Mercurial > emacs
annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 45379:eadb2403fb8a
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author | Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org> |
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date | Sun, 19 May 2002 23:22:50 +0000 |
parents | 90f3a1f6ee84 |
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rev | line source |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
27189 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 |
4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
6510 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 8 @chapter Numbers |
9 @cindex integers | |
10 @cindex numbers | |
11 | |
12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2 |
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second |
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
6510 | 19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. |
20 | |
21 @menu | |
22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
32 @end menu | |
33 | |
34 @node Integer Basics | |
35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
36 @section Integer Basics | |
37 | |
38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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39 minimum range is @minus{}134217728 to 134217727 (28 bits; i.e., |
27193 | 40 @ifnottex |
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41 -2**27 |
27193 | 42 @end ifnottex |
6510 | 43 @tex |
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44 @math{-2^{27}} |
6510 | 45 @end tex |
46 to | |
27193 | 47 @ifnottex |
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48 2**27 - 1), |
27193 | 49 @end ifnottex |
6510 | 50 @tex |
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51 @math{2^{27}-1}), |
6510 | 52 @end tex |
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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54 chapter assume an integer has 28 bits. |
6510 | 55 @cindex overflow |
56 | |
57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
58 initial sign and optional final period. | |
59 | |
60 @example | |
61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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65 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
68 @end example | |
69 | |
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70 @cindex integers in specific radix |
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71 @cindex radix for reading an integer |
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72 @cindex base for reading an integer |
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73 In addition, the Lisp reader recognizes a syntax for integers in |
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74 bases other than 10: @samp{#B@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in |
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75 binary (radix 2), @samp{#O@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in octal |
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76 (radix 8), @samp{#X@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in hexadecimal |
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77 (radix 16), and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} |
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78 in radix @var{radix} (where @var{radix} is between 2 and 36, |
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79 inclusivley). Case is not significant for the letter after @samp{#} |
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80 (@samp{B}, @samp{O}, etc.) that denotes the radix. |
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81 |
6510 | 82 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the |
83 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
84 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
85 | |
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86 In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 87 |
88 @example | |
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89 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 90 @end example |
91 | |
92 @noindent | |
93 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
94 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
95 | |
96 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
97 | |
98 @example | |
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99 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 100 @end example |
101 | |
102 @noindent | |
103 @cindex two's complement | |
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104 @minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 105 complement} notation.) |
106 | |
107 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
108 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
109 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
110 | |
111 @example | |
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112 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 113 @end example |
114 | |
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115 In this implementation, the largest 28-bit binary integer value is |
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116 134,217,727 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 117 |
118 @example | |
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119 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 120 @end example |
121 | |
122 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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123 outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the |
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124 negative integer @minus{}134,217,728: |
6510 | 125 |
126 @example | |
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127 (+ 1 134217727) |
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128 @result{} -134217728 |
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129 @result{} 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 130 @end example |
131 | |
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132 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for |
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133 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual |
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134 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often |
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135 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument |
6510 | 136 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. |
137 | |
138 @node Float Basics | |
139 @section Floating Point Basics | |
140 | |
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141 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are |
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142 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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143 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type |
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144 @code{double} on the machine you are using. |
6510 | 145 |
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146 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal |
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147 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For |
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148 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and |
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149 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose |
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150 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign |
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151 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}. |
6510 | 152 |
153 @cindex IEEE floating point | |
154 @cindex positive infinity | |
155 @cindex negative infinity | |
156 @cindex infinity | |
157 @cindex NaN | |
158 Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which | |
159 provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point | |
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160 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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161 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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162 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a |
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163 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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164 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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165 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp |
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166 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for |
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167 these special floating point values: |
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168 |
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169 @table @asis |
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170 @item positive infinity |
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171 @samp{1.0e+INF} |
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172 @item negative infinity |
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173 @samp{-1.0e+INF} |
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174 @item Not-a-number |
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175 @samp{0.0e+NaN}. |
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176 @end table |
6510 | 177 |
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178 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary |
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179 zero in IEEE floating point (although @code{equal} and @code{=} consider |
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180 them equal values). |
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181 |
6510 | 182 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating |
183 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
184 | |
185 @defun logb number | |
186 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
187 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
188 down to an integer. | |
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189 |
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190 @example |
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191 (logb 10) |
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192 @result{} 3 |
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193 (logb 10.0e20) |
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194 @result{} 69 |
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195 @end example |
6510 | 196 @end defun |
197 | |
198 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
199 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
200 | |
201 The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or | |
202 whether it is a certain sort of number. The functions @code{integerp} | |
203 and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the | |
204 predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop} | |
205 predicate requires a number as its argument. See also | |
206 @code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in | |
207 @ref{Predicates on Markers}. | |
208 | |
209 @defun floatp object | |
210 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
211 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
212 | |
213 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
214 @end defun | |
215 | |
216 @defun integerp object | |
217 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
218 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
219 @end defun | |
220 | |
221 @defun numberp object | |
222 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
223 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
224 @end defun | |
225 | |
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226 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 227 @cindex natural numbers |
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228 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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229 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 230 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
231 considered non-negative. | |
232 | |
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233 @findex natnump |
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234 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 235 @end defun |
236 | |
237 @defun zerop number | |
238 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
239 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
240 | |
241 These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}. | |
242 @end defun | |
243 | |
244 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
245 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
246 @cindex number equality | |
247 | |
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248 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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249 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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250 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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251 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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252 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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253 of the objects. |
6510 | 254 |
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255 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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256 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are |
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257 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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258 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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259 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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260 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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261 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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262 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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263 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 264 |
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265 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it treats |
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266 two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both integers, or |
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267 both floating point) and the same value. By contrast, @code{=} can |
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268 treat an integer and a floating point number as equal. |
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269 |
6510 | 270 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not |
271 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
272 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
273 Here's a function to do this: | |
274 | |
275 @example | |
276 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
277 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 278 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
279 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
280 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
281 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 282 @end example |
283 | |
284 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
285 @quotation | |
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286 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 287 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
288 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
289 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
290 limited range of integer values. | |
291 @end quotation | |
292 | |
293 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
294 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
295 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
296 @end defun | |
297 | |
298 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
299 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
300 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
301 @end defun | |
302 | |
303 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
304 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
305 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
306 @end defun | |
307 | |
308 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
309 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
310 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
311 otherwise. | |
312 @end defun | |
313 | |
314 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
315 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
316 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
317 otherwise. | |
318 @end defun | |
319 | |
320 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
321 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
322 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
323 otherwise. | |
324 @end defun | |
325 | |
326 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
327 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
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328 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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329 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 330 |
331 @example | |
332 (max 20) | |
333 @result{} 20 | |
334 (max 1 2.5) | |
335 @result{} 2.5 | |
336 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
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337 @result{} 3.0 |
6510 | 338 @end example |
339 @end defun | |
340 | |
341 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
342 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
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343 If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned |
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344 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 345 |
346 @example | |
347 (min -4 1) | |
348 @result{} -4 | |
349 @end example | |
350 @end defun | |
351 | |
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352 @defun abs number |
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353 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}. |
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354 @end defun |
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355 |
6510 | 356 @node Numeric Conversions |
357 @section Numeric Conversions | |
358 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
359 | |
360 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
361 | |
362 @defun float number | |
363 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
364 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
365 it unchanged. | |
366 @end defun | |
367 | |
368 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
369 they differ in how they round. These functions accept integer arguments | |
370 also, and return such arguments unchanged. | |
371 | |
372 @defun truncate number | |
373 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards | |
374 zero. | |
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375 |
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376 @example |
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377 (truncate 1.2) |
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378 @result{} 1 |
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379 (truncate 1.7) |
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380 @result{} 1 |
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381 (truncate -1.2) |
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382 @result{} -1 |
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383 (truncate -1.7) |
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384 @result{} -1 |
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385 @end example |
6510 | 386 @end defun |
387 | |
388 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
389 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
390 (towards negative infinity). | |
391 | |
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392 If @var{divisor} is specified, @code{floor} divides @var{number} by |
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393 @var{divisor} and then converts to an integer; this uses the kind of |
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394 division operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward. |
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395 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. |
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396 |
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397 @example |
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398 (floor 1.2) |
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399 @result{} 1 |
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400 (floor 1.7) |
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401 @result{} 1 |
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402 (floor -1.2) |
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403 @result{} -2 |
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404 (floor -1.7) |
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405 @result{} -2 |
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406 (floor 5.99 3) |
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407 @result{} 1 |
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408 @end example |
6510 | 409 @end defun |
410 | |
411 @defun ceiling number | |
412 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward | |
413 (towards positive infinity). | |
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414 |
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415 @example |
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416 (ceiling 1.2) |
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417 @result{} 2 |
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418 (ceiling 1.7) |
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419 @result{} 2 |
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420 (ceiling -1.2) |
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421 @result{} -1 |
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422 (ceiling -1.7) |
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423 @result{} -1 |
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424 @end example |
6510 | 425 @end defun |
426 | |
427 @defun round number | |
428 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the | |
12098 | 429 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
430 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
431 depending on your machine. | |
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432 |
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433 @example |
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434 (round 1.2) |
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435 @result{} 1 |
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436 (round 1.7) |
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437 @result{} 2 |
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438 (round -1.2) |
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439 @result{} -1 |
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440 (round -1.7) |
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441 @result{} -2 |
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442 @end example |
6510 | 443 @end defun |
444 | |
445 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
446 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
447 | |
448 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
449 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
450 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
451 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
452 commonly used. | |
453 | |
454 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
455 if any argument is floating. | |
456 | |
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457 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions |
12067 | 458 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} may evaluate to |
459 @minus{}134217728, depending on your hardware. | |
6510 | 460 |
461 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
462 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
463 For example, | |
464 | |
465 @example | |
466 (setq foo 4) | |
467 @result{} 4 | |
468 (1+ foo) | |
469 @result{} 5 | |
470 @end example | |
471 | |
12098 | 472 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
473 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 474 |
475 @example | |
476 foo | |
477 @result{} 4 | |
478 @end example | |
479 | |
480 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
481 like this: | |
482 | |
483 @example | |
484 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
485 @result{} 5 | |
486 @end example | |
487 @end defun | |
488 | |
489 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
490 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
491 @end defun | |
492 | |
493 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
494 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 495 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 496 |
497 @example | |
498 (+) | |
499 @result{} 0 | |
500 (+ 1) | |
501 @result{} 1 | |
502 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
503 @result{} 10 | |
504 @end example | |
505 @end defun | |
506 | |
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507 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers |
6510 | 508 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. |
509 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
510 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
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511 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, |
12098 | 512 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 513 |
514 @example | |
515 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
516 @result{} 0 | |
517 (- 10) | |
518 @result{} -10 | |
519 (-) | |
520 @result{} 0 | |
521 @end example | |
522 @end defun | |
523 | |
524 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
525 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 526 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 527 |
528 @example | |
529 (*) | |
530 @result{} 1 | |
531 (* 1) | |
532 @result{} 1 | |
533 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
534 @result{} 24 | |
535 @end example | |
536 @end defun | |
537 | |
538 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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539 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 540 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
541 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
542 number or a marker. | |
543 | |
544 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
545 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
546 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
547 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
548 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
549 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
550 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
551 | |
552 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
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553 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. |
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554 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either |
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555 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports IEEE floating point; |
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556 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error. |
6510 | 557 |
558 @example | |
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559 @group |
6510 | 560 (/ 6 2) |
561 @result{} 3 | |
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562 @end group |
6510 | 563 (/ 5 2) |
564 @result{} 2 | |
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565 (/ 5.0 2) |
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566 @result{} 2.5 |
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567 (/ 5 2.0) |
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568 @result{} 2.5 |
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569 (/ 5.0 2.0) |
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570 @result{} 2.5 |
6510 | 571 (/ 25 3 2) |
572 @result{} 4 | |
573 (/ -17 6) | |
574 @result{} -2 | |
575 @end example | |
576 | |
577 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
578 machines. | |
579 @end defun | |
580 | |
581 @defun % dividend divisor | |
582 @cindex remainder | |
583 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
584 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
585 | |
586 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
587 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
588 | |
589 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
590 | |
591 @example | |
592 (% 9 4) | |
593 @result{} 1 | |
594 (% -9 4) | |
595 @result{} -1 | |
596 (% 9 -4) | |
597 @result{} 1 | |
598 (% -9 -4) | |
599 @result{} -1 | |
600 @end example | |
601 | |
602 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
603 | |
604 @example | |
605 @group | |
606 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
607 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
608 @end group | |
609 @end example | |
610 | |
611 @noindent | |
612 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
613 @end defun | |
614 | |
615 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
616 @cindex modulus | |
617 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
618 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
619 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
620 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
621 | |
622 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
623 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
624 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
625 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
626 | |
627 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
628 | |
629 @example | |
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630 @group |
6510 | 631 (mod 9 4) |
632 @result{} 1 | |
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633 @end group |
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634 @group |
6510 | 635 (mod -9 4) |
636 @result{} 3 | |
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637 @end group |
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638 @group |
6510 | 639 (mod 9 -4) |
640 @result{} -3 | |
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641 @end group |
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642 @group |
6510 | 643 (mod -9 -4) |
644 @result{} -1 | |
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645 @end group |
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646 @group |
6510 | 647 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
648 @result{} .5 | |
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649 @end group |
6510 | 650 @end example |
651 | |
652 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
653 | |
654 @example | |
655 @group | |
656 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
657 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
658 @end group | |
659 @end example | |
660 | |
661 @noindent | |
12098 | 662 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
663 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
664 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 665 @end defun |
666 | |
667 @node Rounding Operations | |
668 @section Rounding Operations | |
669 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
670 | |
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671 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and |
6510 | 672 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
673 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 674 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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675 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 676 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
677 | |
678 @defun ffloor float | |
679 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
680 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
681 @end defun | |
682 | |
8017 | 683 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 684 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
685 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
686 @end defun | |
687 | |
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688 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 689 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
690 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
691 @end defun | |
692 | |
693 @defun fround float | |
694 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
695 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
696 @end defun | |
697 | |
698 @node Bitwise Operations | |
699 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
700 | |
701 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
702 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
703 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
704 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
705 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
706 | |
707 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
708 | |
709 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
710 @cindex logical shift | |
711 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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712 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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713 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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714 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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715 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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716 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 717 |
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718 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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719 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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720 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 721 |
722 @example | |
723 @group | |
724 (lsh 5 1) | |
725 @result{} 10 | |
726 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
727 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
728 | |
729 (lsh 7 1) | |
730 @result{} 14 | |
731 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
732 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
733 @end group | |
734 @end example | |
735 | |
736 @noindent | |
737 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
738 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
739 number. | |
740 | |
12098 | 741 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
742 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
743 | |
744 @example | |
745 @group | |
746 (lsh 3 2) | |
747 @result{} 12 | |
748 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
749 00000011 @result{} 00001100 | |
750 @end group | |
751 @end example | |
752 | |
753 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
754 | |
755 @example | |
756 @group | |
757 (lsh 6 -1) | |
758 @result{} 3 | |
759 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
760 00000110 @result{} 00000011 | |
761 @end group | |
762 | |
763 @group | |
764 (lsh 5 -1) | |
765 @result{} 2 | |
766 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
767 00000101 @result{} 00000010 | |
768 @end group | |
769 @end example | |
770 | |
771 @noindent | |
772 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
773 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
774 | |
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775 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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776 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 777 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
778 134,217,727 produces @minus{}2 on a 28-bit machine: | |
6510 | 779 |
780 @example | |
12067 | 781 (lsh 134217727 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 782 @result{} -2 |
783 @end example | |
784 | |
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785 In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 786 |
787 @example | |
788 @group | |
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789 ;; @r{Decimal 134,217,727} |
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790 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 791 @end group |
792 @end example | |
793 | |
794 @noindent | |
795 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
796 | |
797 @example | |
798 @group | |
799 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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800 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 801 @end group |
802 @end example | |
803 @end defun | |
804 | |
805 @defun ash integer1 count | |
806 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
807 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
808 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
809 is negative. | |
810 | |
811 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
812 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 813 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
814 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 815 |
816 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
817 looks like this: | |
818 | |
819 @example | |
820 @group | |
821 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 | |
822 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} | |
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823 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 824 @result{} |
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825 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 826 @end group |
827 @end example | |
828 | |
829 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
830 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
831 | |
832 @example | |
833 @group | |
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834 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725 |
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835 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.} |
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836 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
6510 | 837 @result{} |
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838 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 839 @end group |
840 @end example | |
841 | |
842 Here are other examples: | |
843 | |
844 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
845 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
846 @smallexample | |
847 @group | |
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848 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 849 |
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850 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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851 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 852 @end group |
853 @group | |
854 (ash 5 2) | |
855 @result{} 20 | |
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856 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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857 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 858 (ash -5 2) |
859 @result{} -20 | |
860 @end group | |
861 @group | |
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862 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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863 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 864 @end group |
865 @group | |
866 (ash 5 -2) | |
867 @result{} 1 | |
868 @end group | |
869 @group | |
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870 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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871 @result{} 4194302 ; = @r{0011 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 872 @end group |
873 @group | |
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874 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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875 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 876 @end group |
877 @end smallexample | |
878 @end defun | |
879 | |
880 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
881 @cindex logical and | |
882 @cindex bitwise and | |
883 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
884 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
885 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
886 rather than 0.) | |
887 | |
888 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
889 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
890 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
891 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
892 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
893 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
894 | |
895 @noindent | |
896 Therefore, | |
897 | |
898 @example | |
899 @group | |
900 (logand 13 12) | |
901 @result{} 12 | |
902 @end group | |
903 @end example | |
904 | |
905 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
906 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
907 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
908 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
909 | |
910 @smallexample | |
911 @group | |
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912 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 913 |
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914 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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|
915 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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916 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 917 @end group |
918 | |
919 @group | |
10306
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920 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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|
921 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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922 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
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923 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 924 @end group |
925 | |
926 @group | |
927 (logand) | |
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928 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 929 @end group |
930 @end smallexample | |
931 @end defun | |
932 | |
933 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
934 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
935 @cindex bitwise or | |
936 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
937 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
938 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
939 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
940 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
941 | |
942 @smallexample | |
943 @group | |
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944 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 945 |
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|
946 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
947 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
948 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 949 @end group |
950 | |
951 @group | |
10306
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|
952 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
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|
953 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
954 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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955 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 956 @end group |
957 @end smallexample | |
958 @end defun | |
959 | |
960 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
961 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
962 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
963 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
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964 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
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965 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
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966 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
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967 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 968 |
969 @smallexample | |
970 @group | |
10306
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|
971 ; @r{ 28-bit binary values} |
6510 | 972 |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
973 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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|
974 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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parents:
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975 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 976 @end group |
977 | |
978 @group | |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
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|
979 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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|
980 ; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
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|
981 ; 7 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
89f8d7f3bd73
Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
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diff
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|
982 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 983 @end group |
984 @end smallexample | |
985 @end defun | |
986 | |
987 @defun lognot integer | |
988 @cindex logical not | |
989 @cindex bitwise not | |
990 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
991 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
992 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
993 | |
994 @example | |
995 (lognot 5) | |
996 @result{} -6 | |
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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|
997 ;; 5 = @r{0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 998 ;; @r{becomes} |
10306
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Integers now at least 28 bits.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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|
999 ;; -6 = @r{1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 1000 @end example |
1001 @end defun | |
1002 | |
11230
c6b70cdf844e
Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
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|
1003 @node Math Functions |
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Don't call the special math functions "transcendental".
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|
1004 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 1005 @cindex transcendental functions |
1006 @cindex mathematical functions | |
1007 | |
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1008 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point |
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1009 numbers as arguments. |
6510 | 1010 |
1011 @defun sin arg | |
1012 @defunx cos arg | |
1013 @defunx tan arg | |
1014 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
1015 in radians. | |
1016 @end defun | |
1017 | |
1018 @defun asin arg | |
25454 | 1019 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between |
27193 | 1020 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1021 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1022 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1023 @tex |
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1024 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1025 @end tex |
1026 and | |
27193 | 1027 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1028 pi/2 |
27193 | 1029 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1030 @tex |
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1031 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1032 @end tex |
1033 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} | |
6510 | 1034 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. |
1035 @end defun | |
1036 | |
1037 @defun acos arg | |
25454 | 1038 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and |
27193 | 1039 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1040 pi |
27193 | 1041 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1042 @tex |
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1043 @math{\pi} |
25454 | 1044 @end tex |
6510 | 1045 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} |
1046 is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN. | |
1047 @end defun | |
1048 | |
43414
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(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
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|
1049 @defun atan y &optional x |
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(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
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|
1050 The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between |
27193 | 1051 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1052 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1053 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1054 @tex |
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1055 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1056 @end tex |
1057 and | |
27193 | 1058 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1059 pi/2 |
27193 | 1060 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1061 @tex |
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1062 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1063 @end tex |
43414
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(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
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|
1064 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{y}. If the optional second |
90f3a1f6ee84
(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
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|
1065 argument @var{x} is given, the value of @code{(atan y x)} is the |
90f3a1f6ee84
(Math Functions): Document the optional second arg of atan.
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
parents:
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|
1066 angle in radians between the vector @code{[@var{x}, @var{y}]} and the |
90f3a1f6ee84
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Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
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|
1067 @code{X} axis. |
6510 | 1068 @end defun |
1069 | |
1070 @defun exp arg | |
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1071 This is the exponential function; it returns |
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1072 @tex |
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1073 @math{e} |
22138
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1074 @end tex |
27193 | 1075 @ifnottex |
22138
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1076 @i{e} |
27193 | 1077 @end ifnottex |
22138
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1078 to the power @var{arg}. |
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1079 @tex |
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1080 @math{e} |
22138
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1081 @end tex |
27193 | 1082 @ifnottex |
22138
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1083 @i{e} |
27193 | 1084 @end ifnottex |
22138
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1085 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural |
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1086 logarithms. |
6510 | 1087 @end defun |
1088 | |
1089 @defun log arg &optional base | |
1090 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
22138
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1091 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base |
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1092 @tex |
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1093 @math{e} |
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1094 @end tex |
27193 | 1095 @ifnottex |
22138
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1096 @i{e} |
27193 | 1097 @end ifnottex |
22138
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1098 is used. If @var{arg} |
6510 | 1099 is negative, the result is a NaN. |
1100 @end defun | |
1101 | |
1102 @ignore | |
1103 @defun expm1 arg | |
1104 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1105 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
1106 is close to 1. | |
1107 @end defun | |
1108 | |
1109 @defun log1p arg | |
1110 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1111 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
1112 lose accuracy. | |
1113 @end defun | |
1114 @end ignore | |
1115 | |
1116 @defun log10 arg | |
1117 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
7115
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1118 @var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN. @code{(log10 @var{x})} |
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1119 @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately. |
6510 | 1120 @end defun |
1121 | |
1122 @defun expt x y | |
10306
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1123 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
89f8d7f3bd73
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1124 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
89f8d7f3bd73
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1125 integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible |
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1126 integer values. |
6510 | 1127 @end defun |
1128 | |
1129 @defun sqrt arg | |
1130 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
1131 the value is a NaN. | |
1132 @end defun | |
1133 | |
1134 @node Random Numbers | |
1135 @section Random Numbers | |
1136 @cindex random numbers | |
1137 | |
1138 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1139 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1140 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1141 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1142 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1143 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1144 | |
1145 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1146 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1147 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1148 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1149 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1150 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1151 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1152 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1153 | |
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1154 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute |
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1155 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of |
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1156 day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. |
6510 | 1157 |
1158 @defun random &optional limit | |
1159 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1160 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1161 | |
12067 | 1162 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1163 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1164 |
1165 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
1166 current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number. | |
1167 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! | |
1168 | |
1169 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1170 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1171 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1172 @end defun |