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annotate lispref/internals.texi @ 26047:e6efd0ace0f3
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author | Gerd Moellmann <gerd@gnu.org> |
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date | Sat, 16 Oct 1999 12:00:02 +0000 |
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6451 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6451 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/internals | |
6 @node GNU Emacs Internals, Standard Errors, Tips, Top | |
7 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
8 @appendix GNU Emacs Internals | |
9 | |
10 This chapter describes how the runnable Emacs executable is dumped with | |
11 the preloaded Lisp libraries in it, how storage is allocated, and some | |
12 internal aspects of GNU Emacs that may be of interest to C programmers. | |
13 | |
14 @menu | |
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15 * Building Emacs:: How to the dumped Emacs is made. |
6451 | 16 * Pure Storage:: A kludge to make preloaded Lisp functions sharable. |
17 * Garbage Collection:: Reclaiming space for Lisp objects no longer used. | |
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18 * Memory Usage:: Info about total size of Lisp objects made so far. |
6451 | 19 * Writing Emacs Primitives:: Writing C code for Emacs. |
20 * Object Internals:: Data formats of buffers, windows, processes. | |
21 @end menu | |
22 | |
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23 @node Building Emacs |
6451 | 24 @appendixsec Building Emacs |
25 @cindex building Emacs | |
26 @pindex temacs | |
27 | |
28 This section explains the steps involved in building the Emacs | |
29 executable. You don't have to know this material to build and install | |
30 Emacs, since the makefiles do all these things automatically. This | |
31 information is pertinent to Emacs maintenance. | |
32 | |
33 Compilation of the C source files in the @file{src} directory | |
34 produces an executable file called @file{temacs}, also called a | |
35 @dfn{bare impure Emacs}. It contains the Emacs Lisp interpreter and I/O | |
36 routines, but not the editing commands. | |
37 | |
38 @cindex @file{loadup.el} | |
39 The command @w{@samp{temacs -l loadup}} uses @file{temacs} to create | |
40 the real runnable Emacs executable. These arguments direct | |
41 @file{temacs} to evaluate the Lisp files specified in the file | |
42 @file{loadup.el}. These files set up the normal Emacs editing | |
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43 environment, resulting in an Emacs that is still impure but no longer |
6451 | 44 bare. |
45 | |
46 It takes a substantial time to load the standard Lisp files. Luckily, | |
47 you don't have to do this each time you run Emacs; @file{temacs} can | |
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48 dump out an executable program called @file{emacs} that has these files |
6451 | 49 preloaded. @file{emacs} starts more quickly because it does not need to |
50 load the files. This is the Emacs executable that is normally | |
51 installed. | |
52 | |
53 To create @file{emacs}, use the command @samp{temacs -batch -l loadup | |
54 dump}. The purpose of @samp{-batch} here is to prevent @file{temacs} | |
55 from trying to initialize any of its data on the terminal; this ensures | |
56 that the tables of terminal information are empty in the dumped Emacs. | |
57 The argument @samp{dump} tells @file{loadup.el} to dump a new executable | |
58 named @file{emacs}. | |
59 | |
60 Some operating systems don't support dumping. On those systems, you | |
61 must start Emacs with the @samp{temacs -l loadup} command each time you | |
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62 use it. This takes a substantial time, but since you need to start |
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63 Emacs once a day at most---or once a week if you never log out---the |
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64 extra time is not too severe a problem. |
6451 | 65 |
66 @cindex @file{site-load.el} | |
67 You can specify additional files to preload by writing a library named | |
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68 @file{site-load.el} that loads them. You may need to increase the value |
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69 of @code{PURESIZE}, in @file{src/puresize.h}, to make room for the |
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70 additional data. (Try adding increments of 20000 until it is big |
6451 | 71 enough.) However, the advantage of preloading additional files |
72 decreases as machines get faster. On modern machines, it is usually not | |
73 advisable. | |
74 | |
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75 After @file{loadup.el} reads @file{site-load.el}, it finds the |
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76 documentation strings for primitive and preloaded functions (and |
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77 variables) in the file @file{etc/DOC} where they are stored, by calling |
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78 @code{Snarf-documentation} (@pxref{Accessing Documentation}). |
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79 |
6451 | 80 @cindex @file{site-init.el} |
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81 You can specify other Lisp expressions to execute just before dumping |
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82 by putting them in a library named @file{site-init.el}. This file is |
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83 executed after the documentation strings are found. |
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84 |
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85 If you want to preload function or variable definitions, there are |
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86 three ways you can do this and make their documentation strings |
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87 accessible when you subsequently run Emacs: |
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88 |
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89 @itemize @bullet |
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90 @item |
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91 Arrange to scan these files when producing the @file{etc/DOC} file, |
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92 and load them with @file{site-load.el}. |
6451 | 93 |
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94 @item |
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95 Load the files with @file{site-init.el}, then copy the files into the |
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96 installation directory for Lisp files when you install Emacs. |
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97 |
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98 @item |
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99 Specify a non-@code{nil} value for |
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100 @code{byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings} as a local variable in each of these |
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101 files, and load them with either @file{site-load.el} or |
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102 @file{site-init.el}. (This method has the drawback that the |
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103 documentation strings take up space in Emacs all the time.) |
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104 @end itemize |
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105 |
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106 It is not advisable to put anything in @file{site-load.el} or |
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107 @file{site-init.el} that would alter any of the features that users |
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108 expect in an ordinary unmodified Emacs. If you feel you must override |
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109 normal features for your site, do it with @file{default.el}, so that |
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110 users can override your changes if they wish. @xref{Startup Summary}. |
6451 | 111 |
112 @defun dump-emacs to-file from-file | |
113 @cindex unexec | |
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114 This function dumps the current state of Emacs into an executable file |
6451 | 115 @var{to-file}. It takes symbols from @var{from-file} (this is normally |
116 the executable file @file{temacs}). | |
117 | |
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118 If you want to use this function in an Emacs that was already dumped, |
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119 you must run Emacs with @samp{-batch}. |
6451 | 120 @end defun |
121 | |
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122 @node Pure Storage |
6451 | 123 @appendixsec Pure Storage |
124 @cindex pure storage | |
125 | |
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126 Emacs Lisp uses two kinds of storage for user-created Lisp objects: |
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127 @dfn{normal storage} and @dfn{pure storage}. Normal storage is where |
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128 all the new data created during an Emacs session are kept; see the |
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129 following section for information on normal storage. Pure storage is |
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130 used for certain data in the preloaded standard Lisp files---data that |
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131 should never change during actual use of Emacs. |
6451 | 132 |
133 Pure storage is allocated only while @file{temacs} is loading the | |
134 standard preloaded Lisp libraries. In the file @file{emacs}, it is | |
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135 marked as read-only (on operating systems that permit this), so that |
6451 | 136 the memory space can be shared by all the Emacs jobs running on the |
137 machine at once. Pure storage is not expandable; a fixed amount is | |
138 allocated when Emacs is compiled, and if that is not sufficient for the | |
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139 preloaded libraries, @file{temacs} crashes. If that happens, you must |
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140 increase the compilation parameter @code{PURESIZE} in the file |
6451 | 141 @file{src/puresize.h}. This normally won't happen unless you try to |
142 preload additional libraries or add features to the standard ones. | |
143 | |
144 @defun purecopy object | |
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145 This function makes a copy in pure storage of @var{object}, and returns |
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146 it. It copies a string by simply making a new string with the same |
6451 | 147 characters in pure storage. It recursively copies the contents of |
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148 vectors and cons cells. It does not make copies of other objects such |
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149 as symbols, but just returns them unchanged. It signals an error if |
6451 | 150 asked to copy markers. |
151 | |
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152 This function is a no-op except while Emacs is being built and dumped; |
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153 it is usually called only in the file @file{emacs/lisp/loaddefs.el}, but |
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154 a few packages call it just in case you decide to preload them. |
6451 | 155 @end defun |
156 | |
157 @defvar pure-bytes-used | |
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158 The value of this variable is the number of bytes of pure storage |
6451 | 159 allocated so far. Typically, in a dumped Emacs, this number is very |
160 close to the total amount of pure storage available---if it were not, | |
161 we would preallocate less. | |
162 @end defvar | |
163 | |
164 @defvar purify-flag | |
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165 This variable determines whether @code{defun} should make a copy of the |
6451 | 166 function definition in pure storage. If it is non-@code{nil}, then the |
167 function definition is copied into pure storage. | |
168 | |
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169 This flag is @code{t} while loading all of the basic functions for |
6451 | 170 building Emacs initially (allowing those functions to be sharable and |
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171 non-collectible). Dumping Emacs as an executable always writes |
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172 @code{nil} in this variable, regardless of the value it actually has |
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173 before and after dumping. |
6451 | 174 |
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175 You should not change this flag in a running Emacs. |
6451 | 176 @end defvar |
177 | |
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178 @node Garbage Collection |
6451 | 179 @appendixsec Garbage Collection |
180 @cindex garbage collector | |
181 | |
182 @cindex memory allocation | |
183 When a program creates a list or the user defines a new function (such | |
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184 as by loading a library), that data is placed in normal storage. If |
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185 normal storage runs low, then Emacs asks the operating system to |
6451 | 186 allocate more memory in blocks of 1k bytes. Each block is used for one |
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187 type of Lisp object, so symbols, cons cells, markers, etc., are |
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188 segregated in distinct blocks in memory. (Vectors, long strings, |
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189 buffers and certain other editing types, which are fairly large, are |
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190 allocated in individual blocks, one per object, while small strings are |
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191 packed into blocks of 8k bytes.) |
6451 | 192 |
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193 It is quite common to use some storage for a while, then release it by |
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194 (for example) killing a buffer or deleting the last pointer to an |
6451 | 195 object. Emacs provides a @dfn{garbage collector} to reclaim this |
196 abandoned storage. (This name is traditional, but ``garbage recycler'' | |
197 might be a more intuitive metaphor for this facility.) | |
198 | |
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199 The garbage collector operates by finding and marking all Lisp objects |
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200 that are still accessible to Lisp programs. To begin with, it assumes |
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201 all the symbols, their values and associated function definitions, and |
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202 any data presently on the stack, are accessible. Any objects that can |
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203 be reached indirectly through other accessible objects are also |
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204 accessible. |
6451 | 205 |
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206 When marking is finished, all objects still unmarked are garbage. No |
6451 | 207 matter what the Lisp program or the user does, it is impossible to refer |
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208 to them, since there is no longer a way to reach them. Their space |
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209 might as well be reused, since no one will miss them. The second |
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210 (``sweep'') phase of the garbage collector arranges to reuse them. |
6451 | 211 |
212 @cindex free list | |
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213 The sweep phase puts unused cons cells onto a @dfn{free list} |
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214 for future allocation; likewise for symbols and markers. It compacts |
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215 the accessible strings so they occupy fewer 8k blocks; then it frees the |
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216 other 8k blocks. Vectors, buffers, windows, and other large objects are |
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217 individually allocated and freed using @code{malloc} and @code{free}. |
6451 | 218 |
219 @cindex CL note---allocate more storage | |
220 @quotation | |
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221 @b{Common Lisp note:} Unlike other Lisps, GNU Emacs Lisp does not |
6451 | 222 call the garbage collector when the free list is empty. Instead, it |
223 simply requests the operating system to allocate more storage, and | |
224 processing continues until @code{gc-cons-threshold} bytes have been | |
225 used. | |
226 | |
227 This means that you can make sure that the garbage collector will not | |
228 run during a certain portion of a Lisp program by calling the garbage | |
229 collector explicitly just before it (provided that portion of the | |
230 program does not use so much space as to force a second garbage | |
231 collection). | |
232 @end quotation | |
233 | |
234 @deffn Command garbage-collect | |
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235 This command runs a garbage collection, and returns information on |
6451 | 236 the amount of space in use. (Garbage collection can also occur |
237 spontaneously if you use more than @code{gc-cons-threshold} bytes of | |
238 Lisp data since the previous garbage collection.) | |
239 | |
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240 @code{garbage-collect} returns a list containing the following |
6451 | 241 information: |
242 | |
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243 @example |
6451 | 244 @group |
245 ((@var{used-conses} . @var{free-conses}) | |
246 (@var{used-syms} . @var{free-syms}) | |
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247 @end group |
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248 (@var{used-miscs} . @var{free-miscs}) |
6451 | 249 @var{used-string-chars} |
250 @var{used-vector-slots} | |
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251 (@var{used-floats} . @var{free-floats}) |
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252 (@var{used-intervals} . @var{free-intervals})) |
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253 @end example |
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254 |
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255 Here is an example: |
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256 |
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257 @example |
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258 @group |
6451 | 259 (garbage-collect) |
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260 @result{} ((106886 . 13184) (9769 . 0) |
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261 (7731 . 4651) 347543 121628 |
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262 (31 . 94) (1273 . 168)) |
6451 | 263 @end group |
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264 @end example |
6451 | 265 |
266 Here is a table explaining each element: | |
267 | |
268 @table @var | |
269 @item used-conses | |
270 The number of cons cells in use. | |
271 | |
272 @item free-conses | |
273 The number of cons cells for which space has been obtained from the | |
274 operating system, but that are not currently being used. | |
275 | |
276 @item used-syms | |
277 The number of symbols in use. | |
278 | |
279 @item free-syms | |
280 The number of symbols for which space has been obtained from the | |
281 operating system, but that are not currently being used. | |
282 | |
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283 @item used-miscs |
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284 The number of miscellaneous objects in use. These include markers and |
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285 overlays, plus certain objects not visible to users. |
6451 | 286 |
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287 @item free-miscs |
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288 The number of miscellaneous objects for which space has been obtained |
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289 from the operating system, but that are not currently being used. |
6451 | 290 |
291 @item used-string-chars | |
292 The total size of all strings, in characters. | |
293 | |
294 @item used-vector-slots | |
295 The total number of elements of existing vectors. | |
296 | |
297 @item used-floats | |
298 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
299 The number of floats in use. | |
300 | |
301 @item free-floats | |
302 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
303 The number of floats for which space has been obtained from the | |
304 operating system, but that are not currently being used. | |
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305 |
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306 @item used-intervals |
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307 The number of intervals in use. Intervals are an internal |
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308 data structure used for representing text properties. |
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309 |
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310 @item free-intervals |
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311 The number of intervals for which space has been obtained |
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312 from the operating system, but that are not currently being used. |
6451 | 313 @end table |
314 @end deffn | |
315 | |
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316 @defopt garbage-collection-messages |
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317 If this variable is non-@code{nil}, Emacs displays a message at the |
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318 beginning and end of garbage collection. The default value is |
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319 @code{nil}, meaning there are no such messages. |
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320 @end defopt |
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321 |
6451 | 322 @defopt gc-cons-threshold |
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323 The value of this variable is the number of bytes of storage that must |
6451 | 324 be allocated for Lisp objects after one garbage collection in order to |
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325 trigger another garbage collection. A cons cell counts as eight bytes, |
6451 | 326 a string as one byte per character plus a few bytes of overhead, and so |
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327 on; space allocated to the contents of buffers does not count. Note |
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328 that the subsequent garbage collection does not happen immediately when |
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329 the threshold is exhausted, but only the next time the Lisp evaluator is |
6451 | 330 called. |
331 | |
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332 The initial threshold value is 400,000. If you specify a larger |
6451 | 333 value, garbage collection will happen less often. This reduces the |
334 amount of time spent garbage collecting, but increases total memory use. | |
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335 You may want to do this when running a program that creates lots of |
6451 | 336 Lisp data. |
337 | |
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338 You can make collections more frequent by specifying a smaller value, |
6451 | 339 down to 10,000. A value less than 10,000 will remain in effect only |
340 until the subsequent garbage collection, at which time | |
341 @code{garbage-collect} will set the threshold back to 10,000. | |
342 @end defopt | |
343 | |
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344 The value return by @code{garbage-collect} describes the amount of |
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345 memory used by Lisp data, broken down by data type. By contrast, the |
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346 function @code{memory-limit} provides information on the total amount of |
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347 memory Emacs is currently using. |
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348 |
6451 | 349 @c Emacs 19 feature |
350 @defun memory-limit | |
351 This function returns the address of the last byte Emacs has allocated, | |
352 divided by 1024. We divide the value by 1024 to make sure it fits in a | |
353 Lisp integer. | |
354 | |
355 You can use this to get a general idea of how your actions affect the | |
356 memory usage. | |
357 @end defun | |
358 | |
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359 @node Memory Usage |
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360 @section Memory Usage |
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361 |
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362 These functions and variables give information about the total amount |
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363 of memory allocation that Emacs has done, broken down by data type. |
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364 Note the difference between these and the values returned by |
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365 @code{(garbage-collect)}; those count objects that currently exist, but |
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366 these count the number or size of all allocations, including those for |
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367 objects that have since been freed. |
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368 |
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369 @defvar cons-cells-consed |
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370 The total number of cons cells that have been allocated so far |
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371 in this Emacs session. |
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372 @end defvar |
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373 |
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374 @defvar floats-consed |
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375 The total number of floats that have been allocated so far |
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376 in this Emacs session. |
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377 @end defvar |
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378 |
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379 @defvar vector-cells-consed |
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380 The total number of vector cells that have been allocated so far |
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381 in this Emacs session. |
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382 @end defvar |
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383 |
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384 @defvar symbols-consed |
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385 The total number of symbols that have been allocated so far |
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386 in this Emacs session. |
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387 @end defvar |
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388 |
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389 @defvar string-chars-consed |
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390 The total number of string characters that have been allocated so far |
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391 in this Emacs session. |
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392 @end defvar |
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393 |
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394 @defvar misc-objects-consed |
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395 The total number of miscellaneous objects that have been allocated so |
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396 far in this Emacs session. These include markers and overlays, plus |
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397 certain objects not visible to users. |
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398 @end defvar |
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399 |
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400 @defvar intervals-consed |
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401 The total number of intervals that have been allocated so far |
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402 in this Emacs session. |
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403 @end defvar |
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404 |
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405 @node Writing Emacs Primitives |
6451 | 406 @appendixsec Writing Emacs Primitives |
407 @cindex primitive function internals | |
408 | |
409 Lisp primitives are Lisp functions implemented in C. The details of | |
410 interfacing the C function so that Lisp can call it are handled by a few | |
411 C macros. The only way to really understand how to write new C code is | |
412 to read the source, but we can explain some things here. | |
413 | |
414 An example of a special form is the definition of @code{or}, from | |
415 @file{eval.c}. (An ordinary function would have the same general | |
416 appearance.) | |
417 | |
418 @cindex garbage collection protection | |
419 @smallexample | |
420 @group | |
421 DEFUN ("or", For, Sor, 0, UNEVALLED, 0, | |
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422 "Eval args until one of them yields non-nil; return that value.\n\ |
6451 | 423 The remaining args are not evalled at all.\n\ |
424 @end group | |
425 @group | |
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426 If all args return nil, return nil.") |
6451 | 427 (args) |
428 Lisp_Object args; | |
429 @{ | |
430 register Lisp_Object val; | |
431 Lisp_Object args_left; | |
432 struct gcpro gcpro1; | |
433 @end group | |
434 | |
435 @group | |
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436 if (NULL (args)) |
6451 | 437 return Qnil; |
438 | |
439 args_left = args; | |
440 GCPRO1 (args_left); | |
441 @end group | |
442 | |
443 @group | |
444 do | |
445 @{ | |
446 val = Feval (Fcar (args_left)); | |
447 if (!NULL (val)) | |
448 break; | |
449 args_left = Fcdr (args_left); | |
450 @} | |
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451 while (!NULL (args_left)); |
6451 | 452 @end group |
453 | |
454 @group | |
455 UNGCPRO; | |
456 return val; | |
457 @} | |
458 @end group | |
459 @end smallexample | |
460 | |
461 Let's start with a precise explanation of the arguments to the | |
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462 @code{DEFUN} macro. Here is a template for them: |
6451 | 463 |
464 @example | |
465 DEFUN (@var{lname}, @var{fname}, @var{sname}, @var{min}, @var{max}, @var{interactive}, @var{doc}) | |
466 @end example | |
467 | |
468 @table @var | |
469 @item lname | |
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470 This is the name of the Lisp symbol to define as the function name; in |
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471 the example above, it is @code{or}. |
6451 | 472 |
473 @item fname | |
474 This is the C function name for this function. This is | |
475 the name that is used in C code for calling the function. The name is, | |
476 by convention, @samp{F} prepended to the Lisp name, with all dashes | |
477 (@samp{-}) in the Lisp name changed to underscores. Thus, to call this | |
478 function from C code, call @code{For}. Remember that the arguments must | |
479 be of type @code{Lisp_Object}; various macros and functions for creating | |
480 values of type @code{Lisp_Object} are declared in the file | |
481 @file{lisp.h}. | |
482 | |
483 @item sname | |
484 This is a C variable name to use for a structure that holds the data for | |
485 the subr object that represents the function in Lisp. This structure | |
486 conveys the Lisp symbol name to the initialization routine that will | |
487 create the symbol and store the subr object as its definition. By | |
488 convention, this name is always @var{fname} with @samp{F} replaced with | |
489 @samp{S}. | |
490 | |
491 @item min | |
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492 This is the minimum number of arguments that the function requires. The |
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493 function @code{or} allows a minimum of zero arguments. |
6451 | 494 |
495 @item max | |
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496 This is the maximum number of arguments that the function accepts, if |
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497 there is a fixed maximum. Alternatively, it can be @code{UNEVALLED}, |
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498 indicating a special form that receives unevaluated arguments, or |
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499 @code{MANY}, indicating an unlimited number of evaluated arguments (the |
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500 equivalent of @code{&rest}). Both @code{UNEVALLED} and @code{MANY} are |
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501 macros. If @var{max} is a number, it may not be less than @var{min} and |
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502 it may not be greater than seven. |
6451 | 503 |
504 @item interactive | |
505 This is an interactive specification, a string such as might be used as | |
506 the argument of @code{interactive} in a Lisp function. In the case of | |
507 @code{or}, it is 0 (a null pointer), indicating that @code{or} cannot be | |
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508 called interactively. A value of @code{""} indicates a function that |
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509 should receive no arguments when called interactively. |
6451 | 510 |
511 @item doc | |
512 This is the documentation string. It is written just like a | |
513 documentation string for a function defined in Lisp, except you must | |
514 write @samp{\n\} at the end of each line. In particular, the first line | |
515 should be a single sentence. | |
516 @end table | |
517 | |
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518 After the call to the @code{DEFUN} macro, you must write the argument |
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519 name list that every C function must have, followed by ordinary C |
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520 declarations for the arguments. For a function with a fixed maximum |
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521 number of arguments, declare a C argument for each Lisp argument, and |
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522 give them all type @code{Lisp_Object}. When a Lisp function has no |
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523 upper limit on the number of arguments, its implementation in C actually |
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524 receives exactly two arguments: the first is the number of Lisp |
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525 arguments, and the second is the address of a block containing their |
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526 values. They have types @code{int} and @w{@code{Lisp_Object *}}. |
6451 | 527 |
528 Within the function @code{For} itself, note the use of the macros | |
529 @code{GCPRO1} and @code{UNGCPRO}. @code{GCPRO1} is used to ``protect'' | |
530 a variable from garbage collection---to inform the garbage collector that | |
531 it must look in that variable and regard its contents as an accessible | |
532 object. This is necessary whenever you call @code{Feval} or anything | |
533 that can directly or indirectly call @code{Feval}. At such a time, any | |
534 Lisp object that you intend to refer to again must be protected somehow. | |
535 @code{UNGCPRO} cancels the protection of the variables that are | |
536 protected in the current function. It is necessary to do this explicitly. | |
537 | |
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538 For most data types, it suffices to protect at least one pointer to |
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539 the object; as long as the object is not recycled, all pointers to it |
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540 remain valid. This is not so for strings, because the garbage collector |
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541 can move them. When the garbage collector moves a string, it relocates |
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542 all the pointers it knows about; any other pointers become invalid. |
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543 Therefore, you must protect all pointers to strings across any point |
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544 where garbage collection may be possible. |
6451 | 545 |
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546 The macro @code{GCPRO1} protects just one local variable. If you want |
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547 to protect two, use @code{GCPRO2} instead; repeating @code{GCPRO1} will |
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548 not work. Macros @code{GCPRO3} and @code{GCPRO4} also exist. |
6451 | 549 |
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550 These macros implicitly use local variables such as @code{gcpro1}; you |
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551 must declare these explicitly, with type @code{struct gcpro}. Thus, if |
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552 you use @code{GCPRO2}, you must declare @code{gcpro1} and @code{gcpro2}. |
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553 Alas, we can't explain all the tricky details here. |
6451 | 554 |
10487 | 555 You must not use C initializers for static or global variables unless |
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556 the variables are never stored in once Emacs is dumped. These variables |
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557 with initializers are allocated in an area of memory that becomes |
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558 read-only (on certain operating systems) as a result of dumping Emacs. |
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559 @xref{Pure Storage}. |
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560 |
10487 | 561 Do not use static variables within functions---place all static |
562 variables at top level in the file. This is necessary because Emacs on | |
563 some operating systems defines the keyword @code{static} as a null | |
564 macro. (This definition is used because those systems put all variables | |
565 declared static in a place that becomes read-only after dumping, whether | |
566 they have initializers or not.) | |
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567 |
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568 Defining the C function is not enough to make a Lisp primitive |
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569 available; you must also create the Lisp symbol for the primitive and |
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570 store a suitable subr object in its function cell. The code looks like |
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571 this: |
6451 | 572 |
573 @example | |
574 defsubr (&@var{subr-structure-name}); | |
575 @end example | |
576 | |
577 @noindent | |
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578 Here @var{subr-structure-name} is the name you used as the third |
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579 argument to @code{DEFUN}. |
6451 | 580 |
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581 If you add a new primitive to a file that already has Lisp primitives |
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582 defined in it, find the function (near the end of the file) named |
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583 @code{syms_of_@var{something}}, and add the call to @code{defsubr} |
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584 there. If the file doesn't have this function, or if you create a new |
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585 file, add to it a @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} (e.g., |
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586 @code{syms_of_myfile}). Then find the spot in @file{emacs.c} where all |
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587 of these functions are called, and add a call to |
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588 @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} there. |
6451 | 589 |
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590 @vindex byte-boolean-vars |
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591 The function @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} is also the place to define |
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592 any C variables that are to be visible as Lisp variables. |
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593 @code{DEFVAR_LISP} makes a C variable of type @code{Lisp_Object} visible |
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594 in Lisp. @code{DEFVAR_INT} makes a C variable of type @code{int} |
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595 visible in Lisp with a value that is always an integer. |
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596 @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} makes a C variable of type @code{int} visible in Lisp |
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597 with a value that is either @code{t} or @code{nil}. Note that variables |
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598 defined with @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} are automatically added to the list |
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599 @code{byte-boolean-vars} used by the byte compiler. |
6451 | 600 |
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601 If you define a file-scope C variable of type @code{Lisp_Object}, |
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602 you must protect it from garbage-collection by calling @code{staticpro} |
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603 in @code{syms_of_@var{filename}}, like this: |
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604 |
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605 @example |
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606 staticpro (&@var{variable}); |
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607 @end example |
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608 |
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609 Here is another example function, with more complicated arguments. |
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610 This comes from the code in @file{window.c}, and it demonstrates the use |
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611 of macros and functions to manipulate Lisp objects. |
6451 | 612 |
613 @smallexample | |
614 @group | |
615 DEFUN ("coordinates-in-window-p", Fcoordinates_in_window_p, | |
616 Scoordinates_in_window_p, 2, 2, | |
617 "xSpecify coordinate pair: \nXExpression which evals to window: ", | |
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618 "Return non-nil if COORDINATES is in WINDOW.\n\ |
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619 COORDINATES is a cons of the form (X . Y), X and Y being distances\n\ |
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620 ... |
6451 | 621 @end group |
622 @group | |
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623 If they are on the border between WINDOW and its right sibling,\n\ |
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624 `vertical-line' is returned.") |
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625 (coordinates, window) |
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626 register Lisp_Object coordinates, window; |
6451 | 627 @{ |
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628 int x, y; |
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629 @end group |
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630 |
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631 @group |
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632 CHECK_LIVE_WINDOW (window, 0); |
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633 CHECK_CONS (coordinates, 1); |
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634 x = XINT (Fcar (coordinates)); |
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635 y = XINT (Fcdr (coordinates)); |
6451 | 636 @end group |
637 | |
638 @group | |
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639 switch (coordinates_in_window (XWINDOW (window), &x, &y)) |
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640 @{ |
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641 case 0: /* NOT in window at all. */ |
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642 return Qnil; |
6451 | 643 @end group |
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644 |
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645 @group |
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646 case 1: /* In text part of window. */ |
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647 return Fcons (make_number (x), make_number (y)); |
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648 @end group |
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649 |
6451 | 650 @group |
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651 case 2: /* In mode line of window. */ |
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652 return Qmode_line; |
6451 | 653 @end group |
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654 |
6451 | 655 @group |
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656 case 3: /* On right border of window. */ |
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657 return Qvertical_line; |
6451 | 658 @end group |
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659 |
6451 | 660 @group |
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661 default: |
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662 abort (); |
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663 @} |
6451 | 664 @} |
665 @end group | |
666 @end smallexample | |
667 | |
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668 Note that C code cannot call functions by name unless they are defined |
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669 in C. The way to call a function written in Lisp is to use |
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670 @code{Ffuncall}, which embodies the Lisp function @code{funcall}. Since |
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671 the Lisp function @code{funcall} accepts an unlimited number of |
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672 arguments, in C it takes two: the number of Lisp-level arguments, and a |
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673 one-dimensional array containing their values. The first Lisp-level |
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674 argument is the Lisp function to call, and the rest are the arguments to |
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675 pass to it. Since @code{Ffuncall} can call the evaluator, you must |
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676 protect pointers from garbage collection around the call to |
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677 @code{Ffuncall}. |
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678 |
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679 The C functions @code{call0}, @code{call1}, @code{call2}, and so on, |
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680 provide handy ways to call a Lisp function conveniently with a fixed |
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681 number of arguments. They work by calling @code{Ffuncall}. |
6451 | 682 |
683 @file{eval.c} is a very good file to look through for examples; | |
684 @file{lisp.h} contains the definitions for some important macros and | |
685 functions. | |
686 | |
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687 If you define a function which is side-effect free, update the code in |
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688 @file{byte-opt.el} which binds @code{side-effect-free-fns} and |
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689 @code{side-effect-and-error-free-fns} to include it. This will help the |
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690 optimizer. |
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691 |
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692 @node Object Internals |
6451 | 693 @appendixsec Object Internals |
694 @cindex object internals | |
695 | |
696 GNU Emacs Lisp manipulates many different types of data. The actual | |
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697 data are stored in a heap and the only access that programs have to it |
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698 is through pointers. Pointers are thirty-two bits wide in most |
6451 | 699 implementations. Depending on the operating system and type of machine |
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700 for which you compile Emacs, twenty-eight bits are used to address the |
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701 object, and the remaining four bits are used for a GC mark bit and the |
6451 | 702 tag that identifies the object's type. |
703 | |
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704 Because Lisp objects are represented as tagged pointers, it is always |
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705 possible to determine the Lisp data type of any object. The C data type |
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706 @code{Lisp_Object} can hold any Lisp object of any data type. Ordinary |
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707 variables have type @code{Lisp_Object}, which means they can hold any |
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708 type of Lisp value; you can determine the actual data type only at run |
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709 time. The same is true for function arguments; if you want a function |
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710 to accept only a certain type of argument, you must check the type |
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711 explicitly using a suitable predicate (@pxref{Type Predicates}). |
6451 | 712 @cindex type checking internals |
713 | |
714 @menu | |
715 * Buffer Internals:: Components of a buffer structure. | |
716 * Window Internals:: Components of a window structure. | |
717 * Process Internals:: Components of a process structure. | |
718 @end menu | |
719 | |
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720 @node Buffer Internals |
6451 | 721 @appendixsubsec Buffer Internals |
722 @cindex internals, of buffer | |
723 @cindex buffer internals | |
724 | |
725 Buffers contain fields not directly accessible by the Lisp programmer. | |
726 We describe them here, naming them by the names used in the C code. | |
727 Many are accessible indirectly in Lisp programs via Lisp primitives. | |
728 | |
729 @table @code | |
730 @item name | |
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731 The buffer name is a string that names the buffer. It is guaranteed to |
6451 | 732 be unique. @xref{Buffer Names}. |
733 | |
734 @item save_modified | |
735 This field contains the time when the buffer was last saved, as an integer. | |
736 @xref{Buffer Modification}. | |
737 | |
738 @item modtime | |
739 This field contains the modification time of the visited file. It is | |
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740 set when the file is written or read. Before writing the buffer into a |
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741 file, this field is compared to the modification time of the file to see |
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742 if the file has changed on disk. @xref{Buffer Modification}. |
6451 | 743 |
744 @item auto_save_modified | |
745 This field contains the time when the buffer was last auto-saved. | |
746 | |
747 @item last_window_start | |
748 This field contains the @code{window-start} position in the buffer as of | |
749 the last time the buffer was displayed in a window. | |
750 | |
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751 @item undo_list |
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752 This field points to the buffer's undo list. @xref{Undo}. |
6451 | 753 |
754 @item syntax_table_v | |
755 This field contains the syntax table for the buffer. @xref{Syntax Tables}. | |
756 | |
757 @item downcase_table | |
758 This field contains the conversion table for converting text to lower case. | |
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759 @xref{Case Tables}. |
6451 | 760 |
761 @item upcase_table | |
762 This field contains the conversion table for converting text to upper case. | |
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763 @xref{Case Tables}. |
6451 | 764 |
765 @item case_canon_table | |
766 This field contains the conversion table for canonicalizing text for | |
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767 case-folding search. @xref{Case Tables}. |
6451 | 768 |
769 @item case_eqv_table | |
770 This field contains the equivalence table for case-folding search. | |
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771 @xref{Case Tables}. |
6451 | 772 |
773 @item display_table | |
774 This field contains the buffer's display table, or @code{nil} if it doesn't | |
775 have one. @xref{Display Tables}. | |
776 | |
777 @item markers | |
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778 This field contains the chain of all markers that currently point into |
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779 the buffer. Deletion of text in the buffer, and motion of the buffer's |
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780 gap, must check each of these markers and perhaps update it. |
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781 @xref{Markers}. |
6451 | 782 |
783 @item backed_up | |
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784 This field is a flag that tells whether a backup file has been made |
6451 | 785 for the visited file of this buffer. |
786 | |
787 @item mark | |
788 This field contains the mark for the buffer. The mark is a marker, | |
789 hence it is also included on the list @code{markers}. @xref{The Mark}. | |
790 | |
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791 @item mark_active |
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792 This field is non-@code{nil} if the buffer's mark is active. |
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793 |
6451 | 794 @item local_var_alist |
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795 This field contains the association list describing the buffer-local |
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796 variable bindings of this buffer, not including the built-in |
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797 buffer-local bindings that have special slots in the buffer object. |
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798 (Those slots are omitted from this table.) @xref{Buffer-Local |
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799 Variables}. |
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800 |
12098 | 801 @item base_buffer |
802 This field holds the buffer's base buffer (if it is an indirect buffer), | |
803 or @code{nil}. | |
804 | |
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805 @item keymap |
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806 This field holds the buffer's local keymap. @xref{Keymaps}. |
6451 | 807 |
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808 @item overlay_center |
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809 This field holds the current overlay center position. @xref{Overlays}. |
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810 |
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811 @item overlays_before |
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812 This field holds a list of the overlays in this buffer that end at or |
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813 before the current overlay center position. They are sorted in order of |
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814 decreasing end position. |
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815 |
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816 @item overlays_after |
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817 This field holds a list of the overlays in this buffer that end after |
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818 the current overlay center position. They are sorted in order of |
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819 increasing beginning position. |
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820 |
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821 @item enable_multibyte_characters |
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822 This field holds the buffer's local value of |
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823 @code{enable-multibyte-characters}---either @code{t} or @code{nil}. |
6451 | 824 @end table |
825 | |
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826 @node Window Internals |
6451 | 827 @appendixsubsec Window Internals |
828 @cindex internals, of window | |
829 @cindex window internals | |
830 | |
831 Windows have the following accessible fields: | |
832 | |
833 @table @code | |
834 @item frame | |
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835 The frame that this window is on. |
6451 | 836 |
837 @item mini_p | |
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838 Non-@code{nil} if this window is a minibuffer window. |
6451 | 839 |
840 @item buffer | |
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841 The buffer that the window is displaying. This may change often during |
6451 | 842 the life of the window. |
843 | |
844 @item dedicated | |
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845 Non-@code{nil} if this window is dedicated to its buffer. |
6451 | 846 |
847 @item pointm | |
848 @cindex window point internals | |
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849 This is the value of point in the current buffer when this window is |
6451 | 850 selected; when it is not selected, it retains its previous value. |
851 | |
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852 @item start |
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853 The position in the buffer that is the first character to be displayed |
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854 in the window. |
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855 |
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856 @item force_start |
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857 If this flag is non-@code{nil}, it says that the window has been |
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858 scrolled explicitly by the Lisp program. This affects what the next |
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859 redisplay does if point is off the screen: instead of scrolling the |
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860 window to show the text around point, it moves point to a location that |
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861 is on the screen. |
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862 |
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863 @item last_modified |
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864 The @code{modified} field of the window's buffer, as of the last time |
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865 a redisplay completed in this window. |
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866 |
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867 @item last_point |
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868 The buffer's value of point, as of the last time |
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869 a redisplay completed in this window. |
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870 |
6451 | 871 @item left |
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872 This is the left-hand edge of the window, measured in columns. (The |
6451 | 873 leftmost column on the screen is @w{column 0}.) |
874 | |
875 @item top | |
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876 This is the top edge of the window, measured in lines. (The top line on |
6451 | 877 the screen is @w{line 0}.) |
878 | |
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879 @item height |
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880 The height of the window, measured in lines. |
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881 |
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882 @item width |
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883 The width of the window, measured in columns. This width includes the |
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884 scroll bar and fringes, and/or the separator line on the right of the |
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885 window (if any). |
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886 |
6451 | 887 @item next |
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888 This is the window that is the next in the chain of siblings. It is |
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889 @code{nil} in a window that is the rightmost or bottommost of a group of |
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890 siblings. |
6451 | 891 |
892 @item prev | |
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893 This is the window that is the previous in the chain of siblings. It is |
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894 @code{nil} in a window that is the leftmost or topmost of a group of |
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895 siblings. |
6451 | 896 |
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897 @item parent |
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898 Internally, Emacs arranges windows in a tree; each group of siblings has |
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899 a parent window whose area includes all the siblings. This field points |
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900 to a window's parent. |
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901 |
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902 Parent windows do not display buffers, and play little role in display |
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903 except to shape their child windows. Emacs Lisp programs usually have |
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904 no access to the parent windows; they operate on the windows at the |
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905 leaves of the tree, which actually display buffers. |
6451 | 906 |
907 @item hscroll | |
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908 This is the number of columns that the display in the window is scrolled |
6451 | 909 horizontally to the left. Normally, this is 0. |
910 | |
911 @item use_time | |
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912 This is the last time that the window was selected. The function |
6451 | 913 @code{get-lru-window} uses this field. |
914 | |
915 @item display_table | |
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916 The window's display table, or @code{nil} if none is specified for it. |
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917 |
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918 @item update_mode_line |
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919 Non-@code{nil} means this window's mode line needs to be updated. |
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920 |
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921 @item base_line_number |
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922 The line number of a certain position in the buffer, or @code{nil}. |
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923 This is used for displaying the line number of point in the mode line. |
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924 |
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925 @item base_line_pos |
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926 The position in the buffer for which the line number is known, or |
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927 @code{nil} meaning none is known. |
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928 |
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929 @item region_showing |
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930 If the region (or part of it) is highlighted in this window, this field |
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931 holds the mark position that made one end of that region. Otherwise, |
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932 this field is @code{nil}. |
6451 | 933 @end table |
934 | |
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935 @node Process Internals |
6451 | 936 @appendixsubsec Process Internals |
937 @cindex internals, of process | |
938 @cindex process internals | |
939 | |
940 The fields of a process are: | |
941 | |
942 @table @code | |
943 @item name | |
944 A string, the name of the process. | |
945 | |
946 @item command | |
947 A list containing the command arguments that were used to start this | |
948 process. | |
949 | |
950 @item filter | |
951 A function used to accept output from the process instead of a buffer, | |
952 or @code{nil}. | |
953 | |
954 @item sentinel | |
955 A function called whenever the process receives a signal, or @code{nil}. | |
956 | |
957 @item buffer | |
958 The associated buffer of the process. | |
959 | |
960 @item pid | |
961 An integer, the Unix process @sc{id}. | |
962 | |
963 @item childp | |
964 A flag, non-@code{nil} if this is really a child process. | |
965 It is @code{nil} for a network connection. | |
966 | |
967 @item mark | |
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968 A marker indicating the position of the end of the last output from this |
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969 process inserted into the buffer. This is often but not always the end |
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970 of the buffer. |
6451 | 971 |
972 @item kill_without_query | |
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973 If this is non-@code{nil}, killing Emacs while this process is still |
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974 running does not ask for confirmation about killing the process. |
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975 |
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976 @item raw_status_low |
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977 @itemx raw_status_high |
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978 These two fields record 16 bits each of the process status returned by |
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979 the @code{wait} system call. |
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980 |
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981 @item status |
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982 The process status, as @code{process-status} should return it. |
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983 |
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984 @item tick |
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985 @itemx update_tick |
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986 If these two fields are not equal, a change in the status of the process |
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987 needs to be reported, either by running the sentinel or by inserting a |
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988 message in the process buffer. |
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989 |
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990 @item pty_flag |
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991 Non-@code{nil} if communication with the subprocess uses a @sc{pty}; |
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992 @code{nil} if it uses a pipe. |
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993 |
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994 @item infd |
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995 The file descriptor for input from the process. |
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996 |
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997 @item outfd |
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998 The file descriptor for output to the process. |
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999 |
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1000 @item subtty |
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1001 The file descriptor for the terminal that the subprocess is using. (On |
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1002 some systems, there is no need to record this, so the value is |
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1003 @code{nil}.) |
12098 | 1004 |
1005 @item tty_name | |
1006 The name of the terminal that the subprocess is using, | |
1007 or @code{nil} if it is using pipes. | |
6451 | 1008 @end table |