent
|
|
945 The effect of @code{debug} here is only to prevent
|
|
946 @code{condition-case} from suppressing the call to the debugger. Any
|
|
947 given error will invoke the debugger only if @code{debug-on-error} and
|
|
948 the other usual filtering mechanisms say it should. @xref{Error Debugging}.
|
|
949
|
|
950 Once Emacs decides that a certain handler handles the error, it
|
|
951 returns control to that handler. To do so, Emacs unbinds all variable
|
|
952 bindings made by binding constructs that are being exited, and
|
|
953 executes the cleanups of all @code{unwind-protect} forms that are
|
|
954 being exited. Once control arrives at the handler, the body of the
|
|
955 handler executes normally.
|
|
956
|
|
957 After execution of the handler body, execution returns from the
|
|
958 @code{condition-case} form. Because the protected form is exited
|
|
959 completely before execution of the handler, the handler cannot resume
|
|
960 execution at the point of the error, nor can it examine variable
|
|
961 bindings that were made within the protected form. All it can do is
|
|
962 clean up and proceed.
|
|
963
|
|
964 Error signaling and handling have some resemblance to @code{throw} and
|
|
965 @code{catch} (@pxref{Catch and Throw}), but they are entirely separate
|
|
966 facilities. An error cannot be caught by a @code{catch}, and a
|
|
967 @code{throw} cannot be handled by an error handler (though using
|
|
968 @code{throw} when there is no suitable @code{catch} signals an error
|
|
969 that can be handled).
|
|
970
|
|
971 @defspec condition-case var protected-form handlers@dots{}
|
|
972 This special form establishes the error handlers @var{handlers} around
|
|
973 the execution of @var{protected-form}. If @var{protected-form} executes
|
|
974 without error, the value it returns becomes the value of the
|
|
975 @code{condition-case} form; in this case, the @code{condition-case} has
|
|
976 no effect. The @code{condition-case} form makes a difference when an
|
|
977 error occurs during @var{protected-form}.
|
|
978
|
|
979 Each of the @var{handlers} is a list of the form @code{(@var{conditions}
|
|
980 @var{body}@dots{})}. Here @var{conditions} is an error condition name
|
|
981 to be handled, or a list of condition names (which can include @code{debug}
|
|
982 to allow the debugger to run before the handler); @var{body} is one or more
|
|
983 Lisp expressions to be executed when this handler handles an error.
|
|
984 Here are examples of handlers:
|
|
985
|
|
986 @smallexample
|
|
987 @group
|
|
988 (error nil)
|
|
989
|
|
990 (arith-error (message "Division by zero"))
|
|
991
|
|
992 ((arith-error file-error)
|
|
993 (message
|
|
994 "Either division by zero or failure to open a file"))
|
|
995 @end group
|
|
996 @end smallexample
|
|
997
|
|
998 Each error that occurs has an @dfn{error symbol} that describes what
|
|
999 kind of error it is. The @code{error-conditions} property of this
|
|
1000 symbol is a list of condition names (@pxref{Error Symbols}). Emacs
|
|
1001 searches all the active @code{condition-case} forms for a handler that
|
|
1002 specifies one or more of these condition names; the innermost matching
|
|
1003 @code{condition-case} handles the error. Within this
|
|
1004 @code{condition-case}, the first applicable handler handles the error.
|
|
1005
|
|
1006 After executing the body of the handler, the @code{condition-case}
|
|
1007 returns normally, using the value of the last form in the handler body
|
|
1008 as the overall value.
|
|
1009
|
|
1010 @cindex error description
|
|
1011 The argument @var{var} is a variable. @code{condition-case} does not
|
|
1012 bind this variable when executing the @var{protected-form}, only when it
|
|
1013 handles an error. At that time, it binds @var{var} locally to an
|
|
1014 @dfn{error description}, which is a list giving the particulars of the
|
|
1015 error. The error description has the form @code{(@var{error-symbol}
|
|
1016 . @var{data})}. The handler can refer to this list to decide what to
|
|
1017 do. For example, if the error is for failure opening a file, the file
|
|
1018 name is the second element of @var{data}---the third element of the
|
|
1019 error description.
|
|
1020
|
|
1021 If @var{var} is @code{nil}, that means no variable is bound. Then the
|
|
1022 error symbol and associated data are not available to the handler.
|
|
1023 @end defspec
|
|
1024
|
|
1025 @defun error-message-string error-description
|
|
1026 This function returns the error message string for a given error
|
|
1027 descriptor. It is useful if you want to handle an error by printing the
|
|
1028 usual error message for that error. @xref{Definition of signal}.
|
|
1029 @end defun
|
|
1030
|
|
1031 @cindex @code{arith-error} example
|
|
1032 Here is an example of using @code{condition-case} to handle the error
|
|
1033 that results from dividing by zero. The handler displays the error
|
|
1034 message (but without a beep), then returns a very large number.
|
|
1035
|
|
1036 @smallexample
|
|
1037 @group
|
|
1038 (defun safe-divide (dividend divisor)
|
|
1039 (condition-case err
|
|
1040 ;; @r{Protected form.}
|
|
1041 (/ dividend divisor)
|
|
1042 @end group
|
|
1043 @group
|
|
1044 ;; @r{The handler.}
|
|
1045 (arith-error ; @r{Condition.}
|
|
1046 ;; @r{Display the usual message for this error.}
|
|
1047 (message "%s" (error-message-string err))
|
|
1048 1000000)))
|
|
1049 @result{} safe-divide
|
|
1050 @end group
|
|
1051
|
|
1052 @group
|
|
1053 (safe-divide 5 0)
|
|
1054 @print{} Arithmetic error: (arith-error)
|
|
1055 @result{} 1000000
|
|
1056 @end group
|
|
1057 @end smallexample
|
|
1058
|
|
1059 @noindent
|
|
1060 The handler specifies condition name @code{arith-error} so that it will handle only division-by-zero errors. Other kinds of errors will not be handled, at least not by this @code{condition-case}. Thus,
|
|
1061
|
|
1062 @smallexample
|
|
1063 @group
|
|
1064 (safe-divide nil 3)
|
|
1065 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, nil
|
|
1066 @end group
|
|
1067 @end smallexample
|
|
1068
|
|
1069 Here is a @code{condition-case} that catches all kinds of errors,
|
|
1070 including those signaled with @code{error}:
|
|
1071
|
|
1072 @smallexample
|
|
1073 @group
|
|
1074 (setq baz 34)
|
|
1075 @result{} 34
|
|
1076 @end group
|
|
1077
|
|
1078 @group
|
|
1079 (condition-case err
|
|
1080 (if (eq baz 35)
|
|
1081 t
|
|
1082 ;; @r{This is a call to the function @code{error}.}
|
|
1083 (error "Rats! The variable %s was %s, not 35" 'baz baz))
|
|
1084 ;; @r{This is the handler; it is not a form.}
|
|
1085 (error (princ (format "The error was: %s" err))
|
|
1086 2))
|
|
1087 @print{} The error was: (error "Rats! The variable baz was 34, not 35")
|
|
1088 @result{} 2
|
|
1089 @end group
|
|
1090 @end smallexample
|
|
1091
|
|
1092 @node Error Symbols
|
|
1093 @subsubsection Error Symbols and Condition Names
|
|
1094 @cindex error symbol
|
|
1095 @cindex error name
|
|
1096 @cindex condition name
|
|
1097 @cindex user-defined error
|
|
1098 @kindex error-conditions
|
|
1099
|
|
1100 When you signal an error, you specify an @dfn{error symbol} to specify
|
|
1101 the kind of error you have in mind. Each error has one and only one
|
|
1102 error symbol to categorize it. This is the finest classification of
|
|
1103 errors defined by the Emacs Lisp language.
|
|
1104
|
|
1105 These narrow classifications are grouped into a hierarchy of wider
|
|
1106 classes called @dfn{error conditions}, identified by @dfn{condition
|
|
1107 names}. The narrowest such classes belong to the error symbols
|
|
1108 themselves: each error symbol is also a condition name. There are also
|
|
1109 condition names for more extensive classes, up to the condition name
|
|
1110 @code{error} which takes in all kinds of errors (but not @code{quit}).
|
|
1111 Thus, each error has one or more condition names: @code{error}, the
|
|
1112 error symbol if that is distinct from @code{error}, and perhaps some
|
|
1113 intermediate classifications.
|
|
1114
|
|
1115 In order for a symbol to be an error symbol, it must have an
|
|
1116 @code{error-conditions} property which gives a list of condition names.
|
|
1117 This list defines the conditions that this kind of error belongs to.
|
|
1118 (The error symbol itself, and the symbol @code{error}, should always be
|
|
1119 members of this list.) Thus, the hierarchy of condition names is
|
|
1120 defined by the @code{error-conditions} properties of the error symbols.
|
|
1121 Because quitting is not considered an error, the value of the
|
|
1122 @code{error-conditions} property of @code{quit} is just @code{(quit)}.
|
|
1123
|
|
1124 @cindex peculiar error
|
|
1125 In addition to the @code{error-conditions} list, the error symbol
|
|
1126 should have an @code{error-message} property whose value is a string to
|
|
1127 be printed when that error is signaled but not handled. If the
|
|
1128 error symbol has no @code{error-message} property or if the
|
|
1129 @code{error-message} property exists, but is not a string, the error
|
|
1130 message @samp{peculiar error} is used. @xref{Definition of signal}.
|
|
1131
|
|
1132 Here is how we define a new error symbol, @code{new-error}:
|
|
1133
|
|
1134 @example
|
|
1135 @group
|
|
1136 (put 'new-error
|
|
1137 'error-conditions
|
|
1138 '(error my-own-errors new-error))
|
|
1139 @result{} (error my-own-errors new-error)
|
|
1140 @end group
|
|
1141 @group
|
|
1142 (put 'new-error 'error-message "A new error")
|
|
1143 @result{} "A new error"
|
|
1144 @end group
|
|
1145 @end example
|
|
1146
|
|
1147 @noindent
|
|
1148 This error has three condition names: @code{new-error}, the narrowest
|
|
1149 classification; @code{my-own-errors}, which we imagine is a wider
|
|
1150 classification; and @code{error}, which is the widest of all.
|
|
1151
|
|
1152 The error string should start with a capital letter but it should
|
|
1153 not end with a period. This is for consistency with the rest of Emacs.
|
|
1154
|
|
1155 Naturally, Emacs will never signal @code{new-error} on its own; only
|
|
1156 an explicit call to @code{signal} (@pxref{Definition of signal}) in
|
|
1157 your code can do this:
|
|
1158
|
|
1159 @example
|
|
1160 @group
|
|
1161 (signal 'new-error '(x y))
|
|
1162 @error{} A new error: x, y
|
|
1163 @end group
|
|
1164 @end example
|
|
1165
|
|
1166 This error can be handled through any of the three condition names.
|
|
1167 This example handles @code{new-error} and any other errors in the class
|
|
1168 @code{my-own-errors}:
|
|
1169
|
|
1170 @example
|
|
1171 @group
|
|
1172 (condition-case foo
|
|
1173 (bar nil t)
|
|
1174 (my-own-errors nil))
|
|
1175 @end group
|
|
1176 @end example
|
|
1177
|
|
1178 The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition
|
|
1179 names---the names used to match errors with handlers. An error symbol
|
|
1180 serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message
|
|
1181 and list of condition names. It would be cumbersome to give
|
|
1182 @code{signal} a list of condition names rather than one error symbol.
|
|
1183
|
|
1184 By contrast, using only error symbols without condition names would
|
|
1185 seriously decrease the power of @code{condition-case}. Condition names
|
|
1186 make it possible to categorize errors at various levels of generality
|
|
1187 when you write an error handler. Using error symbols alone would
|
|
1188 eliminate all but the narrowest level of classification.
|
|
1189
|
|
1190 @xref{Standard Errors}, for a list of all the standard error symbols
|
|
1191 and their conditions.
|
|
1192
|
|
1193 @node Cleanups
|
|
1194 @subsection Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits
|
|
1195
|
|
1196 The @code{unwind-protect} construct is essential whenever you
|
|
1197 temporarily put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits
|
|
1198 you to make the data consistent again in the event of an error or
|
|
1199 throw. (Another more specific cleanup construct that is used only for
|
|
1200 changes in buffer contents is the atomic change group; @ref{Atomic
|
|
1201 Changes}.)
|
|
1202
|
|
1203 @defspec unwind-protect body-form cleanup-forms@dots{}
|
|
1204 @cindex cleanup forms
|
|
1205 @cindex protected forms
|
|
1206 @cindex error cleanup
|
|
1207 @cindex unwinding
|
|
1208 @code{unwind-protect} executes @var{body-form} with a guarantee that
|
|
1209 the @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated if control leaves
|
|
1210 @var{body-form}, no matter how that happens. @var{body-form} may
|
|
1211 complete normally, or execute a @code{throw} out of the
|
|
1212 @code{unwind-protect}, or cause an error; in all cases, the
|
|
1213 @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated.
|
|
1214
|
|
1215 If @var{body-form} finishes normally, @code{unwind-protect} returns the
|
|
1216 value of @var{body-form}, after it evaluates the @var{cleanup-forms}.
|
|
1217 If @var{body-form} does not finish, @code{unwind-protect} does not
|
|
1218 return any value in the normal sense.
|
|
1219
|
|
1220 Only @var{body-form} is protected by the @code{unwind-protect}. If any
|
|
1221 of the @var{cleanup-forms} themselves exits nonlocally (via a
|
|
1222 @code{throw} or an error), @code{unwind-protect} is @emph{not}
|
|
1223 guaranteed to evaluate the rest of them. If the failure of one of the
|
|
1224 @var{cleanup-forms} has the potential to cause trouble, then protect
|
|
1225 it with another @code{unwind-protect} around that form.
|
|
1226
|
|
1227 The number of currently active @code{unwind-protect} forms counts,
|
|
1228 together with the number of local variable bindings, against the limit
|
|
1229 @code{max-specpdl-size} (@pxref{Definition of max-specpdl-size,, Local
|
|
1230 Variables}).
|
|
1231 @end defspec
|
|
1232
|
|
1233 For example, here we make an invisible buffer for temporary use, and
|
|
1234 make sure to kill it before finishing:
|
|
1235
|
|
1236 @smallexample
|
|
1237 @group
|
|
1238 (save-excursion
|
|
1239 (let ((buffer (get-buffer-create " *temp*")))
|
|
1240 (set-buffer buffer)
|
|
1241 (unwind-protect
|
|
1242 @var{body-form}
|
|
1243 (kill-buffer buffer))))
|
|
1244 @end group
|
|
1245 @end smallexample
|
|
1246
|
|
1247 @noindent
|
|
1248 You might think that we could just as well write @code{(kill-buffer
|
|
1249 (current-buffer))} and dispense with the variable @code{buffer}.
|
|
1250 However, the way shown above is safer, if @var{body-form} happens to
|
|
1251 get an error after switching to a different buffer! (Alternatively,
|
|
1252 you could write another @code{save-excursion} around @var{body-form},
|
|
1253 to ensure that the temporary buffer becomes current again in time to
|
|
1254 kill it.)
|
|
1255
|
|
1256 Emacs includes a standard macro called @code{with-temp-buffer} which
|
|
1257 expands into more or less the code shown above (@pxref{Definition of
|
|
1258 with-temp-buffer,, Current Buffer}). Several of the macros defined in
|
|
1259 this manual use @code{unwind-protect} in this way.
|
|
1260
|
|
1261 @findex ftp-login
|
|
1262 Here is an actual example derived from an FTP package. It creates a
|
|
1263 process (@pxref{Processes}) to try to establish a connection to a remote
|
|
1264 machine. As the function @code{ftp-login} is highly susceptible to
|
|
1265 numerous problems that the writer of the function cannot anticipate, it
|
|
1266 is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the process in the
|
|
1267 event of failure. Otherwise, Emacs might fill up with useless
|
|
1268 subprocesses.
|
|
1269
|
|
1270 @smallexample
|
|
1271 @group
|
|
1272 (let ((win nil))
|
|
1273 (unwind-protect
|
|
1274 (progn
|
|
1275 (setq process (ftp-setup-buffer host file))
|
|
1276 (if (setq win (ftp-login process host user password))
|
|
1277 (message "Logged in")
|
|
1278 (error "Ftp login failed")))
|
|
1279 (or win (and process (delete-process process)))))
|
|
1280 @end group
|
|
1281 @end smallexample
|
|
1282
|
|
1283 This example has a small bug: if the user types @kbd{C-g} to
|
|
1284 quit, and the quit happens immediately after the function
|
|
1285 @code{ftp-setup-buffer} returns but before the variable @code{process} is
|
|
1286 set, the process will not be killed. There is no easy way to fix this bug,
|
|
1287 but at least it is very unlikely.
|
|
1288
|
|
1289 @ignore
|
|
1290 arch-tag: 8abc30d4-4d3a-47f9-b908-e9e971c18c6d
|
|
1291 @end ignore
|