annotate lispref/control.texi @ 27225:ee242fddb1ab

Remove various old stuff and references thereto.
author Dave Love <fx@gnu.org>
date Thu, 06 Jan 2000 00:17:52 +0000
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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6 @setfilename ../info/control
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7 @node Control Structures, Variables, Evaluation, Top
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8 @chapter Control Structures
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9 @cindex special forms for control structures
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10 @cindex control structures
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11
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12 A Lisp program consists of expressions or @dfn{forms} (@pxref{Forms}).
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13 We control the order of execution of these forms by enclosing them in
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14 @dfn{control structures}. Control structures are special forms which
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15 control when, whether, or how many times to execute the forms they
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16 contain.
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17
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18 The simplest order of execution is sequential execution: first form
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19 @var{a}, then form @var{b}, and so on. This is what happens when you
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20 write several forms in succession in the body of a function, or at top
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21 level in a file of Lisp code---the forms are executed in the order
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22 written. We call this @dfn{textual order}. For example, if a function
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23 body consists of two forms @var{a} and @var{b}, evaluation of the
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24 function evaluates first @var{a} and then @var{b}. The result of
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25 evaluating @var{b} becomes the value of the function.
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26
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27 Explicit control structures make possible an order of execution other
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28 than sequential.
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29
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30 Emacs Lisp provides several kinds of control structure, including
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31 other varieties of sequencing, conditionals, iteration, and (controlled)
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32 jumps---all discussed below. The built-in control structures are
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33 special forms since their subforms are not necessarily evaluated or not
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34 evaluated sequentially. You can use macros to define your own control
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35 structure constructs (@pxref{Macros}).
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36
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37 @menu
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38 * Sequencing:: Evaluation in textual order.
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39 * Conditionals:: @code{if}, @code{cond}, @code{when}, @code{unless}.
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40 * Combining Conditions:: @code{and}, @code{or}, @code{not}.
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41 * Iteration:: @code{while} loops.
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42 * Nonlocal Exits:: Jumping out of a sequence.
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43 @end menu
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44
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45 @node Sequencing
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46 @section Sequencing
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47
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48 Evaluating forms in the order they appear is the most common way
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49 control passes from one form to another. In some contexts, such as in a
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50 function body, this happens automatically. Elsewhere you must use a
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51 control structure construct to do this: @code{progn}, the simplest
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52 control construct of Lisp.
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54 A @code{progn} special form looks like this:
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55
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56 @example
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57 @group
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58 (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} @dots{})
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59 @end group
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60 @end example
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61
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62 @noindent
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63 and it says to execute the forms @var{a}, @var{b}, @var{c}, and so on, in
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64 that order. These forms are called the @dfn{body} of the @code{progn} form.
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65 The value of the last form in the body becomes the value of the entire
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66 @code{progn}. @code{(progn)} returns @code{nil}.
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67
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68 @cindex implicit @code{progn}
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69 In the early days of Lisp, @code{progn} was the only way to execute
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70 two or more forms in succession and use the value of the last of them.
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71 But programmers found they often needed to use a @code{progn} in the
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72 body of a function, where (at that time) only one form was allowed. So
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73 the body of a function was made into an ``implicit @code{progn}'':
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74 several forms are allowed just as in the body of an actual @code{progn}.
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75 Many other control structures likewise contain an implicit @code{progn}.
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76 As a result, @code{progn} is not used as much as it was many years ago.
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77 It is needed now most often inside an @code{unwind-protect}, @code{and},
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78 @code{or}, or in the @var{then}-part of an @code{if}.
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79
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80 @defspec progn forms@dots{}
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81 This special form evaluates all of the @var{forms}, in textual
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82 order, returning the result of the final form.
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83
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84 @example
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85 @group
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86 (progn (print "The first form")
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87 (print "The second form")
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88 (print "The third form"))
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89 @print{} "The first form"
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90 @print{} "The second form"
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91 @print{} "The third form"
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92 @result{} "The third form"
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93 @end group
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94 @end example
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95 @end defspec
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96
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97 Two other control constructs likewise evaluate a series of forms but return
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98 a different value:
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99
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100 @defspec prog1 form1 forms@dots{}
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101 This special form evaluates @var{form1} and all of the @var{forms}, in
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102 textual order, returning the result of @var{form1}.
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103
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104 @example
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105 @group
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106 (prog1 (print "The first form")
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107 (print "The second form")
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108 (print "The third form"))
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109 @print{} "The first form"
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110 @print{} "The second form"
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111 @print{} "The third form"
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112 @result{} "The first form"
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113 @end group
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114 @end example
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115
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116 Here is a way to remove the first element from a list in the variable
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117 @code{x}, then return the value of that former element:
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118
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119 @example
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120 (prog1 (car x) (setq x (cdr x)))
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121 @end example
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122 @end defspec
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123
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124 @defspec prog2 form1 form2 forms@dots{}
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125 This special form evaluates @var{form1}, @var{form2}, and all of the
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126 following @var{forms}, in textual order, returning the result of
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127 @var{form2}.
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128
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129 @example
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130 @group
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131 (prog2 (print "The first form")
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132 (print "The second form")
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133 (print "The third form"))
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134 @print{} "The first form"
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135 @print{} "The second form"
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136 @print{} "The third form"
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137 @result{} "The second form"
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138 @end group
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139 @end example
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140 @end defspec
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141
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142 @node Conditionals
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143 @section Conditionals
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144 @cindex conditional evaluation
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145
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146 Conditional control structures choose among alternatives. Emacs Lisp
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147 has four conditional forms: @code{if}, which is much the same as in
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148 other languages; @code{when} and @code{unless}, which are variants of
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149 @code{if}; and @code{cond}, which is a generalized case statement.
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150
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151 @defspec if condition then-form else-forms@dots{}
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152 @code{if} chooses between the @var{then-form} and the @var{else-forms}
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153 based on the value of @var{condition}. If the evaluated @var{condition} is
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154 non-@code{nil}, @var{then-form} is evaluated and the result returned.
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155 Otherwise, the @var{else-forms} are evaluated in textual order, and the
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156 value of the last one is returned. (The @var{else} part of @code{if} is
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157 an example of an implicit @code{progn}. @xref{Sequencing}.)
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158
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159 If @var{condition} has the value @code{nil}, and no @var{else-forms} are
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160 given, @code{if} returns @code{nil}.
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161
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162 @code{if} is a special form because the branch that is not selected is
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163 never evaluated---it is ignored. Thus, in the example below,
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164 @code{true} is not printed because @code{print} is never called.
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165
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166 @example
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167 @group
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168 (if nil
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169 (print 'true)
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170 'very-false)
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171 @result{} very-false
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172 @end group
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173 @end example
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174 @end defspec
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175
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176 @defmac when condition then-forms@dots{}
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177 This is a variant of @code{if} where there are no @var{else-forms},
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178 and possibly several @var{then-forms}. In particular,
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179
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180 @example
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181 (when @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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182 @end example
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183
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184 @noindent
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185 is entirely equivalent to
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186
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187 @example
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188 (if @var{condition} (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) nil)
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189 @end example
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190 @end defmac
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191
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192 @defmac unless condition forms@dots{}
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193 This is a variant of @code{if} where there is no @var{then-form}:
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194
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195 @example
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196 (unless @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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197 @end example
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198
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199 @noindent
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200 is entirely equivalent to
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201
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202 @example
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203 (if @var{condition} nil
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204 @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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205 @end example
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206 @end defmac
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207
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208 @defspec cond clause@dots{}
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209 @code{cond} chooses among an arbitrary number of alternatives. Each
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210 @var{clause} in the @code{cond} must be a list. The @sc{car} of this
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211 list is the @var{condition}; the remaining elements, if any, the
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212 @var{body-forms}. Thus, a clause looks like this:
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213
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214 @example
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215 (@var{condition} @var{body-forms}@dots{})
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216 @end example
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217
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218 @code{cond} tries the clauses in textual order, by evaluating the
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219 @var{condition} of each clause. If the value of @var{condition} is
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220 non-@code{nil}, the clause ``succeeds''; then @code{cond} evaluates its
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221 @var{body-forms}, and the value of the last of @var{body-forms} becomes
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222 the value of the @code{cond}. The remaining clauses are ignored.
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223
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224 If the value of @var{condition} is @code{nil}, the clause ``fails'', so
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225 the @code{cond} moves on to the following clause, trying its
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226 @var{condition}.
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227
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228 If every @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil}, so that every clause
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229 fails, @code{cond} returns @code{nil}.
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230
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231 A clause may also look like this:
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232
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233 @example
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234 (@var{condition})
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235 @end example
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236
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237 @noindent
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238 Then, if @var{condition} is non-@code{nil} when tested, the value of
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239 @var{condition} becomes the value of the @code{cond} form.
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240
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241 The following example has four clauses, which test for the cases where
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242 the value of @code{x} is a number, string, buffer and symbol,
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243 respectively:
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244
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245 @example
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246 @group
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247 (cond ((numberp x) x)
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248 ((stringp x) x)
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249 ((bufferp x)
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250 (setq temporary-hack x) ; @r{multiple body-forms}
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251 (buffer-name x)) ; @r{in one clause}
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252 ((symbolp x) (symbol-value x)))
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253 @end group
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254 @end example
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255
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256 Often we want to execute the last clause whenever none of the previous
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257 clauses was successful. To do this, we use @code{t} as the
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258 @var{condition} of the last clause, like this: @code{(t
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259 @var{body-forms})}. The form @code{t} evaluates to @code{t}, which is
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260 never @code{nil}, so this clause never fails, provided the @code{cond}
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261 gets to it at all.
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262
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263 For example,
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264
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265 @example
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266 @group
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267 (setq a 5)
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268 (cond ((eq a 'hack) 'foo)
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269 (t "default"))
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270 @result{} "default"
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271 @end group
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272 @end example
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273
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274 @noindent
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275 This @code{cond} expression returns @code{foo} if the value of @code{a}
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276 is @code{hack}, and returns the string @code{"default"} otherwise.
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277 @end defspec
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278
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279 Any conditional construct can be expressed with @code{cond} or with
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280 @code{if}. Therefore, the choice between them is a matter of style.
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281 For example:
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282
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283 @example
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284 @group
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285 (if @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
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286 @equiv{}
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287 (cond (@var{a} @var{b}) (t @var{c}))
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288 @end group
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289 @end example
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290
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291 @node Combining Conditions
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292 @section Constructs for Combining Conditions
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293
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294 This section describes three constructs that are often used together
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295 with @code{if} and @code{cond} to express complicated conditions. The
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296 constructs @code{and} and @code{or} can also be used individually as
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297 kinds of multiple conditional constructs.
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298
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299 @defun not condition
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300 This function tests for the falsehood of @var{condition}. It returns
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301 @code{t} if @var{condition} is @code{nil}, and @code{nil} otherwise.
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302 The function @code{not} is identical to @code{null}, and we recommend
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303 using the name @code{null} if you are testing for an empty list.
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304 @end defun
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305
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306 @defspec and conditions@dots{}
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307 The @code{and} special form tests whether all the @var{conditions} are
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308 true. It works by evaluating the @var{conditions} one by one in the
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309 order written.
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310
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311 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to @code{nil}, then the result
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312 of the @code{and} must be @code{nil} regardless of the remaining
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313 @var{conditions}; so @code{and} returns @code{nil} right away, ignoring
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314 the remaining @var{conditions}.
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315
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316 If all the @var{conditions} turn out non-@code{nil}, then the value of
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317 the last of them becomes the value of the @code{and} form. Just
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318 @code{(and)}, with no @var{conditions}, returns @code{t}, appropriate
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319 because all the @var{conditions} turned out non-@code{nil}. (Think
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320 about it; which one did not?)
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321
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322 Here is an example. The first condition returns the integer 1, which is
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323 not @code{nil}. Similarly, the second condition returns the integer 2,
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324 which is not @code{nil}. The third condition is @code{nil}, so the
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325 remaining condition is never evaluated.
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326
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327 @example
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328 @group
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329 (and (print 1) (print 2) nil (print 3))
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330 @print{} 1
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331 @print{} 2
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332 @result{} nil
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333 @end group
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334 @end example
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335
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336 Here is a more realistic example of using @code{and}:
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337
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338 @example
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339 @group
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340 (if (and (consp foo) (eq (car foo) 'x))
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341 (message "foo is a list starting with x"))
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342 @end group
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343 @end example
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344
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345 @noindent
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346 Note that @code{(car foo)} is not executed if @code{(consp foo)} returns
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347 @code{nil}, thus avoiding an error.
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348
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349 @code{and} can be expressed in terms of either @code{if} or @code{cond}.
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350 For example:
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351
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352 @example
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353 @group
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354 (and @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
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355 @equiv{}
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356 (if @var{arg1} (if @var{arg2} @var{arg3}))
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357 @equiv{}
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358 (cond (@var{arg1} (cond (@var{arg2} @var{arg3}))))
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359 @end group
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360 @end example
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361 @end defspec
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362
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363 @defspec or conditions@dots{}
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364 The @code{or} special form tests whether at least one of the
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365 @var{conditions} is true. It works by evaluating all the
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366 @var{conditions} one by one in the order written.
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367
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368 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to a non-@code{nil} value, then
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369 the result of the @code{or} must be non-@code{nil}; so @code{or} returns
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370 right away, ignoring the remaining @var{conditions}. The value it
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371 returns is the non-@code{nil} value of the condition just evaluated.
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372
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373 If all the @var{conditions} turn out @code{nil}, then the @code{or}
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374 expression returns @code{nil}. Just @code{(or)}, with no
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375 @var{conditions}, returns @code{nil}, appropriate because all the
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376 @var{conditions} turned out @code{nil}. (Think about it; which one
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377 did not?)
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378
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379 For example, this expression tests whether @code{x} is either
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380 @code{nil} or the integer zero:
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381
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382 @example
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383 (or (eq x nil) (eq x 0))
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384 @end example
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385
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386 Like the @code{and} construct, @code{or} can be written in terms of
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387 @code{cond}. For example:
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388
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389 @example
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390 @group
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391 (or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
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392 @equiv{}
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393 (cond (@var{arg1})
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394 (@var{arg2})
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395 (@var{arg3}))
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396 @end group
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397 @end example
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398
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399 You could almost write @code{or} in terms of @code{if}, but not quite:
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400
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401 @example
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402 @group
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403 (if @var{arg1} @var{arg1}
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404 (if @var{arg2} @var{arg2}
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405 @var{arg3}))
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406 @end group
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407 @end example
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408
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409 @noindent
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410 This is not completely equivalent because it can evaluate @var{arg1} or
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411 @var{arg2} twice. By contrast, @code{(or @var{arg1} @var{arg2}
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412 @var{arg3})} never evaluates any argument more than once.
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413 @end defspec
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414
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415 @node Iteration
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416 @section Iteration
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417 @cindex iteration
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418 @cindex recursion
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419
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420 Iteration means executing part of a program repetitively. For
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421 example, you might want to repeat some computation once for each element
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422 of a list, or once for each integer from 0 to @var{n}. You can do this
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423 in Emacs Lisp with the special form @code{while}:
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424
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425 @defspec while condition forms@dots{}
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426 @code{while} first evaluates @var{condition}. If the result is
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427 non-@code{nil}, it evaluates @var{forms} in textual order. Then it
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428 reevaluates @var{condition}, and if the result is non-@code{nil}, it
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429 evaluates @var{forms} again. This process repeats until @var{condition}
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430 evaluates to @code{nil}.
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431
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432 There is no limit on the number of iterations that may occur. The loop
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433 will continue until either @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil} or
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434 until an error or @code{throw} jumps out of it (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}).
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435
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436 The value of a @code{while} form is always @code{nil}.
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437
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438 @example
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439 @group
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440 (setq num 0)
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441 @result{} 0
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442 @end group
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443 @group
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444 (while (< num 4)
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445 (princ (format "Iteration %d." num))
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446 (setq num (1+ num)))
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447 @print{} Iteration 0.
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448 @print{} Iteration 1.
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449 @print{} Iteration 2.
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450 @print{} Iteration 3.
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451 @result{} nil
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452 @end group
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453 @end example
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454
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455 To write a ``repeat...until'' loop, which will execute something on each
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456 iteration and then do the end-test, put the body followed by the
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457 end-test in a @code{progn} as the first argument of @code{while}, as
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458 shown here:
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459
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460 @example
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461 @group
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462 (while (progn
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463 (forward-line 1)
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464 (not (looking-at "^$"))))
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465 @end group
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466 @end example
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467
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468 @noindent
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469 This moves forward one line and continues moving by lines until it
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470 reaches an empty line. It is peculiar in that the @code{while} has no
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471 body, just the end test (which also does the real work of moving point).
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472 @end defspec
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473
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474 @node Nonlocal Exits
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475 @section Nonlocal Exits
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476 @cindex nonlocal exits
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477
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478 A @dfn{nonlocal exit} is a transfer of control from one point in a
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479 program to another remote point. Nonlocal exits can occur in Emacs Lisp
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480 as a result of errors; you can also use them under explicit control.
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481 Nonlocal exits unbind all variable bindings made by the constructs being
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482 exited.
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483
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484 @menu
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485 * Catch and Throw:: Nonlocal exits for the program's own purposes.
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486 * Examples of Catch:: Showing how such nonlocal exits can be written.
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487 * Errors:: How errors are signaled and handled.
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488 * Cleanups:: Arranging to run a cleanup form if an error happens.
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489 @end menu
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490
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491 @node Catch and Throw
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492 @subsection Explicit Nonlocal Exits: @code{catch} and @code{throw}
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493
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494 Most control constructs affect only the flow of control within the
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495 construct itself. The function @code{throw} is the exception to this
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496 rule of normal program execution: it performs a nonlocal exit on
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497 request. (There are other exceptions, but they are for error handling
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498 only.) @code{throw} is used inside a @code{catch}, and jumps back to
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499 that @code{catch}. For example:
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500
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501 @example
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502 @group
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503 (defun foo-outer ()
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504 (catch 'foo
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505 (foo-inner)))
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506
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507 (defun foo-inner ()
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508 @dots{}
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509 (if x
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510 (throw 'foo t))
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511 @dots{})
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512 @end group
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513 @end example
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514
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515 @noindent
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516 The @code{throw} form, if executed, transfers control straight back to
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517 the corresponding @code{catch}, which returns immediately. The code
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518 following the @code{throw} is not executed. The second argument of
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519 @code{throw} is used as the return value of the @code{catch}.
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520
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521 The function @code{throw} finds the matching @code{catch} based on the
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522 first argument: it searches for a @code{catch} whose first argument is
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523 @code{eq} to the one specified in the @code{throw}. If there is more
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524 than one applicable @code{catch}, the innermost one takes precedence.
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525 Thus, in the above example, the @code{throw} specifies @code{foo}, and
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526 the @code{catch} in @code{foo-outer} specifies the same symbol, so that
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527 @code{catch} is the applicable one (assuming there is no other matching
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528 @code{catch} in between).
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529
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530 Executing @code{throw} exits all Lisp constructs up to the matching
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531 @code{catch}, including function calls. When binding constructs such as
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532 @code{let} or function calls are exited in this way, the bindings are
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533 unbound, just as they are when these constructs exit normally
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534 (@pxref{Local Variables}). Likewise, @code{throw} restores the buffer
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535 and position saved by @code{save-excursion} (@pxref{Excursions}), and
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536 the narrowing status saved by @code{save-restriction} and the window
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537 selection saved by @code{save-window-excursion} (@pxref{Window
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538 Configurations}). It also runs any cleanups established with the
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539 @code{unwind-protect} special form when it exits that form
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540 (@pxref{Cleanups}).
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541
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542 The @code{throw} need not appear lexically within the @code{catch}
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543 that it jumps to. It can equally well be called from another function
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544 called within the @code{catch}. As long as the @code{throw} takes place
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545 chronologically after entry to the @code{catch}, and chronologically
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546 before exit from it, it has access to that @code{catch}. This is why
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547 @code{throw} can be used in commands such as @code{exit-recursive-edit}
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548 that throw back to the editor command loop (@pxref{Recursive Editing}).
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549
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550 @cindex CL note---only @code{throw} in Emacs
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551 @quotation
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552 @b{Common Lisp note:} Most other versions of Lisp, including Common Lisp,
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553 have several ways of transferring control nonsequentially: @code{return},
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554 @code{return-from}, and @code{go}, for example. Emacs Lisp has only
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555 @code{throw}.
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556 @end quotation
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557
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558 @defspec catch tag body@dots{}
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559 @cindex tag on run time stack
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560 @code{catch} establishes a return point for the @code{throw} function.
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561 The return point is distinguished from other such return points by
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562 @var{tag}, which may be any Lisp object except @code{nil}. The argument
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563 @var{tag} is evaluated normally before the return point is established.
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564
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565 With the return point in effect, @code{catch} evaluates the forms of the
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566 @var{body} in textual order. If the forms execute normally (without
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567 error or nonlocal exit) the value of the last body form is returned from
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568 the @code{catch}.
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569
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570 If a @code{throw} is executed during the execution of @var{body},
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571 specifying the same value @var{tag}, the @code{catch} form exits
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572 immediately; the value it returns is whatever was specified as the
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573 second argument of @code{throw}.
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574 @end defspec
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575
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576 @defun throw tag value
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577 The purpose of @code{throw} is to return from a return point previously
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578 established with @code{catch}. The argument @var{tag} is used to choose
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579 among the various existing return points; it must be @code{eq} to the value
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580 specified in the @code{catch}. If multiple return points match @var{tag},
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581 the innermost one is used.
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582
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583 The argument @var{value} is used as the value to return from that
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584 @code{catch}.
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585
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586 @kindex no-catch
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587 If no return point is in effect with tag @var{tag}, then a @code{no-catch}
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588 error is signaled with data @code{(@var{tag} @var{value})}.
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589 @end defun
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590
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591 @node Examples of Catch
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592 @subsection Examples of @code{catch} and @code{throw}
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593
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594 One way to use @code{catch} and @code{throw} is to exit from a doubly
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595 nested loop. (In most languages, this would be done with a ``go to''.)
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596 Here we compute @code{(foo @var{i} @var{j})} for @var{i} and @var{j}
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597 varying from 0 to 9:
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598
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599 @example
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600 @group
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601 (defun search-foo ()
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602 (catch 'loop
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603 (let ((i 0))
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604 (while (< i 10)
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605 (let ((j 0))
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606 (while (< j 10)
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607 (if (foo i j)
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608 (throw 'loop (list i j)))
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609 (setq j (1+ j))))
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610 (setq i (1+ i))))))
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611 @end group
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612 @end example
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613
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614 @noindent
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615 If @code{foo} ever returns non-@code{nil}, we stop immediately and return a
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616 list of @var{i} and @var{j}. If @code{foo} always returns @code{nil}, the
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617 @code{catch} returns normally, and the value is @code{nil}, since that
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618 is the result of the @code{while}.
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619
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620 Here are two tricky examples, slightly different, showing two
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621 return points at once. First, two return points with the same tag,
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622 @code{hack}:
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623
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624 @example
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625 @group
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626 (defun catch2 (tag)
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627 (catch tag
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628 (throw 'hack 'yes)))
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629 @result{} catch2
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630 @end group
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631
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632 @group
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633 (catch 'hack
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634 (print (catch2 'hack))
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635 'no)
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636 @print{} yes
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637 @result{} no
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638 @end group
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639 @end example
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640
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641 @noindent
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642 Since both return points have tags that match the @code{throw}, it goes to
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643 the inner one, the one established in @code{catch2}. Therefore,
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644 @code{catch2} returns normally with value @code{yes}, and this value is
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645 printed. Finally the second body form in the outer @code{catch}, which is
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646 @code{'no}, is evaluated and returned from the outer @code{catch}.
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647
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648 Now let's change the argument given to @code{catch2}:
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649
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650 @example
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651 @group
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652 (catch 'hack
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653 (print (catch2 'quux))
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654 'no)
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655 @result{} yes
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656 @end group
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657 @end example
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658
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659 @noindent
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660 We still have two return points, but this time only the outer one has
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661 the tag @code{hack}; the inner one has the tag @code{quux} instead.
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662 Therefore, @code{throw} makes the outer @code{catch} return the value
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663 @code{yes}. The function @code{print} is never called, and the
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664 body-form @code{'no} is never evaluated.
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665
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666 @node Errors
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667 @subsection Errors
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668 @cindex errors
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669
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670 When Emacs Lisp attempts to evaluate a form that, for some reason,
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671 cannot be evaluated, it @dfn{signals} an @dfn{error}.
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672
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673 When an error is signaled, Emacs's default reaction is to print an
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674 error message and terminate execution of the current command. This is
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675 the right thing to do in most cases, such as if you type @kbd{C-f} at
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676 the end of the buffer.
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677
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678 In complicated programs, simple termination may not be what you want.
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679 For example, the program may have made temporary changes in data
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680 structures, or created temporary buffers that should be deleted before
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681 the program is finished. In such cases, you would use
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682 @code{unwind-protect} to establish @dfn{cleanup expressions} to be
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683 evaluated in case of error. (@xref{Cleanups}.) Occasionally, you may
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684 wish the program to continue execution despite an error in a subroutine.
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diff changeset
685 In these cases, you would use @code{condition-case} to establish
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686 @dfn{error handlers} to recover control in case of error.
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687
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688 Resist the temptation to use error handling to transfer control from
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689 one part of the program to another; use @code{catch} and @code{throw}
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690 instead. @xref{Catch and Throw}.
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691
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692 @menu
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693 * Signaling Errors:: How to report an error.
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694 * Processing of Errors:: What Emacs does when you report an error.
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695 * Handling Errors:: How you can trap errors and continue execution.
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696 * Error Symbols:: How errors are classified for trapping them.
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697 @end menu
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698
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699 @node Signaling Errors
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diff changeset
700 @subsubsection How to Signal an Error
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701 @cindex signaling errors
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parents:
diff changeset
702
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703 Most errors are signaled ``automatically'' within Lisp primitives
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704 which you call for other purposes, such as if you try to take the
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diff changeset
705 @sc{car} of an integer or move forward a character at the end of the
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309fe4eb6522 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 22274
diff changeset
706 buffer. You can also signal errors explicitly with the functions
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diff changeset
707 @code{error} and @code{signal}.
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diff changeset
708
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diff changeset
709 Quitting, which happens when the user types @kbd{C-g}, is not
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parents:
diff changeset
710 considered an error, but it is handled almost like an error.
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parents:
diff changeset
711 @xref{Quitting}.
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712
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713 The error message should state what is wrong (``File does not
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parents: 25089
diff changeset
714 exist''), not how things ought to be (``File must exist''). The
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parents: 25089
diff changeset
715 convention in Emacs Lisp is that error messages should start with a
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parents: 25089
diff changeset
716 capital letter, but should not end with any sort of punctuation.
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parents: 25089
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717
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718 @defun error format-string &rest args
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diff changeset
719 This function signals an error with an error message constructed by
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diff changeset
720 applying @code{format} (@pxref{String Conversion}) to
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parents:
diff changeset
721 @var{format-string} and @var{args}.
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722
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diff changeset
723 These examples show typical uses of @code{error}:
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diff changeset
724
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725 @example
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726 @group
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diff changeset
727 (error "That is an error -- try something else")
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
728 @error{} That is an error -- try something else
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729 @end group
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730
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diff changeset
731 @group
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diff changeset
732 (error "You have committed %d errors" 10)
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diff changeset
733 @error{} You have committed 10 errors
6453
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734 @end group
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735 @end example
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diff changeset
736
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737 @code{error} works by calling @code{signal} with two arguments: the
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diff changeset
738 error symbol @code{error}, and a list containing the string returned by
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diff changeset
739 @code{format}.
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diff changeset
740
21007
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diff changeset
741 @strong{Warning:} If you want to use your own string as an error message
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
742 verbatim, don't just write @code{(error @var{string})}. If @var{string}
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
743 contains @samp{%}, it will be interpreted as a format specifier, with
66d807bdc5b4 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 16850
diff changeset
744 undesirable results. Instead, use @code{(error "%s" @var{string})}.
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745 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
746
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diff changeset
747 @defun signal error-symbol data
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parents:
diff changeset
748 This function signals an error named by @var{error-symbol}. The
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parents:
diff changeset
749 argument @var{data} is a list of additional Lisp objects relevant to the
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750 circumstances of the error.
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751
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752 The argument @var{error-symbol} must be an @dfn{error symbol}---a symbol
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diff changeset
753 bearing a property @code{error-conditions} whose value is a list of
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parents:
diff changeset
754 condition names. This is how Emacs Lisp classifies different sorts of
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diff changeset
755 errors.
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parents:
diff changeset
756
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757 The number and significance of the objects in @var{data} depends on
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758 @var{error-symbol}. For example, with a @code{wrong-type-arg} error,
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
759 there should be two objects in the list: a predicate that describes the type
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diff changeset
760 that was expected, and the object that failed to fit that type.
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diff changeset
761 @xref{Error Symbols}, for a description of error symbols.
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762
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763 Both @var{error-symbol} and @var{data} are available to any error
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diff changeset
764 handlers that handle the error: @code{condition-case} binds a local
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765 variable to a list of the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} .@:
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parents:
diff changeset
766 @var{data})} (@pxref{Handling Errors}). If the error is not handled,
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parents:
diff changeset
767 these two values are used in printing the error message.
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parents:
diff changeset
768
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diff changeset
769 The function @code{signal} never returns (though in older Emacs versions
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diff changeset
770 it could sometimes return).
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parents:
diff changeset
771
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772 @smallexample
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diff changeset
773 @group
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774 (signal 'wrong-number-of-arguments '(x y))
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parents:
diff changeset
775 @error{} Wrong number of arguments: x, y
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776 @end group
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parents:
diff changeset
777
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778 @group
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
779 (signal 'no-such-error '("My unknown error condition"))
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parents: 21007
diff changeset
780 @error{} peculiar error: "My unknown error condition"
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781 @end group
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782 @end smallexample
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783 @end defun
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parents:
diff changeset
784
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diff changeset
785 @cindex CL note---no continuable errors
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parents:
diff changeset
786 @quotation
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diff changeset
787 @b{Common Lisp note:} Emacs Lisp has nothing like the Common Lisp
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parents:
diff changeset
788 concept of continuable errors.
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diff changeset
789 @end quotation
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parents:
diff changeset
790
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791 @node Processing of Errors
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parents:
diff changeset
792 @subsubsection How Emacs Processes Errors
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diff changeset
793
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diff changeset
794 When an error is signaled, @code{signal} searches for an active
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parents:
diff changeset
795 @dfn{handler} for the error. A handler is a sequence of Lisp
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diff changeset
796 expressions designated to be executed if an error happens in part of the
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diff changeset
797 Lisp program. If the error has an applicable handler, the handler is
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diff changeset
798 executed, and control resumes following the handler. The handler
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diff changeset
799 executes in the environment of the @code{condition-case} that
6453
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diff changeset
800 established it; all functions called within that @code{condition-case}
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diff changeset
801 have already been exited, and the handler cannot return to them.
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802
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diff changeset
803 If there is no applicable handler for the error, the current command is
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parents:
diff changeset
804 terminated and control returns to the editor command loop, because the
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parents:
diff changeset
805 command loop has an implicit handler for all kinds of errors. The
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parents:
diff changeset
806 command loop's handler uses the error symbol and associated data to
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parents:
diff changeset
807 print an error message.
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diff changeset
808
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diff changeset
809 @cindex @code{debug-on-error} use
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diff changeset
810 An error that has no explicit handler may call the Lisp debugger. The
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diff changeset
811 debugger is enabled if the variable @code{debug-on-error} (@pxref{Error
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diff changeset
812 Debugging}) is non-@code{nil}. Unlike error handlers, the debugger runs
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813 in the environment of the error, so that you can examine values of
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814 variables precisely as they were at the time of the error.
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815
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816 @node Handling Errors
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817 @subsubsection Writing Code to Handle Errors
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818 @cindex error handler
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819 @cindex handling errors
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820
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821 The usual effect of signaling an error is to terminate the command
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822 that is running and return immediately to the Emacs editor command loop.
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823 You can arrange to trap errors occurring in a part of your program by
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824 establishing an error handler, with the special form
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825 @code{condition-case}. A simple example looks like this:
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826
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827 @example
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828 @group
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829 (condition-case nil
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830 (delete-file filename)
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831 (error nil))
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832 @end group
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833 @end example
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834
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835 @noindent
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836 This deletes the file named @var{filename}, catching any error and
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837 returning @code{nil} if an error occurs.
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838
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839 The second argument of @code{condition-case} is called the
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840 @dfn{protected form}. (In the example above, the protected form is a
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841 call to @code{delete-file}.) The error handlers go into effect when
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842 this form begins execution and are deactivated when this form returns.
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843 They remain in effect for all the intervening time. In particular, they
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844 are in effect during the execution of functions called by this form, in
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845 their subroutines, and so on. This is a good thing, since, strictly
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846 speaking, errors can be signaled only by Lisp primitives (including
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847 @code{signal} and @code{error}) called by the protected form, not by the
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848 protected form itself.
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849
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850 The arguments after the protected form are handlers. Each handler
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851 lists one or more @dfn{condition names} (which are symbols) to specify
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852 which errors it will handle. The error symbol specified when an error
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853 is signaled also defines a list of condition names. A handler applies
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854 to an error if they have any condition names in common. In the example
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855 above, there is one handler, and it specifies one condition name,
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856 @code{error}, which covers all errors.
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857
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858 The search for an applicable handler checks all the established handlers
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859 starting with the most recently established one. Thus, if two nested
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860 @code{condition-case} forms offer to handle the same error, the inner of
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861 the two gets to handle it.
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862
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863 If an error is handled by some @code{condition-case} form, this
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864 ordinarily prevents the debugger from being run, even if
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865 @code{debug-on-error} says this error should invoke the debugger.
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866 @xref{Error Debugging}. If you want to be able to debug errors that are
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867 caught by a @code{condition-case}, set the variable
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868 @code{debug-on-signal} to a non-@code{nil} value.
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869
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870 When an error is handled, control returns to the handler. Before this
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871 happens, Emacs unbinds all variable bindings made by binding constructs
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872 that are being exited and executes the cleanups of all
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873 @code{unwind-protect} forms that are exited. Once control arrives at
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874 the handler, the body of the handler is executed.
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875
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981e116b4ac6 Minor cleanups for overfull hboxes.
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876 After execution of the handler body, execution returns from the
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diff changeset
877 @code{condition-case} form. Because the protected form is exited
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diff changeset
878 completely before execution of the handler, the handler cannot resume
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879 execution at the point of the error, nor can it examine variable
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880 bindings that were made within the protected form. All it can do is
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881 clean up and proceed.
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882
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883 The @code{condition-case} construct is often used to trap errors that
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884 are predictable, such as failure to open a file in a call to
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885 @code{insert-file-contents}. It is also used to trap errors that are
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diff changeset
886 totally unpredictable, such as when the program evaluates an expression
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887 read from the user.
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888
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889 Error signaling and handling have some resemblance to @code{throw} and
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diff changeset
890 @code{catch} (@pxref{Catch and Throw}), but they are entirely separate
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891 facilities. An error cannot be caught by a @code{catch}, and a
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diff changeset
892 @code{throw} cannot be handled by an error handler (though using
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diff changeset
893 @code{throw} when there is no suitable @code{catch} signals an error
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diff changeset
894 that can be handled).
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895
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896 @defspec condition-case var protected-form handlers@dots{}
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897 This special form establishes the error handlers @var{handlers} around
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898 the execution of @var{protected-form}. If @var{protected-form} executes
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diff changeset
899 without error, the value it returns becomes the value of the
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900 @code{condition-case} form; in this case, the @code{condition-case} has
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901 no effect. The @code{condition-case} form makes a difference when an
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902 error occurs during @var{protected-form}.
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903
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diff changeset
904 Each of the @var{handlers} is a list of the form @code{(@var{conditions}
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diff changeset
905 @var{body}@dots{})}. Here @var{conditions} is an error condition name
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906 to be handled, or a list of condition names; @var{body} is one or more
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907 Lisp expressions to be executed when this handler handles an error.
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908 Here are examples of handlers:
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909
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910 @smallexample
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911 @group
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912 (error nil)
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913
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914 (arith-error (message "Division by zero"))
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915
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916 ((arith-error file-error)
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diff changeset
917 (message
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diff changeset
918 "Either division by zero or failure to open a file"))
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919 @end group
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920 @end smallexample
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921
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922 Each error that occurs has an @dfn{error symbol} that describes what
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923 kind of error it is. The @code{error-conditions} property of this
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diff changeset
924 symbol is a list of condition names (@pxref{Error Symbols}). Emacs
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diff changeset
925 searches all the active @code{condition-case} forms for a handler that
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diff changeset
926 specifies one or more of these condition names; the innermost matching
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diff changeset
927 @code{condition-case} handles the error. Within this
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diff changeset
928 @code{condition-case}, the first applicable handler handles the error.
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929
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930 After executing the body of the handler, the @code{condition-case}
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931 returns normally, using the value of the last form in the handler body
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932 as the overall value.
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933
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934 @cindex error description
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935 The argument @var{var} is a variable. @code{condition-case} does not
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936 bind this variable when executing the @var{protected-form}, only when it
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937 handles an error. At that time, it binds @var{var} locally to an
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diff changeset
938 @dfn{error description}, which is a list giving the particulars of the
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diff changeset
939 error. The error description has the form @code{(@var{error-symbol}
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diff changeset
940 . @var{data})}. The handler can refer to this list to decide what to
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diff changeset
941 do. For example, if the error is for failure opening a file, the file
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diff changeset
942 name is the second element of @var{data}---the third element of the
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diff changeset
943 error description.
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944
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945 If @var{var} is @code{nil}, that means no variable is bound. Then the
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diff changeset
946 error symbol and associated data are not available to the handler.
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947 @end defspec
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948
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diff changeset
949 @defun error-message-string error-description
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diff changeset
950 This function returns the error message string for a given error
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diff changeset
951 descriptor. It is useful if you want to handle an error by printing the
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diff changeset
952 usual error message for that error.
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953 @end defun
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diff changeset
954
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955 @cindex @code{arith-error} example
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956 Here is an example of using @code{condition-case} to handle the error
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diff changeset
957 that results from dividing by zero. The handler displays the error
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958 message (but without a beep), then returns a very large number.
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959
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960 @smallexample
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961 @group
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962 (defun safe-divide (dividend divisor)
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diff changeset
963 (condition-case err
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964 ;; @r{Protected form.}
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965 (/ dividend divisor)
22274
f0cd03a7dac9 *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
966 @end group
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diff changeset
967 @group
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968 ;; @r{The handler.}
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969 (arith-error ; @r{Condition.}
15725
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parents: 12098
diff changeset
970 ;; @r{Display the usual message for this error.}
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parents: 12098
diff changeset
971 (message "%s" (error-message-string err))
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diff changeset
972 1000000)))
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diff changeset
973 @result{} safe-divide
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diff changeset
974 @end group
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diff changeset
975
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diff changeset
976 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
977 (safe-divide 5 0)
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diff changeset
978 @print{} Arithmetic error: (arith-error)
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diff changeset
979 @result{} 1000000
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diff changeset
980 @end group
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diff changeset
981 @end smallexample
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diff changeset
982
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diff changeset
983 @noindent
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diff changeset
984 The handler specifies condition name @code{arith-error} so that it will handle only division-by-zero errors. Other kinds of errors will not be handled, at least not by this @code{condition-case}. Thus,
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diff changeset
985
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diff changeset
986 @smallexample
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diff changeset
987 @group
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988 (safe-divide nil 3)
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diff changeset
989 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, nil
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990 @end group
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diff changeset
991 @end smallexample
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parents:
diff changeset
992
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diff changeset
993 Here is a @code{condition-case} that catches all kinds of errors,
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diff changeset
994 including those signaled with @code{error}:
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diff changeset
995
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diff changeset
996 @smallexample
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diff changeset
997 @group
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diff changeset
998 (setq baz 34)
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diff changeset
999 @result{} 34
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diff changeset
1000 @end group
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diff changeset
1001
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diff changeset
1002 @group
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parents:
diff changeset
1003 (condition-case err
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diff changeset
1004 (if (eq baz 35)
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diff changeset
1005 t
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diff changeset
1006 ;; @r{This is a call to the function @code{error}.}
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 7734
diff changeset
1007 (error "Rats! The variable %s was %s, not 35" 'baz baz))
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parents:
diff changeset
1008 ;; @r{This is the handler; it is not a form.}
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parents:
diff changeset
1009 (error (princ (format "The error was: %s" err))
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diff changeset
1010 2))
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a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 7734
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1011 @print{} The error was: (error "Rats! The variable baz was 34, not 35")
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1012 @result{} 2
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1013 @end group
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1014 @end smallexample
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1015
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diff changeset
1016 @node Error Symbols
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diff changeset
1017 @subsubsection Error Symbols and Condition Names
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1018 @cindex error symbol
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diff changeset
1019 @cindex error name
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parents:
diff changeset
1020 @cindex condition name
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parents:
diff changeset
1021 @cindex user-defined error
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parents:
diff changeset
1022 @kindex error-conditions
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parents:
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1023
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diff changeset
1024 When you signal an error, you specify an @dfn{error symbol} to specify
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parents:
diff changeset
1025 the kind of error you have in mind. Each error has one and only one
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parents:
diff changeset
1026 error symbol to categorize it. This is the finest classification of
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parents:
diff changeset
1027 errors defined by the Emacs Lisp language.
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parents:
diff changeset
1028
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diff changeset
1029 These narrow classifications are grouped into a hierarchy of wider
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parents:
diff changeset
1030 classes called @dfn{error conditions}, identified by @dfn{condition
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parents:
diff changeset
1031 names}. The narrowest such classes belong to the error symbols
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parents:
diff changeset
1032 themselves: each error symbol is also a condition name. There are also
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parents:
diff changeset
1033 condition names for more extensive classes, up to the condition name
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parents:
diff changeset
1034 @code{error} which takes in all kinds of errors. Thus, each error has
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1035 one or more condition names: @code{error}, the error symbol if that
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parents:
diff changeset
1036 is distinct from @code{error}, and perhaps some intermediate
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diff changeset
1037 classifications.
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parents:
diff changeset
1038
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diff changeset
1039 In order for a symbol to be an error symbol, it must have an
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parents:
diff changeset
1040 @code{error-conditions} property which gives a list of condition names.
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
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parents: 6453
diff changeset
1041 This list defines the conditions that this kind of error belongs to.
6453
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diff changeset
1042 (The error symbol itself, and the symbol @code{error}, should always be
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parents:
diff changeset
1043 members of this list.) Thus, the hierarchy of condition names is
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parents:
diff changeset
1044 defined by the @code{error-conditions} properties of the error symbols.
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diff changeset
1045
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diff changeset
1046 In addition to the @code{error-conditions} list, the error symbol
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Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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diff changeset
1047 should have an @code{error-message} property whose value is a string to
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diff changeset
1048 be printed when that error is signaled but not handled. If the
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diff changeset
1049 @code{error-message} property exists, but is not a string, the error
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parents:
diff changeset
1050 message @samp{peculiar error} is used.
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diff changeset
1051 @cindex peculiar error
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parents:
diff changeset
1052
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diff changeset
1053 Here is how we define a new error symbol, @code{new-error}:
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diff changeset
1054
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diff changeset
1055 @example
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diff changeset
1056 @group
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diff changeset
1057 (put 'new-error
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diff changeset
1058 'error-conditions
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diff changeset
1059 '(error my-own-errors new-error))
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diff changeset
1060 @result{} (error my-own-errors new-error)
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diff changeset
1061 @end group
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diff changeset
1062 @group
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diff changeset
1063 (put 'new-error 'error-message "A new error")
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diff changeset
1064 @result{} "A new error"
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diff changeset
1065 @end group
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diff changeset
1066 @end example
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diff changeset
1067
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diff changeset
1068 @noindent
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diff changeset
1069 This error has three condition names: @code{new-error}, the narrowest
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diff changeset
1070 classification; @code{my-own-errors}, which we imagine is a wider
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diff changeset
1071 classification; and @code{error}, which is the widest of all.
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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diff changeset
1072
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
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parents: 7734
diff changeset
1073 The error string should start with a capital letter but it should
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1074 not end with a period. This is for consistency with the rest of Emacs.
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1075
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1076 Naturally, Emacs will never signal @code{new-error} on its own; only
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diff changeset
1077 an explicit call to @code{signal} (@pxref{Signaling Errors}) in your
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parents: 6453
diff changeset
1078 code can do this:
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1079
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1080 @example
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diff changeset
1081 @group
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diff changeset
1082 (signal 'new-error '(x y))
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diff changeset
1083 @error{} A new error: x, y
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1084 @end group
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1085 @end example
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1086
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diff changeset
1087 This error can be handled through any of the three condition names.
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diff changeset
1088 This example handles @code{new-error} and any other errors in the class
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diff changeset
1089 @code{my-own-errors}:
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1090
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1091 @example
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1092 @group
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diff changeset
1093 (condition-case foo
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diff changeset
1094 (bar nil t)
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diff changeset
1095 (my-own-errors nil))
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1096 @end group
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1097 @end example
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1098
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diff changeset
1099 The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition
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1100 names---the names used to match errors with handlers. An error symbol
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diff changeset
1101 serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message
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1102 and list of condition names. It would be cumbersome to give
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1103 @code{signal} a list of condition names rather than one error symbol.
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diff changeset
1104
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1105 By contrast, using only error symbols without condition names would
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diff changeset
1106 seriously decrease the power of @code{condition-case}. Condition names
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diff changeset
1107 make it possible to categorize errors at various levels of generality
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diff changeset
1108 when you write an error handler. Using error symbols alone would
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diff changeset
1109 eliminate all but the narrowest level of classification.
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diff changeset
1110
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1111 @xref{Standard Errors}, for a list of all the standard error symbols
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diff changeset
1112 and their conditions.
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diff changeset
1113
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diff changeset
1114 @node Cleanups
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diff changeset
1115 @subsection Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits
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diff changeset
1116
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diff changeset
1117 The @code{unwind-protect} construct is essential whenever you
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diff changeset
1118 temporarily put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits
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1119 you to make the data consistent again in the event of an error or throw.
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diff changeset
1120
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diff changeset
1121 @defspec unwind-protect body cleanup-forms@dots{}
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diff changeset
1122 @cindex cleanup forms
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diff changeset
1123 @cindex protected forms
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diff changeset
1124 @cindex error cleanup
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diff changeset
1125 @cindex unwinding
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diff changeset
1126 @code{unwind-protect} executes the @var{body} with a guarantee that the
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diff changeset
1127 @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated if control leaves @var{body}, no
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diff changeset
1128 matter how that happens. The @var{body} may complete normally, or
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diff changeset
1129 execute a @code{throw} out of the @code{unwind-protect}, or cause an
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diff changeset
1130 error; in all cases, the @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated.
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diff changeset
1131
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1132 If the @var{body} forms finish normally, @code{unwind-protect} returns
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1133 the value of the last @var{body} form, after it evaluates the
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1134 @var{cleanup-forms}. If the @var{body} forms do not finish,
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1135 @code{unwind-protect} does not return any value in the normal sense.
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1136
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1137 Only the @var{body} is protected by the @code{unwind-protect}. If any
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1138 of the @var{cleanup-forms} themselves exits nonlocally (via a
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1139 @code{throw} or an error), @code{unwind-protect} is @emph{not}
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1140 guaranteed to evaluate the rest of them. If the failure of one of the
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1141 @var{cleanup-forms} has the potential to cause trouble, then protect it
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1142 with another @code{unwind-protect} around that form.
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1143
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1144 The number of currently active @code{unwind-protect} forms counts,
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1145 together with the number of local variable bindings, against the limit
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1146 @code{max-specpdl-size} (@pxref{Local Variables}).
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1147 @end defspec
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1148
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1149 For example, here we make an invisible buffer for temporary use, and
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1150 make sure to kill it before finishing:
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1151
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1152 @smallexample
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1153 @group
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1154 (save-excursion
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1155 (let ((buffer (get-buffer-create " *temp*")))
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1156 (set-buffer buffer)
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1157 (unwind-protect
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1158 @var{body}
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1159 (kill-buffer buffer))))
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1160 @end group
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1161 @end smallexample
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1162
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1163 @noindent
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1164 You might think that we could just as well write @code{(kill-buffer
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1165 (current-buffer))} and dispense with the variable @code{buffer}.
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1166 However, the way shown above is safer, if @var{body} happens to get an
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1167 error after switching to a different buffer! (Alternatively, you could
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1168 write another @code{save-excursion} around the body, to ensure that the
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1169 temporary buffer becomes current again in time to kill it.)
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1170
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1171 Emacs includes a standard macro called @code{with-temp-buffer} which
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1172 expands into more or less the code shown above (@pxref{Current Buffer}).
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1173 Several of the macros defined in this manual use @code{unwind-protect}
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1174 in this way.
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1175
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1176 @findex ftp-login
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1177 Here is an actual example derived from an FTP package. It creates a
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1178 process (@pxref{Processes}) to try to establish a connection to a remote
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1179 machine. As the function @code{ftp-login} is highly susceptible to
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1180 numerous problems that the writer of the function cannot anticipate, it
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1181 is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the process in the
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1182 event of failure. Otherwise, Emacs might fill up with useless
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1183 subprocesses.
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1184
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1185 @smallexample
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1186 @group
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1187 (let ((win nil))
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1188 (unwind-protect
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1189 (progn
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1190 (setq process (ftp-setup-buffer host file))
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1191 (if (setq win (ftp-login process host user password))
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1192 (message "Logged in")
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1193 (error "Ftp login failed")))
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1194 (or win (and process (delete-process process)))))
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1195 @end group
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1196 @end smallexample
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1197
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1198 This example has a small bug: if the user types @kbd{C-g} to
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1199 quit, and the quit happens immediately after the function
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1200 @code{ftp-setup-buffer} returns but before the variable @code{process} is
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1201 set, the process will not be killed. There is no easy way to fix this bug,
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1202 but at least it is very unlikely.