annotate lispref/nonascii.texi @ 26679:e60608964e3a

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author Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org>
date Thu, 02 Dec 1999 07:59:06 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/characters
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6 @node Non-ASCII Characters, Searching and Matching, Text, Top
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7 @chapter Non-ASCII Characters
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8 @cindex multibyte characters
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9 @cindex non-ASCII characters
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10
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11 This chapter covers the special issues relating to non-@sc{ascii}
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12 characters and how they are stored in strings and buffers.
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13
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14 @menu
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15 * Text Representations::
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16 * Converting Representations::
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17 * Selecting a Representation::
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18 * Character Codes::
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19 * Character Sets::
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20 * Chars and Bytes::
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21 * Splitting Characters::
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22 * Scanning Charsets::
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23 * Translation of Characters::
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24 * Coding Systems::
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25 * Input Methods::
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26 @end menu
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27
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28 @node Text Representations
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29 @section Text Representations
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30 @cindex text representations
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31
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32 Emacs has two @dfn{text representations}---two ways to represent text
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33 in a string or buffer. These are called @dfn{unibyte} and
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34 @dfn{multibyte}. Each string, and each buffer, uses one of these two
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35 representations. For most purposes, you can ignore the issue of
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36 representations, because Emacs converts text between them as
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37 appropriate. Occasionally in Lisp programming you will need to pay
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38 attention to the difference.
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39
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40 @cindex unibyte text
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41 In unibyte representation, each character occupies one byte and
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42 therefore the possible character codes range from 0 to 255. Codes 0
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43 through 127 are @sc{ascii} characters; the codes from 128 through 255
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44 are used for one non-@sc{ascii} character set (you can choose which
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45 character set by setting the variable @code{nonascii-insert-offset}).
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46
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47 @cindex leading code
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48 @cindex multibyte text
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49 @cindex trailing codes
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50 In multibyte representation, a character may occupy more than one
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51 byte, and as a result, the full range of Emacs character codes can be
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52 stored. The first byte of a multibyte character is always in the range
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53 128 through 159 (octal 0200 through 0237). These values are called
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54 @dfn{leading codes}. The second and subsequent bytes of a multibyte
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55 character are always in the range 160 through 255 (octal 0240 through
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56 0377); these values are @dfn{trailing codes}.
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57
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58 Some sequences of bytes do not form meaningful multibyte characters:
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59 for example, a single isolated byte in the range 128 through 255 is
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60 never meaningful. Such byte sequences are not entirely valid, and never
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61 appear in proper multibyte text (since that consists of a sequence of
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62 @emph{characters}); but they can appear as part of ``raw bytes''
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63 (@pxref{Explicit Encoding}).
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64
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65 In a buffer, the buffer-local value of the variable
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66 @code{enable-multibyte-characters} specifies the representation used.
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67 The representation for a string is determined and recorded in the string
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68 when the string is constructed.
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69
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70 @defvar enable-multibyte-characters
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71 @tindex enable-multibyte-characters
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72 This variable specifies the current buffer's text representation.
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73 If it is non-@code{nil}, the buffer contains multibyte text; otherwise,
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74 it contains unibyte text.
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75
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76 You cannot set this variable directly; instead, use the function
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77 @code{set-buffer-multibyte} to change a buffer's representation.
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78 @end defvar
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79
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80 @defvar default-enable-multibyte-characters
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81 @tindex default-enable-multibyte-characters
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82 This variable's value is entirely equivalent to @code{(default-value
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83 'enable-multibyte-characters)}, and setting this variable changes that
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84 default value. Setting the local binding of
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85 @code{enable-multibyte-characters} in a specific buffer is not allowed,
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86 but changing the default value is supported, and it is a reasonable
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87 thing to do, because it has no effect on existing buffers.
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88
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89 The @samp{--unibyte} command line option does its job by setting the
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90 default value to @code{nil} early in startup.
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91 @end defvar
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92
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93 @defun position-bytes position
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94 @tindex position-bytes
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95 Return the byte-position corresponding to buffer position @var{position}
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96 in the current buffer.
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97 @end defun
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98
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99 @defun byte-to-position byte-position
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100 @tindex byte-to-position
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101 Return the buffer position corresponding to byte-position
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102 @var{byte-position} in the current buffer.
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103 @end defun
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104
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105 @defun multibyte-string-p string
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106 @tindex multibyte-string-p
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107 Return @code{t} if @var{string} is a multibyte string.
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108 @end defun
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109
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110 @node Converting Representations
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111 @section Converting Text Representations
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112
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113 Emacs can convert unibyte text to multibyte; it can also convert
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114 multibyte text to unibyte, though this conversion loses information. In
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115 general these conversions happen when inserting text into a buffer, or
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116 when putting text from several strings together in one string. You can
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117 also explicitly convert a string's contents to either representation.
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118
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119 Emacs chooses the representation for a string based on the text that
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120 it is constructed from. The general rule is to convert unibyte text to
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121 multibyte text when combining it with other multibyte text, because the
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122 multibyte representation is more general and can hold whatever
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123 characters the unibyte text has.
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124
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125 When inserting text into a buffer, Emacs converts the text to the
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126 buffer's representation, as specified by
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127 @code{enable-multibyte-characters} in that buffer. In particular, when
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128 you insert multibyte text into a unibyte buffer, Emacs converts the text
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129 to unibyte, even though this conversion cannot in general preserve all
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130 the characters that might be in the multibyte text. The other natural
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131 alternative, to convert the buffer contents to multibyte, is not
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132 acceptable because the buffer's representation is a choice made by the
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133 user that cannot be overridden automatically.
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134
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135 Converting unibyte text to multibyte text leaves @sc{ascii} characters
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136 unchanged, and likewise 128 through 159. It converts the non-@sc{ascii}
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137 codes 160 through 255 by adding the value @code{nonascii-insert-offset}
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138 to each character code. By setting this variable, you specify which
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139 character set the unibyte characters correspond to (@pxref{Character
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140 Sets}). For example, if @code{nonascii-insert-offset} is 2048, which is
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141 @code{(- (make-char 'latin-iso8859-1) 128)}, then the unibyte
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142 non-@sc{ascii} characters correspond to Latin 1. If it is 2688, which
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143 is @code{(- (make-char 'greek-iso8859-7) 128)}, then they correspond to
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144 Greek letters.
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145
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146 Converting multibyte text to unibyte is simpler: it discards all but
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147 the low 8 bits of each character code. If @code{nonascii-insert-offset}
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148 has a reasonable value, corresponding to the beginning of some character
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149 set, this conversion is the inverse of the other: converting unibyte
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150 text to multibyte and back to unibyte reproduces the original unibyte
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151 text.
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152
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153 @defvar nonascii-insert-offset
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154 @tindex nonascii-insert-offset
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155 This variable specifies the amount to add to a non-@sc{ascii} character
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156 when converting unibyte text to multibyte. It also applies when
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157 @code{self-insert-command} inserts a character in the unibyte
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158 non-@sc{ascii} range, 128 through 255. However, the function
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159 @code{insert-char} does not perform this conversion.
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160
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161 The right value to use to select character set @var{cs} is @code{(-
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162 (make-char @var{cs}) 128)}. If the value of
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163 @code{nonascii-insert-offset} is zero, then conversion actually uses the
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164 value for the Latin 1 character set, rather than zero.
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165 @end defvar
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166
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167 @defvar nonascii-translation-table
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168 @tindex nonascii-translation-table
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169 This variable provides a more general alternative to
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170 @code{nonascii-insert-offset}. You can use it to specify independently
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171 how to translate each code in the range of 128 through 255 into a
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172 multibyte character. The value should be a vector, or @code{nil}.
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173 If this is non-@code{nil}, it overrides @code{nonascii-insert-offset}.
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174 @end defvar
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175
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176 @defun string-make-unibyte string
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177 @tindex string-make-unibyte
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178 This function converts the text of @var{string} to unibyte
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179 representation, if it isn't already, and returns the result. If
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180 @var{string} is a unibyte string, it is returned unchanged.
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181 @end defun
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182
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183 @defun string-make-multibyte string
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184 @tindex string-make-multibyte
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185 This function converts the text of @var{string} to multibyte
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186 representation, if it isn't already, and returns the result. If
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187 @var{string} is a multibyte string, it is returned unchanged.
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188 @end defun
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189
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190 @node Selecting a Representation
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191 @section Selecting a Representation
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192
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193 Sometimes it is useful to examine an existing buffer or string as
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194 multibyte when it was unibyte, or vice versa.
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195
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196 @defun set-buffer-multibyte multibyte
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197 @tindex set-buffer-multibyte
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198 Set the representation type of the current buffer. If @var{multibyte}
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199 is non-@code{nil}, the buffer becomes multibyte. If @var{multibyte}
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200 is @code{nil}, the buffer becomes unibyte.
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201
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202 This function leaves the buffer contents unchanged when viewed as a
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203 sequence of bytes. As a consequence, it can change the contents viewed
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204 as characters; a sequence of two bytes which is treated as one character
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205 in multibyte representation will count as two characters in unibyte
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206 representation.
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207
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208 This function sets @code{enable-multibyte-characters} to record which
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209 representation is in use. It also adjusts various data in the buffer
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210 (including overlays, text properties and markers) so that they cover the
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211 same text as they did before.
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212
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213 You cannot use @code{set-buffer-multibyte} on an indirect buffer,
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214 because indirect buffers always inherit the representation of the
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215 base buffer.
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216 @end defun
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217
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218 @defun string-as-unibyte string
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219 @tindex string-as-unibyte
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220 This function returns a string with the same bytes as @var{string} but
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221 treating each byte as a character. This means that the value may have
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222 more characters than @var{string} has.
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223
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224 If @var{string} is already a unibyte string, then the value is
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225 @var{string} itself.
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226 @end defun
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227
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228 @defun string-as-multibyte string
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229 @tindex string-as-multibyte
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230 This function returns a string with the same bytes as @var{string} but
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231 treating each multibyte sequence as one character. This means that the
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232 value may have fewer characters than @var{string} has.
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233
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234 If @var{string} is already a multibyte string, then the value is
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235 @var{string} itself.
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236 @end defun
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237
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238 @node Character Codes
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239 @section Character Codes
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240 @cindex character codes
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241
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242 The unibyte and multibyte text representations use different character
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243 codes. The valid character codes for unibyte representation range from
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244 0 to 255---the values that can fit in one byte. The valid character
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245 codes for multibyte representation range from 0 to 524287, but not all
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246 values in that range are valid. In particular, the values 128 through
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247 255 are not legitimate in multibyte text (though they can occur in ``raw
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248 bytes''; @pxref{Explicit Encoding}). Only the @sc{ascii} codes 0
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249 through 127 are fully legitimate in both representations.
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250
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251 @defun char-valid-p charcode
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252 This returns @code{t} if @var{charcode} is valid for either one of the two
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253 text representations.
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254
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255 @example
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256 (char-valid-p 65)
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257 @result{} t
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258 (char-valid-p 256)
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259 @result{} nil
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260 (char-valid-p 2248)
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261 @result{} t
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262 @end example
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263 @end defun
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264
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265 @node Character Sets
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266 @section Character Sets
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267 @cindex character sets
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268
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269 Emacs classifies characters into various @dfn{character sets}, each of
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270 which has a name which is a symbol. Each character belongs to one and
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271 only one character set.
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272
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273 In general, there is one character set for each distinct script. For
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274 example, @code{latin-iso8859-1} is one character set,
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275 @code{greek-iso8859-7} is another, and @code{ascii} is another. An
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276 Emacs character set can hold at most 9025 characters; therefore, in some
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277 cases, characters that would logically be grouped together are split
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278 into several character sets. For example, one set of Chinese
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279 characters, generally known as Big 5, is divided into two Emacs
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280 character sets, @code{chinese-big5-1} and @code{chinese-big5-2}.
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281
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282 @defun charsetp object
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283 @tindex charsetp
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284 Returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol that names a character set,
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285 @code{nil} otherwise.
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286 @end defun
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287
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288 @defun charset-list
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289 @tindex charset-list
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290 This function returns a list of all defined character set names.
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291 @end defun
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292
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293 @defun char-charset character
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294 @tindex char-charset
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295 This function returns the name of the character set that @var{character}
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296 belongs to.
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297 @end defun
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298
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299 @defun charset-plist charset
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300 @tindex charset-plist
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301 This function returns the charset property list of the character set
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302 @var{charset}. Although @var{charset} is a symbol, this is not the same
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303 as the property list of that symbol. Charset properties are used for
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304 special purposes within Emacs; for example, @code{x-charset-registry}
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305 helps determine which fonts to use (@pxref{Font Selection}).
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306 @end defun
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307
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308 @node Chars and Bytes
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309 @section Characters and Bytes
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310 @cindex bytes and characters
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311
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312 @cindex introduction sequence
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313 @cindex dimension (of character set)
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314 In multibyte representation, each character occupies one or more
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315 bytes. Each character set has an @dfn{introduction sequence}, which is
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316 normally one or two bytes long. (Exception: the @sc{ascii} character
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317 set has a zero-length introduction sequence.) The introduction sequence
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318 is the beginning of the byte sequence for any character in the character
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319 set. The rest of the character's bytes distinguish it from the other
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320 characters in the same character set. Depending on the character set,
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321 there are either one or two distinguishing bytes; the number of such
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322 bytes is called the @dfn{dimension} of the character set.
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323
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324 @defun charset-dimension charset
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325 @tindex charset-dimension
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326 This function returns the dimension of @var{charset}; at present, the
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327 dimension is always 1 or 2.
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328 @end defun
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329
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330 @defun charset-bytes charset
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331 @tindex charset-bytes
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332 This function returns the number of bytes used to represent a character
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333 in character set @var{charset}.
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334 @end defun
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335
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336 This is the simplest way to determine the byte length of a character
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337 set's introduction sequence:
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338
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339 @example
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340 (- (charset-bytes @var{charset})
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341 (charset-dimension @var{charset}))
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342 @end example
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343
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344 @node Splitting Characters
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345 @section Splitting Characters
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346
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347 The functions in this section convert between characters and the byte
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348 values used to represent them. For most purposes, there is no need to
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349 be concerned with the sequence of bytes used to represent a character,
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350 because Emacs translates automatically when necessary.
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351
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352 @defun split-char character
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353 @tindex split-char
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354 Return a list containing the name of the character set of
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355 @var{character}, followed by one or two byte values (integers) which
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356 identify @var{character} within that character set. The number of byte
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357 values is the character set's dimension.
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358
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359 @example
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360 (split-char 2248)
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361 @result{} (latin-iso8859-1 72)
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362 (split-char 65)
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363 @result{} (ascii 65)
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364 @end example
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365
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366 Unibyte non-@sc{ascii} characters are considered as part of
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367 the @code{ascii} character set:
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368
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369 @example
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370 (split-char 192)
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371 @result{} (ascii 192)
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372 @end example
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373 @end defun
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374
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375 @defun make-char charset &rest byte-values
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376 @tindex make-char
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377 This function returns the character in character set @var{charset}
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378 identified by @var{byte-values}. This is roughly the inverse of
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379 @code{split-char}. Normally, you should specify either one or two
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380 @var{byte-values}, according to the dimension of @var{charset}. For
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381 example,
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382
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383 @example
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384 (make-char 'latin-iso8859-1 72)
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385 @result{} 2248
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386 @end example
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387 @end defun
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388
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389 @cindex generic characters
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390 If you call @code{make-char} with no @var{byte-values}, the result is
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391 a @dfn{generic character} which stands for @var{charset}. A generic
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392 character is an integer, but it is @emph{not} valid for insertion in the
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393 buffer as a character. It can be used in @code{char-table-range} to
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394 refer to the whole character set (@pxref{Char-Tables}).
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395 @code{char-valid-p} returns @code{nil} for generic characters.
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396 For example:
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397
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398 @example
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399 (make-char 'latin-iso8859-1)
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400 @result{} 2176
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401 (char-valid-p 2176)
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402 @result{} nil
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403 (split-char 2176)
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404 @result{} (latin-iso8859-1 0)
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405 @end example
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406
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407 @node Scanning Charsets
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408 @section Scanning for Character Sets
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409
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410 Sometimes it is useful to find out which character sets appear in a
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411 part of a buffer or a string. One use for this is in determining which
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412 coding systems (@pxref{Coding Systems}) are capable of representing all
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413 of the text in question.
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414
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415 @defun find-charset-region beg end &optional translation
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416 @tindex find-charset-region
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417 This function returns a list of the character sets that appear in the
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418 current buffer between positions @var{beg} and @var{end}.
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419
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420 The optional argument @var{translation} specifies a translation table to
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421 be used in scanning the text (@pxref{Translation of Characters}). If it
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422 is non-@code{nil}, then each character in the region is translated
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423 through this table, and the value returned describes the translated
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424 characters instead of the characters actually in the buffer.
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425
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426 In two peculiar cases, the value includes the symbol @code{unknown}:
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427
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428 @itemize @bullet
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429 @item
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430 When a unibyte buffer contains non-@sc{ascii} characters.
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431
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432 @item
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433 When a multibyte buffer contains invalid byte-sequences (raw bytes).
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434 @xref{Explicit Encoding}.
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435 @end itemize
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436 @end defun
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437
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438 @defun find-charset-string string &optional translation
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439 @tindex find-charset-string
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440 This function returns a list of the character sets that appear in the
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441 string @var{string}. It is just like @code{find-charset-region}, except
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442 that it applies to the contents of @var{string} instead of part of the
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443 current buffer.
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444 @end defun
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445
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446 @node Translation of Characters
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447 @section Translation of Characters
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448 @cindex character translation tables
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449 @cindex translation tables
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450
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451 A @dfn{translation table} specifies a mapping of characters
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452 into characters. These tables are used in encoding and decoding, and
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453 for other purposes. Some coding systems specify their own particular
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454 translation tables; there are also default translation tables which
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455 apply to all other coding systems.
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456
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457 @defun make-translation-table &rest translations
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458 This function returns a translation table based on the argument
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459 @var{translations}. Each element of
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460 @var{translations} should be a list of the form @code{(@var{from}
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461 . @var{to})}; this says to translate the character @var{from} into
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462 @var{to}.
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463
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464 You can also map one whole character set into another character set with
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465 the same dimension. To do this, you specify a generic character (which
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466 designates a character set) for @var{from} (@pxref{Splitting Characters}).
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467 In this case, @var{to} should also be a generic character, for another
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468 character set of the same dimension. Then the translation table
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469 translates each character of @var{from}'s character set into the
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470 corresponding character of @var{to}'s character set.
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471 @end defun
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472
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473 In decoding, the translation table's translations are applied to the
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474 characters that result from ordinary decoding. If a coding system has
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475 property @code{character-translation-table-for-decode}, that specifies
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476 the translation table to use. Otherwise, if
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477 @code{standard-translation-table-for-decode} is non-@code{nil}, decoding
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478 uses that table.
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479
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480 In encoding, the translation table's translations are applied to the
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481 characters in the buffer, and the result of translation is actually
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482 encoded. If a coding system has property
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483 @code{character-translation-table-for-encode}, that specifies the
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484 translation table to use. Otherwise the variable
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485 @code{standard-translation-table-for-encode} specifies the translation
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486 table.
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487
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488 @defvar standard-translation-table-for-decode
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489 This is the default translation table for decoding, for
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490 coding systems that don't specify any other translation table.
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491 @end defvar
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492
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493 @defvar standard-translation-table-for-encode
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494 This is the default translation table for encoding, for
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495 coding systems that don't specify any other translation table.
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496 @end defvar
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497
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498 @node Coding Systems
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499 @section Coding Systems
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500
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501 @cindex coding system
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502 When Emacs reads or writes a file, and when Emacs sends text to a
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503 subprocess or receives text from a subprocess, it normally performs
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504 character code conversion and end-of-line conversion as specified
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505 by a particular @dfn{coding system}.
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506
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507 How to define a coding system is an arcane matter, and is not
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508 documented here.
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509
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510 @menu
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511 * Coding System Basics::
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512 * Encoding and I/O::
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513 * Lisp and Coding Systems::
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514 * User-Chosen Coding Systems::
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515 * Default Coding Systems::
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516 * Specifying Coding Systems::
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517 * Explicit Encoding::
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518 * Terminal I/O Encoding::
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519 * MS-DOS File Types::
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520 @end menu
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521
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522 @node Coding System Basics
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523 @subsection Basic Concepts of Coding Systems
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524
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525 @cindex character code conversion
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526 @dfn{Character code conversion} involves conversion between the encoding
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527 used inside Emacs and some other encoding. Emacs supports many
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528 different encodings, in that it can convert to and from them. For
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529 example, it can convert text to or from encodings such as Latin 1, Latin
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530 2, Latin 3, Latin 4, Latin 5, and several variants of ISO 2022. In some
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531 cases, Emacs supports several alternative encodings for the same
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532 characters; for example, there are three coding systems for the Cyrillic
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533 (Russian) alphabet: ISO, Alternativnyj, and KOI8.
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534
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535 Most coding systems specify a particular character code for
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536 conversion, but some of them leave the choice unspecified---to be chosen
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537 heuristically for each file, based on the data.
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538
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539 @cindex end of line conversion
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540 @dfn{End of line conversion} handles three different conventions used
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541 on various systems for representing end of line in files. The Unix
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542 convention is to use the linefeed character (also called newline). The
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543 DOS convention is to use a carriage-return and a linefeed at the end of
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544 a line. The Mac convention is to use just carriage-return.
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545
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546 @cindex base coding system
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547 @cindex variant coding system
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548 @dfn{Base coding systems} such as @code{latin-1} leave the end-of-line
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549 conversion unspecified, to be chosen based on the data. @dfn{Variant
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550 coding systems} such as @code{latin-1-unix}, @code{latin-1-dos} and
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551 @code{latin-1-mac} specify the end-of-line conversion explicitly as
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552 well. Most base coding systems have three corresponding variants whose
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553 names are formed by adding @samp{-unix}, @samp{-dos} and @samp{-mac}.
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554
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555 The coding system @code{raw-text} is special in that it prevents
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556 character code conversion, and causes the buffer visited with that
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557 coding system to be a unibyte buffer. It does not specify the
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558 end-of-line conversion, allowing that to be determined as usual by the
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559 data, and has the usual three variants which specify the end-of-line
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560 conversion. @code{no-conversion} is equivalent to @code{raw-text-unix}:
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561 it specifies no conversion of either character codes or end-of-line.
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562
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563 The coding system @code{emacs-mule} specifies that the data is
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564 represented in the internal Emacs encoding. This is like
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565 @code{raw-text} in that no code conversion happens, but different in
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566 that the result is multibyte data.
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567
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568 @defun coding-system-get coding-system property
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569 @tindex coding-system-get
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570 This function returns the specified property of the coding system
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571 @var{coding-system}. Most coding system properties exist for internal
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572 purposes, but one that you might find useful is @code{mime-charset}.
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573 That property's value is the name used in MIME for the character coding
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574 which this coding system can read and write. Examples:
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575
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576 @example
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577 (coding-system-get 'iso-latin-1 'mime-charset)
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578 @result{} iso-8859-1
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579 (coding-system-get 'iso-2022-cn 'mime-charset)
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580 @result{} iso-2022-cn
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581 (coding-system-get 'cyrillic-koi8 'mime-charset)
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582 @result{} koi8-r
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583 @end example
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584
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585 The value of the @code{mime-charset} property is also defined
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586 as an alias for the coding system.
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587 @end defun
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588
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589 @node Encoding and I/O
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590 @subsection Encoding and I/O
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591
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592 The principal purpose of coding systems is for use in reading and
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593 writing files. The function @code{insert-file-contents} uses
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594 a coding system for decoding the file data, and @code{write-region}
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595 uses one to encode the buffer contents.
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596
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597 You can specify the coding system to use either explicitly
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598 (@pxref{Specifying Coding Systems}), or implicitly using the defaulting
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599 mechanism (@pxref{Default Coding Systems}). But these methods may not
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600 completely specify what to do. For example, they may choose a coding
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601 system such as @code{undefined} which leaves the character code
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602 conversion to be determined from the data. In these cases, the I/O
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603 operation finishes the job of choosing a coding system. Very often
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604 you will want to find out afterwards which coding system was chosen.
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605
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606 @defvar buffer-file-coding-system
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607 @tindex buffer-file-coding-system
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608 This variable records the coding system that was used for visiting the
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609 current buffer. It is used for saving the buffer, and for writing part
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610 of the buffer with @code{write-region}. When those operations ask the
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611 user to specify a different coding system,
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612 @code{buffer-file-coding-system} is updated to the coding system
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613 specified.
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614
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615 However, @code{buffer-file-coding-system} does not affect sending text
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616 to a subprocess.
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617 @end defvar
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618
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619 @defvar save-buffer-coding-system
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620 @tindex save-buffer-coding-system
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621 This variable specifies the coding system for saving the buffer---but it
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622 is not used for @code{write-region}.
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623
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624 When a command to save the buffer starts out to use
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625 @code{save-buffer-coding-system}, and that coding system cannot handle
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626 the actual text in the buffer, the command asks the user to choose
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627 another coding system. After that happens, the command also updates
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628 @code{save-buffer-coding-system} to represent the coding system that the
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629 user specified.
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630 @end defvar
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631
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632 @defvar last-coding-system-used
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633 @tindex last-coding-system-used
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634 I/O operations for files and subprocesses set this variable to the
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635 coding system name that was used. The explicit encoding and decoding
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636 functions (@pxref{Explicit Encoding}) set it too.
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637
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638 @strong{Warning:} Since receiving subprocess output sets this variable,
25751
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639 it can change whenever Emacs waits; therefore, you should copy the
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640 value shortly after the function call that stores the value you are
22138
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641 interested in.
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642 @end defvar
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643
23110
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644 The variable @code{selection-coding-system} specifies how to encode
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645 selections for the window system. @xref{Window System Selections}.
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646
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647 @node Lisp and Coding Systems
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648 @subsection Coding Systems in Lisp
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649
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650 Here are the Lisp facilities for working with coding systems:
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651
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652 @defun coding-system-list &optional base-only
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653 @tindex coding-system-list
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654 This function returns a list of all coding system names (symbols). If
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655 @var{base-only} is non-@code{nil}, the value includes only the
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656 base coding systems. Otherwise, it includes variant coding systems as well.
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657 @end defun
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658
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659 @defun coding-system-p object
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660 @tindex coding-system-p
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661 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a coding system
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662 name.
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663 @end defun
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664
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665 @defun check-coding-system coding-system
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666 @tindex check-coding-system
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667 This function checks the validity of @var{coding-system}.
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668 If that is valid, it returns @var{coding-system}.
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669 Otherwise it signals an error with condition @code{coding-system-error}.
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670 @end defun
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parents:
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671
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672 @defun coding-system-change-eol-conversion coding-system eol-type
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673 @tindex coding-system-change-eol-conversion
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674 This function returns a coding system which is like @var{coding-system}
22252
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diff changeset
675 except for its eol conversion, which is specified by @code{eol-type}.
22138
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parents: 21682
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676 @var{eol-type} should be @code{unix}, @code{dos}, @code{mac}, or
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677 @code{nil}. If it is @code{nil}, the returned coding system determines
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parents: 21682
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678 the end-of-line conversion from the data.
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679 @end defun
21682
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
680
22138
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diff changeset
681 @defun coding-system-change-text-conversion eol-coding text-coding
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682 @tindex coding-system-change-text-conversion
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
683 This function returns a coding system which uses the end-of-line
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
684 conversion of @var{eol-coding}, and the text conversion of
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
685 @var{text-coding}. If @var{text-coding} is @code{nil}, it returns
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
686 @code{undecided}, or one of its variants according to @var{eol-coding}.
21682
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diff changeset
687 @end defun
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diff changeset
688
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
689 @defun find-coding-systems-region from to
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
690 @tindex find-coding-systems-region
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
691 This function returns a list of coding systems that could be used to
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
692 encode a text between @var{from} and @var{to}. All coding systems in
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
693 the list can safely encode any multibyte characters in that portion of
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
694 the text.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
695
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
696 If the text contains no multibyte characters, the function returns the
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
697 list @code{(undecided)}.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
698 @end defun
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
699
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
700 @defun find-coding-systems-string string
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
701 @tindex find-coding-systems-string
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
702 This function returns a list of coding systems that could be used to
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
703 encode the text of @var{string}. All coding systems in the list can
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
704 safely encode any multibyte characters in @var{string}. If the text
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
705 contains no multibyte characters, this returns the list
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
706 @code{(undecided)}.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
707 @end defun
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
708
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
709 @defun find-coding-systems-for-charsets charsets
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
710 @tindex find-coding-systems-for-charsets
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
711 This function returns a list of coding systems that could be used to
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
712 encode all the character sets in the list @var{charsets}.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
713 @end defun
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
714
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
715 @defun detect-coding-region start end &optional highest
21006
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
716 @tindex detect-coding-region
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
717 This function chooses a plausible coding system for decoding the text
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
718 from @var{start} to @var{end}. This text should be ``raw bytes''
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21006
diff changeset
719 (@pxref{Explicit Encoding}).
21006
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
720
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
721 Normally this function returns a list of coding systems that could
21006
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
722 handle decoding the text that was scanned. They are listed in order of
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
723 decreasing priority. But if @var{highest} is non-@code{nil}, then the
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
724 return value is just one coding system, the one that is highest in
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
725 priority.
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
726
25751
467b88fab665 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 24952
diff changeset
727 If the region contains only @sc{ascii} characters, the value
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
728 is @code{undecided} or @code{(undecided)}.
21006
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
729 @end defun
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
730
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
731 @defun detect-coding-string string highest
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
732 @tindex detect-coding-string
21006
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
733 This function is like @code{detect-coding-region} except that it
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
734 operates on the contents of @var{string} instead of bytes in the buffer.
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
735 @end defun
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
736
22252
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
737 @xref{Process Information}, for how to examine or set the coding
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
738 systems used for I/O to a subprocess.
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
739
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
740 @node User-Chosen Coding Systems
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
741 @subsection User-Chosen Coding Systems
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
742
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
743 @tindex select-safe-coding-system
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
744 @defun select-safe-coding-system from to &optional preferred-coding-system
22267
dfac7398266b *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22252
diff changeset
745 This function selects a coding system for encoding the text between
22252
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
746 @var{from} and @var{to}, asking the user to choose if necessary.
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
747
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
748 The optional argument @var{preferred-coding-system} specifies a coding
22267
dfac7398266b *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22252
diff changeset
749 system to try first. If that one can handle the text in the specified
dfac7398266b *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22252
diff changeset
750 region, then it is used. If this argument is omitted, the current
dfac7398266b *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22252
diff changeset
751 buffer's value of @code{buffer-file-coding-system} is tried first.
22252
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
752
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
753 If the region contains some multibyte characters that the preferred
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
754 coding system cannot encode, this function asks the user to choose from
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
755 a list of coding systems which can encode the text, and returns the
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
756 user's choice.
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
757
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
758 One other kludgy feature: if @var{from} is a string, the string is the
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
759 target text, and @var{to} is ignored.
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
760 @end defun
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
761
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
762 Here are two functions you can use to let the user specify a coding
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
763 system, with completion. @xref{Completion}.
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
764
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
765 @defun read-coding-system prompt &optional default
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
766 @tindex read-coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
767 This function reads a coding system using the minibuffer, prompting with
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
768 string @var{prompt}, and returns the coding system name as a symbol. If
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
769 the user enters null input, @var{default} specifies which coding system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
770 to return. It should be a symbol or a string.
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
771 @end defun
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
772
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
773 @defun read-non-nil-coding-system prompt
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
774 @tindex read-non-nil-coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
775 This function reads a coding system using the minibuffer, prompting with
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
776 string @var{prompt}, and returns the coding system name as a symbol. If
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
777 the user tries to enter null input, it asks the user to try again.
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diff changeset
778 @xref{Coding Systems}.
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diff changeset
779 @end defun
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
780
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diff changeset
781 @node Default Coding Systems
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diff changeset
782 @subsection Default Coding Systems
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783
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784 This section describes variables that specify the default coding
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
785 system for certain files or when running certain subprograms, and the
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diff changeset
786 function that I/O operations use to access them.
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diff changeset
787
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diff changeset
788 The idea of these variables is that you set them once and for all to the
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diff changeset
789 defaults you want, and then do not change them again. To specify a
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
790 particular coding system for a particular operation in a Lisp program,
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parents: 21682
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791 don't change these variables; instead, override them using
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792 @code{coding-system-for-read} and @code{coding-system-for-write}
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diff changeset
793 (@pxref{Specifying Coding Systems}).
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794
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diff changeset
795 @defvar file-coding-system-alist
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796 @tindex file-coding-system-alist
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797 This variable is an alist that specifies the coding systems to use for
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798 reading and writing particular files. Each element has the form
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799 @code{(@var{pattern} . @var{coding})}, where @var{pattern} is a regular
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diff changeset
800 expression that matches certain file names. The element applies to file
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801 names that match @var{pattern}.
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802
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803 The @sc{cdr} of the element, @var{coding}, should be either a coding
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804 system, a cons cell containing two coding systems, or a function name (a
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805 symbol with a function definition). If @var{coding} is a coding system,
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parents: 24952
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806 that coding system is used for both reading the file and writing it. If
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807 @var{coding} is a cons cell containing two coding systems, its @sc{car}
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parents: 24952
diff changeset
808 specifies the coding system for decoding, and its @sc{cdr} specifies the
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diff changeset
809 coding system for encoding.
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diff changeset
810
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811 If @var{coding} is a function name, the function must return a coding
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diff changeset
812 system or a cons cell containing two coding systems. This value is used
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813 as described above.
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814 @end defvar
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815
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816 @defvar process-coding-system-alist
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817 @tindex process-coding-system-alist
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818 This variable is an alist specifying which coding systems to use for a
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819 subprocess, depending on which program is running in the subprocess. It
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820 works like @code{file-coding-system-alist}, except that @var{pattern} is
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diff changeset
821 matched against the program name used to start the subprocess. The coding
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822 system or systems specified in this alist are used to initialize the
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823 coding systems used for I/O to the subprocess, but you can specify
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824 other coding systems later using @code{set-process-coding-system}.
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825 @end defvar
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diff changeset
826
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827 @strong{Warning:} Coding systems such as @code{undecided}, which
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diff changeset
828 determine the coding system from the data, do not work entirely reliably
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diff changeset
829 with asynchronous subprocess output. This is because Emacs handles
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diff changeset
830 asynchronous subprocess output in batches, as it arrives. If the coding
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diff changeset
831 system leaves the character code conversion unspecified, or leaves the
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diff changeset
832 end-of-line conversion unspecified, Emacs must try to detect the proper
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diff changeset
833 conversion from one batch at a time, and this does not always work.
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834
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diff changeset
835 Therefore, with an asynchronous subprocess, if at all possible, use a
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diff changeset
836 coding system which determines both the character code conversion and
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diff changeset
837 the end of line conversion---that is, one like @code{latin-1-unix},
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diff changeset
838 rather than @code{undecided} or @code{latin-1}.
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839
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840 @defvar network-coding-system-alist
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841 @tindex network-coding-system-alist
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842 This variable is an alist that specifies the coding system to use for
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diff changeset
843 network streams. It works much like @code{file-coding-system-alist},
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diff changeset
844 with the difference that the @var{pattern} in an element may be either a
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
845 port number or a regular expression. If it is a regular expression, it
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
846 is matched against the network service name used to open the network
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diff changeset
847 stream.
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848 @end defvar
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849
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diff changeset
850 @defvar default-process-coding-system
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851 @tindex default-process-coding-system
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852 This variable specifies the coding systems to use for subprocess (and
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diff changeset
853 network stream) input and output, when nothing else specifies what to
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diff changeset
854 do.
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855
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diff changeset
856 The value should be a cons cell of the form @code{(@var{input-coding}
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diff changeset
857 . @var{output-coding})}. Here @var{input-coding} applies to input from
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diff changeset
858 the subprocess, and @var{output-coding} applies to output to it.
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859 @end defvar
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diff changeset
860
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861 @defun find-operation-coding-system operation &rest arguments
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862 @tindex find-operation-coding-system
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863 This function returns the coding system to use (by default) for
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parents:
diff changeset
864 performing @var{operation} with @var{arguments}. The value has this
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parents:
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865 form:
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parents:
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866
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867 @example
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parents:
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868 (@var{decoding-system} @var{encoding-system})
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parents:
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869 @end example
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parents:
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870
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871 The first element, @var{decoding-system}, is the coding system to use
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parents:
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872 for decoding (in case @var{operation} does decoding), and
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parents:
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873 @var{encoding-system} is the coding system for encoding (in case
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parents:
diff changeset
874 @var{operation} does encoding).
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parents:
diff changeset
875
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diff changeset
876 The argument @var{operation} should be a symbol, one of
21006
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diff changeset
877 @code{insert-file-contents}, @code{write-region}, @code{call-process},
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parents:
diff changeset
878 @code{call-process-region}, @code{start-process}, or
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diff changeset
879 @code{open-network-stream}. These are the names of the Emacs I/O primitives
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parents: 24952
diff changeset
880 that can do coding system conversion.
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881
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882 The remaining arguments should be the same arguments that might be given
25751
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diff changeset
883 to that I/O primitive. Depending on the primitive, one of those
21006
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884 arguments is selected as the @dfn{target}. For example, if
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parents:
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885 @var{operation} does file I/O, whichever argument specifies the file
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parents:
diff changeset
886 name is the target. For subprocess primitives, the process name is the
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parents:
diff changeset
887 target. For @code{open-network-stream}, the target is the service name
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parents:
diff changeset
888 or port number.
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parents:
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889
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diff changeset
890 This function looks up the target in @code{file-coding-system-alist},
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parents:
diff changeset
891 @code{process-coding-system-alist}, or
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parents:
diff changeset
892 @code{network-coding-system-alist}, depending on @var{operation}.
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diff changeset
893 @xref{Default Coding Systems}.
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894 @end defun
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895
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896 @node Specifying Coding Systems
22138
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diff changeset
897 @subsection Specifying a Coding System for One Operation
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898
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diff changeset
899 You can specify the coding system for a specific operation by binding
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parents:
diff changeset
900 the variables @code{coding-system-for-read} and/or
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diff changeset
901 @code{coding-system-for-write}.
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diff changeset
902
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diff changeset
903 @defvar coding-system-for-read
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904 @tindex coding-system-for-read
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diff changeset
905 If this variable is non-@code{nil}, it specifies the coding system to
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parents:
diff changeset
906 use for reading a file, or for input from a synchronous subprocess.
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parents:
diff changeset
907
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diff changeset
908 It also applies to any asynchronous subprocess or network stream, but in
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diff changeset
909 a different way: the value of @code{coding-system-for-read} when you
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parents:
diff changeset
910 start the subprocess or open the network stream specifies the input
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diff changeset
911 decoding method for that subprocess or network stream. It remains in
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diff changeset
912 use for that subprocess or network stream unless and until overridden.
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diff changeset
913
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diff changeset
914 The right way to use this variable is to bind it with @code{let} for a
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parents:
diff changeset
915 specific I/O operation. Its global value is normally @code{nil}, and
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parents:
diff changeset
916 you should not globally set it to any other value. Here is an example
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parents:
diff changeset
917 of the right way to use the variable:
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diff changeset
918
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diff changeset
919 @example
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diff changeset
920 ;; @r{Read the file with no character code conversion.}
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
921 ;; @r{Assume @sc{crlf} represents end-of-line.}
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diff changeset
922 (let ((coding-system-for-write 'emacs-mule-dos))
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diff changeset
923 (insert-file-contents filename))
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924 @end example
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925
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diff changeset
926 When its value is non-@code{nil}, @code{coding-system-for-read} takes
22138
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diff changeset
927 precedence over all other methods of specifying a coding system to use for
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928 input, including @code{file-coding-system-alist},
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diff changeset
929 @code{process-coding-system-alist} and
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parents:
diff changeset
930 @code{network-coding-system-alist}.
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parents:
diff changeset
931 @end defvar
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parents:
diff changeset
932
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diff changeset
933 @defvar coding-system-for-write
21006
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parents:
diff changeset
934 @tindex coding-system-for-write
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parents:
diff changeset
935 This works much like @code{coding-system-for-read}, except that it
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
936 applies to output rather than input. It affects writing to files,
24951
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 23433
diff changeset
937 as well as sending output to subprocesses and net connections.
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parents:
diff changeset
938
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parents:
diff changeset
939 When a single operation does both input and output, as do
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
940 @code{call-process-region} and @code{start-process}, both
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
941 @code{coding-system-for-read} and @code{coding-system-for-write}
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parents:
diff changeset
942 affect it.
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parents:
diff changeset
943 @end defvar
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parents:
diff changeset
944
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diff changeset
945 @defvar inhibit-eol-conversion
21006
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parents:
diff changeset
946 @tindex inhibit-eol-conversion
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parents:
diff changeset
947 When this variable is non-@code{nil}, no end-of-line conversion is done,
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parents:
diff changeset
948 no matter which coding system is specified. This applies to all the
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
949 Emacs I/O and subprocess primitives, and to the explicit encoding and
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parents:
diff changeset
950 decoding functions (@pxref{Explicit Encoding}).
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parents:
diff changeset
951 @end defvar
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parents:
diff changeset
952
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diff changeset
953 @node Explicit Encoding
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
954 @subsection Explicit Encoding and Decoding
21006
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parents:
diff changeset
955 @cindex encoding text
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parents:
diff changeset
956 @cindex decoding text
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parents:
diff changeset
957
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diff changeset
958 All the operations that transfer text in and out of Emacs have the
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parents:
diff changeset
959 ability to use a coding system to encode or decode the text.
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parents:
diff changeset
960 You can also explicitly encode and decode text using the functions
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parents:
diff changeset
961 in this section.
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parents:
diff changeset
962
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diff changeset
963 @cindex raw bytes
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parents:
diff changeset
964 The result of encoding, and the input to decoding, are not ordinary
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parents:
diff changeset
965 text. They are ``raw bytes''---bytes that represent text in the same
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parents:
diff changeset
966 way that an external file would. When a buffer contains raw bytes, it
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parents:
diff changeset
967 is most natural to mark that buffer as using unibyte representation,
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parents:
diff changeset
968 using @code{set-buffer-multibyte} (@pxref{Selecting a Representation}),
21682
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
969 but this is not required. If the buffer's contents are only temporarily
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
970 raw, leave the buffer multibyte, which will be correct after you decode
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
971 them.
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parents:
diff changeset
972
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diff changeset
973 The usual way to get raw bytes in a buffer, for explicit decoding, is
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21006
diff changeset
974 to read them from a file with @code{insert-file-contents-literally}
21006
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
975 (@pxref{Reading from Files}) or specify a non-@code{nil} @var{rawfile}
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21006
diff changeset
976 argument when visiting a file with @code{find-file-noselect}.
21006
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parents:
diff changeset
977
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parents:
diff changeset
978 The usual way to use the raw bytes that result from explicitly
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parents:
diff changeset
979 encoding text is to copy them to a file or process---for example, to
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21006
diff changeset
980 write them with @code{write-region} (@pxref{Writing to Files}), and
21006
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parents:
diff changeset
981 suppress encoding for that @code{write-region} call by binding
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parents:
diff changeset
982 @code{coding-system-for-write} to @code{no-conversion}.
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parents:
diff changeset
983
24951
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parents: 23433
diff changeset
984 Raw bytes typically contain stray individual bytes with values in the
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
985 range 128 through 255, that are legitimate only as part of multibyte
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
986 sequences. Even if the buffer is multibyte, Emacs treats each such
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
987 individual byte as a character and uses the byte value as its character
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
988 code. In this way, character codes 128 through 255 can be found in a
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
989 multibyte buffer, even though they are not legitimate multibyte
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
990 character codes.
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parents: 23433
diff changeset
991
22252
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22138
diff changeset
992 Raw bytes sometimes contain overlong byte-sequences that look like a
24951
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
993 proper multibyte character plus extra superfluous trailing codes. For
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
994 most purposes, Emacs treats such a sequence in a buffer or string as a
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
995 single character, and if you look at its character code, you get the
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
996 value that corresponds to the multibyte character
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 23433
diff changeset
997 sequence---disregarding the extra trailing codes. This is not quite
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
998 clean, but raw bytes are used only in limited ways, so as a practical
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 23433
diff changeset
999 matter it is not worth the trouble to treat this case differently.
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parents: 23433
diff changeset
1000
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 23433
diff changeset
1001 When a multibyte buffer contains illegitimate byte sequences,
24952
a6db4671c7a0 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 24951
diff changeset
1002 sometimes insertion or deletion can cause them to coalesce into a
24951
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1003 legitimate multibyte character. For example, suppose the buffer
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1004 contains the sequence 129 68 192, 68 being the character @samp{D}. If
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1005 you delete the @samp{D}, the bytes 129 and 192 become adjacent, and thus
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1006 become one multibyte character (Latin-1 A with grave accent). Point
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1007 moves to one side or the other of the character, since it cannot be
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1008 within a character. Don't be alarmed by this.
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1009
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parents: 23433
diff changeset
1010 Some really peculiar situations prevent proper coalescence. For
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1011 example, if you narrow the buffer so that the accessible portion begins
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1012 just before the @samp{D}, then delete the @samp{D}, the two surrounding
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1013 bytes cannot coalesce because one of them is outside the accessible
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1014 portion of the buffer. In this case, the deletion cannot be done, so
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1015 @code{delete-region} signals an error.
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1016
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1017 Here are the functions to perform explicit encoding or decoding. The
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1018 decoding functions produce ``raw bytes''; the encoding functions are
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1019 meant to operate on ``raw bytes''. All of these functions discard text
7451b1458af1 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 23433
diff changeset
1020 properties.
22252
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
1021
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1022 @defun encode-coding-region start end coding-system
21006
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1023 @tindex encode-coding-region
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parents:
diff changeset
1024 This function encodes the text from @var{start} to @var{end} according
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21006
diff changeset
1025 to coding system @var{coding-system}. The encoded text replaces the
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21006
diff changeset
1026 original text in the buffer. The result of encoding is ``raw bytes,''
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21006
diff changeset
1027 but the buffer remains multibyte if it was multibyte before.
21006
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1028 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
1029
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1030 @defun encode-coding-string string coding-system
21006
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1031 @tindex encode-coding-string
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1032 This function encodes the text in @var{string} according to coding
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1033 system @var{coding-system}. It returns a new string containing the
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21006
diff changeset
1034 encoded text. The result of encoding is a unibyte string of ``raw bytes.''
21006
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1035 @end defun
00022857f529 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1036
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1037 @defun decode-coding-region start end coding-system
21006
00022857f529 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1038 @tindex decode-coding-region
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1039 This function decodes the text from @var{start} to @var{end} according
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1040 to coding system @var{coding-system}. The decoded text replaces the
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1041 original text in the buffer. To make explicit decoding useful, the text
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1042 before decoding ought to be ``raw bytes.''
00022857f529 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1043 @end defun
00022857f529 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1044
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1045 @defun decode-coding-string string coding-system
21006
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parents:
diff changeset
1046 @tindex decode-coding-string
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1047 This function decodes the text in @var{string} according to coding
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1048 system @var{coding-system}. It returns a new string containing the
00022857f529 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1049 decoded text. To make explicit decoding useful, the contents of
00022857f529 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1050 @var{string} ought to be ``raw bytes.''
00022857f529 Initial revision
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parents:
diff changeset
1051 @end defun
21682
90da2489c498 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1052
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1053 @node Terminal I/O Encoding
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1054 @subsection Terminal I/O Encoding
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1055
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1056 Emacs can decode keyboard input using a coding system, and encode
23110
0d84817a4973 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22267
diff changeset
1057 terminal output. This is useful for terminals that transmit or display
0d84817a4973 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22267
diff changeset
1058 text using a particular encoding such as Latin-1. Emacs does not set
0d84817a4973 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22267
diff changeset
1059 @code{last-coding-system-used} for encoding or decoding for the
0d84817a4973 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 22267
diff changeset
1060 terminal.
22138
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1061
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1062 @defun keyboard-coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1063 @tindex keyboard-coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1064 This function returns the coding system that is in use for decoding
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1065 keyboard input---or @code{nil} if no coding system is to be used.
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1066 @end defun
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1067
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1068 @defun set-keyboard-coding-system coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1069 @tindex set-keyboard-coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1070 This function specifies @var{coding-system} as the coding system to
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1071 use for decoding keyboard input. If @var{coding-system} is @code{nil},
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1072 that means do not decode keyboard input.
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1073 @end defun
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1074
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1075 @defun terminal-coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1076 @tindex terminal-coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1077 This function returns the coding system that is in use for encoding
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1078 terminal output---or @code{nil} for no encoding.
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1079 @end defun
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1080
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1081 @defun set-terminal-coding-system coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1082 @tindex set-terminal-coding-system
d4ac295a98b3 *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 21682
diff changeset
1083 This function specifies @var{coding-system} as the coding system to use
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diff changeset
1084 for encoding terminal output. If @var{coding-system} is @code{nil},
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1085 that means do not encode terminal output.
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diff changeset
1086 @end defun
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diff changeset
1087
21682
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1088 @node MS-DOS File Types
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diff changeset
1089 @subsection MS-DOS File Types
21682
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1090 @cindex DOS file types
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1091 @cindex MS-DOS file types
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1092 @cindex Windows file types
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diff changeset
1093 @cindex file types on MS-DOS and Windows
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diff changeset
1094 @cindex text files and binary files
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1095 @cindex binary files and text files
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diff changeset
1096
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diff changeset
1097 On MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows, Emacs guesses the appropriate
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parents: 24952
diff changeset
1098 end-of-line conversion for a file by looking at the file's name. This
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diff changeset
1099 feature classifies fils as @dfn{text files} and @dfn{binary files}. By
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parents: 24952
diff changeset
1100 ``binary file'' we mean a file of literal byte values that are not
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parents: 24952
diff changeset
1101 necessarily meant to be characters; Emacs does no end-of-line conversion
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parents: 24952
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1102 and no character code conversion for them. On the other hand, the bytes
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parents: 24952
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1103 in a text file are intended to represent characters; when you create a
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parents: 24952
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1104 new file whose name implies that it is a text file, Emacs uses DOS
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diff changeset
1105 end-of-line conversion.
21682
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diff changeset
1106
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diff changeset
1107 @defvar buffer-file-type
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1108 This variable, automatically buffer-local in each buffer, records the
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1109 file type of the buffer's visited file. When a buffer does not specify
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diff changeset
1110 a coding system with @code{buffer-file-coding-system}, this variable is
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1111 used to determine which coding system to use when writing the contents
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1112 of the buffer. It should be @code{nil} for text, @code{t} for binary.
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diff changeset
1113 If it is @code{t}, the coding system is @code{no-conversion}.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1114 Otherwise, @code{undecided-dos} is used.
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diff changeset
1115
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1116 Normally this variable is set by visiting a file; it is set to
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diff changeset
1117 @code{nil} if the file was visited without any actual conversion.
21682
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diff changeset
1118 @end defvar
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diff changeset
1119
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diff changeset
1120 @defopt file-name-buffer-file-type-alist
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1121 This variable holds an alist for recognizing text and binary files.
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1122 Each element has the form (@var{regexp} . @var{type}), where
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diff changeset
1123 @var{regexp} is matched against the file name, and @var{type} may be
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1124 @code{nil} for text, @code{t} for binary, or a function to call to
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1125 compute which. If it is a function, then it is called with a single
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1126 argument (the file name) and should return @code{t} or @code{nil}.
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diff changeset
1127
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diff changeset
1128 When running on MS-DOS or MS-Windows, Emacs checks this alist to decide
21682
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1129 which coding system to use when reading a file. For a text file,
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1130 @code{undecided-dos} is used. For a binary file, @code{no-conversion}
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1131 is used.
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1132
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1133 If no element in this alist matches a given file name, then
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1134 @code{default-buffer-file-type} says how to treat the file.
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1135 @end defopt
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1136
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diff changeset
1137 @defopt default-buffer-file-type
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1138 This variable says how to handle files for which
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1139 @code{file-name-buffer-file-type-alist} says nothing about the type.
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1140
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1141 If this variable is non-@code{nil}, then these files are treated as
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1142 binary: the coding system @code{no-conversion} is used. Otherwise,
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1143 nothing special is done for them---the coding system is deduced solely
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1144 from the file contents, in the usual Emacs fashion.
21682
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diff changeset
1145 @end defopt
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diff changeset
1146
22138
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diff changeset
1147 @node Input Methods
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diff changeset
1148 @section Input Methods
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1149 @cindex input methods
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1150
25751
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diff changeset
1151 @dfn{Input methods} provide convenient ways of entering non-@sc{ascii}
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1152 characters from the keyboard. Unlike coding systems, which translate
25751
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parents: 24952
diff changeset
1153 non-@sc{ascii} characters to and from encodings meant to be read by
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1154 programs, input methods provide human-friendly commands. (@xref{Input
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1155 Methods,,, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}, for information on how users
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1156 use input methods to enter text.) How to define input methods is not
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1157 yet documented in this manual, but here we describe how to use them.
21682
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1158
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1159 Each input method has a name, which is currently a string;
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1160 in the future, symbols may also be usable as input method names.
21682
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parents: 21006
diff changeset
1161
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1162 @tindex current-input-method
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1163 @defvar current-input-method
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1164 This variable holds the name of the input method now active in the
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1165 current buffer. (It automatically becomes local in each buffer when set
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1166 in any fashion.) It is @code{nil} if no input method is active in the
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1167 buffer now.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1168 @end defvar
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1169
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1170 @tindex default-input-method
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1171 @defvar default-input-method
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1172 This variable holds the default input method for commands that choose an
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1173 input method. Unlike @code{current-input-method}, this variable is
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1174 normally global.
21682
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diff changeset
1175 @end defvar
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diff changeset
1176
22138
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diff changeset
1177 @tindex set-input-method
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1178 @defun set-input-method input-method
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1179 This function activates input method @var{input-method} for the current
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1180 buffer. It also sets @code{default-input-method} to @var{input-method}.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1181 If @var{input-method} is @code{nil}, this function deactivates any input
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1182 method for the current buffer.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1183 @end defun
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1184
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1185 @tindex read-input-method-name
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1186 @defun read-input-method-name prompt &optional default inhibit-null
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1187 This function reads an input method name with the minibuffer, prompting
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1188 with @var{prompt}. If @var{default} is non-@code{nil}, that is returned
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1189 by default, if the user enters empty input. However, if
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1190 @var{inhibit-null} is non-@code{nil}, empty input signals an error.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1191
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1192 The returned value is a string.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1193 @end defun
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diff changeset
1194
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diff changeset
1195 @tindex input-method-alist
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1196 @defvar input-method-alist
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1197 This variable defines all the supported input methods.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1198 Each element defines one input method, and should have the form:
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1199
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diff changeset
1200 @example
22252
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
1201 (@var{input-method} @var{language-env} @var{activate-func}
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
1202 @var{title} @var{description} @var{args}...)
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1203 @end example
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1204
22252
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diff changeset
1205 Here @var{input-method} is the input method name, a string;
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
1206 @var{language-env} is another string, the name of the language
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
1207 environment this input method is recommended for. (That serves only for
40089afa2b1d *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22138
diff changeset
1208 documentation purposes.)
22138
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diff changeset
1209
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diff changeset
1210 @var{title} is a string to display in the mode line while this method is
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1211 active. @var{description} is a string describing this method and what
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diff changeset
1212 it is good for.
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1213
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diff changeset
1214 @var{activate-func} is a function to call to activate this method. The
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1215 @var{args}, if any, are passed as arguments to @var{activate-func}. All
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1216 told, the arguments to @var{activate-func} are @var{input-method} and
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1217 the @var{args}.
22252
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diff changeset
1218 @end defvar
22138
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parents: 21682
diff changeset
1219
23110
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parents: 22267
diff changeset
1220 The fundamental interface to input methods is through the
0d84817a4973 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22267
diff changeset
1221 variable @code{input-method-function}. @xref{Reading One Event}.