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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000,
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4 @c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009
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5 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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6 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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7 @setfilename ../../info/variables
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8 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top
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9 @chapter Variables
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10 @cindex variable
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11
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12 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value.
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13 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the
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14 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for
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15 symbols.
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16
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17 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented
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18 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp
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19 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the
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20 variable name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of
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21 the symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its
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22 use as a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}.
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23
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24 The textual form of a Lisp program is given by the read syntax of
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25 the Lisp objects that constitute the program. Hence, a variable in a
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26 textual Lisp program is written using the read syntax for the symbol
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27 representing the variable.
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28
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29 @menu
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30 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere.
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31 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change.
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32 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily.
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33 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values.
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34 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable.
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35 * Tips for Defining:: Things you should think about when you
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36 define a variable.
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37 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names
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38 are known only at run time.
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39 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables.
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40 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values.
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41 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer.
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42 * File Local Variables:: Handling local variable lists in files.
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43 * Directory Local Variables:: Local variables common to all files in a directory.
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44 * Frame-Local Variables:: Frame-local bindings for variables.
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45 * Variable Aliases:: Variables that are aliases for other variables.
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46 * Variables with Restricted Values:: Non-constant variables whose value can
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47 @emph{not} be an arbitrary Lisp object.
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48 @end menu
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49
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50 @node Global Variables
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51 @section Global Variables
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52 @cindex global variable
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53
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54 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that
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55 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect
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56 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains
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57 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the
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58 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable.
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59
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60 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example,
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61
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62 @example
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63 (setq x '(a b))
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64 @end example
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65
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66 @noindent
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67 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that
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68 @code{setq} is a special form (@pxref{Special Forms}); it does not
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69 evaluate its first argument, the name of the variable, but it does
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70 evaluate the second argument, the new value.
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71
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72 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the
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73 symbol itself as an expression. Thus,
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74
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75 @example
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76 @group
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77 x @result{} (a b)
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78 @end group
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79 @end example
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80
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81 @noindent
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82 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed.
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83
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84 If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the old
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85 one:
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86
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87 @example
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88 @group
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89 x
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90 @result{} (a b)
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91 @end group
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92 @group
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93 (setq x 4)
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94 @result{} 4
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95 @end group
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96 @group
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97 x
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98 @result{} 4
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99 @end group
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100 @end example
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101
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102 @node Constant Variables
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103 @section Variables that Never Change
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104 @kindex setting-constant
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105 @cindex keyword symbol
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106 @cindex variable with constant value
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107 @cindex constant variables
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108 @cindex symbol that evaluates to itself
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109 @cindex symbol with constant value
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110
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111 In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. These
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112 include @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name starts
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113 with @samp{:} (these are called @dfn{keywords}). These symbols cannot
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114 be rebound, nor can their values be changed. Any attempt to set or bind
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115 @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. The
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116 same is true for a keyword (a symbol whose name starts with @samp{:}),
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117 if it is interned in the standard obarray, except that setting such a
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118 symbol to itself is not an error.
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119
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120 @example
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121 @group
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122 nil @equiv{} 'nil
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123 @result{} nil
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124 @end group
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125 @group
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126 (setq nil 500)
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127 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil
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128 @end group
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129 @end example
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130
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131 @defun keywordp object
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132 function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol whose name
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133 starts with @samp{:}, interned in the standard obarray, and returns
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134 @code{nil} otherwise.
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135 @end defun
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136
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137 @node Local Variables
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138 @section Local Variables
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139 @cindex binding local variables
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140 @cindex local variables
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141 @cindex local binding
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142 @cindex global binding
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143
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144 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded
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145 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that
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146 exist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes.
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147 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are
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148 called @dfn{local variables}.
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149
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150 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive
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151 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let}
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152 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified
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153 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form.
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154
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155 @cindex shadowing of variables
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156 Establishing a local value saves away the variable's previous value
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157 (or lack of one). We say that the previous value is @dfn{shadowed}
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158 and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and local values may be shadowed
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159 (@pxref{Scope}). After the life span of the local value is over, the
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160 previous value (or lack of one) is restored.
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161
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162 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local,
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163 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or
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164 previous local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we
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165 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value.
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166
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167 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value.
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168 Entering a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the
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169 local binding; exiting the function or the @code{let} removes the
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170 local binding. While the local binding lasts, the variable's value is
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171 stored within it. Using @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a
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172 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does
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173 not create a new binding.
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174
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175 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where
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176 (conceptually) the global value is kept.
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177
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178 @cindex current binding
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179 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for
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180 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a
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181 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the
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182 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called
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183 @dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no
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184 local bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding.
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185 We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existing
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186 binding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns
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187 the value of its current binding.
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188
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189 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create
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190 local bindings.
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191
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192 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}
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193 This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then
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194 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form
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195 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}.
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196
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197 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case
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198 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form
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199 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is
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200 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form}
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201 is omitted, @code{nil} is used.
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202
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203 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the
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204 order they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them.
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205 Here is an example of this: @code{z} is bound to the old value of
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206 @code{y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{y}, which is 1.
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207
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208 @example
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209 @group
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210 (setq y 2)
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211 @result{} 2
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212 @end group
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213 @group
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214 (let ((y 1)
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215 (z y))
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216 (list y z))
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217 @result{} (1 2)
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218 @end group
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219 @end example
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220 @end defspec
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221
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222 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{}
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223 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right
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224 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for
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225 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can
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226 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*}
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227 form. Compare the following example with the example above for
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228 @code{let}.
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229
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230 @example
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231 @group
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232 (setq y 2)
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233 @result{} 2
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234 @end group
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235 @group
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236 (let* ((y 1)
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237 (z y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{y}.}
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238 (list y z))
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239 @result{} (1 1)
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240 @end group
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241 @end example
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242 @end defspec
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243
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244 Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local
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245 bindings:
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246
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247 @itemize @bullet
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248 @item
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249 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}).
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250
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251 @item
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252 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}).
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253
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254 @item
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255 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}).
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256 @end itemize
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257
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258 Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local
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259 Variables}); a few variables have terminal-local bindings
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* frames.texi (Frames): Clean up introduction. Document `ns'
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
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260 (@pxref{Multiple Terminals}). These kinds of bindings work somewhat
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261 like ordinary local bindings, but they are localized depending on
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262 ``where'' you are in Emacs, rather than localized in time.
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263
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264 @defopt max-specpdl-size
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265 @anchor{Definition of max-specpdl-size}
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266 @cindex variable limit error
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267 @cindex evaluation error
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268 @cindex infinite recursion
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269 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable
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270 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (see @ref{Cleanups,,
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271 Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits}) that are allowed before Emacs
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272 signals an error (with data @code{"Variable binding depth exceeds
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273 max-specpdl-size"}).
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274
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275 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way
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276 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function.
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277 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting.
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278 @xref{Definition of max-lisp-eval-depth,, Eval}.
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279
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280 The default value is 1000. Entry to the Lisp debugger increases the
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281 value, if there is little room left, to make sure the debugger itself
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282 has room to execute.
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283 @end defopt
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284
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285 @node Void Variables
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286 @section When a Variable is ``Void''
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287 @kindex void-variable
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288 @cindex void variable
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289
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290 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we
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291 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the
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292 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to
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293 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than
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294 a value.
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295
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296 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol
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297 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any
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298 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not
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299 have any value.
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300
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301 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more
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302 using @code{makunbound}.
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303
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304 @defun makunbound symbol
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305 This function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void.
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306 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal
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307 the error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again.
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308
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309 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}.
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310
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311 @example
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312 @group
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313 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.}
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314 @result{} x
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315 @end group
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316 @group
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317 x
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318 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x
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319 @end group
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320 @end example
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321
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322 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most
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323 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void
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324 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings
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325 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as
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326 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from
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327 the construct that made it, the previous local or global binding is
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328 reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly
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329 reexposed binding was void all along.
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330
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331 @smallexample
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332 @group
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333 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.}
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334 @result{} 1
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335 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.}
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336 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.}
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337 x)
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338 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x
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339 @end group
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340 @group
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341 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.}
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342 @result{} 1
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343
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344 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.}
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345 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.}
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346 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.}
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347 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.}
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348 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x
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349 @end group
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350
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351 @group
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352 (let ((x 2))
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353 (let ((x 3))
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354 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.}
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355 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.}
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356 @result{} 2
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357 @end group
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358 @end smallexample
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359 @end defun
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360
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361 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is
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362 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has
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363 always been void.
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364
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365 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is
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366 currently void.
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367
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368 @defun boundp variable
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369 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void;
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370 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns
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371 @code{nil} otherwise.
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372
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373 @smallexample
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374 @group
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375 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.}
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376 @result{} nil
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377 @end group
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378 @group
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379 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.}
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380 (boundp 'abracadabra))
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381 @result{} t
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382 @end group
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383 @group
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384 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.}
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385 @result{} nil
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386 @end group
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387 @group
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388 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.}
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389 @result{} 5
|
|
|
390 @end group
|
|
|
391 @group
|
|
|
392 (boundp 'abracadabra)
|
|
|
393 @result{} t
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|
|
394 @end group
|
|
|
395 @end smallexample
|
|
|
396 @end defun
|
|
|
397
|
|
|
398 @node Defining Variables
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|
|
399 @section Defining Global Variables
|
|
|
400 @cindex variable definition
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|
401
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|
402 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable
|
|
|
403 with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst}
|
|
|
404 or @code{defvar}.
|
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405
|
|
|
406 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform
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|
407 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be
|
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|
408 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system
|
|
|
409 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they
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|
410 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and
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|
|
411 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and
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|
|
412 variables in a program.
|
|
|
413
|
|
|
414 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily
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|
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415 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the value
|
|
|
416 should ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a
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|
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417 variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar}
|
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418 declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization:
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419 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while
|
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|
420 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void.
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421
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422 @ignore
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|
423 One would expect user option variables to be defined with
|
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424 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this
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|
425 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded:
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426 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is
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427 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init
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|
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428 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For
|
|
|
429 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}.
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|
|
430 @end ignore
|
|
|
431
|
|
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432 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]]
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433 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can also
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434 initialize and document it. The definition informs a person reading
|
|
|
435 your code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set or
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|
|
436 changed. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be
|
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437 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}.
|
|
|
438
|
|
|
439 If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar}
|
|
|
440 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol}
|
|
|
441 already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not even
|
|
|
442 evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value}
|
|
|
443 is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case.
|
|
|
444
|
|
|
445 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer,
|
|
|
446 @code{defvar} operates on the default value, which is buffer-independent,
|
|
|
447 not the current (buffer-local) binding. It sets the default value if
|
|
|
448 the default value is void. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}.
|
|
|
449
|
|
|
450 When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} in
|
|
|
451 Emacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of
|
|
|
452 @code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally, without
|
|
|
453 testing whether its value is void.
|
|
|
454
|
|
|
455 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation
|
|
|
456 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of
|
|
|
457 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is
|
|
|
458 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The
|
|
|
459 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property.
|
|
|
460
|
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Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
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|
461 If the documentation string begins with the character @samp{*}, Emacs
|
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Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
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|
462 allows users to set it interactively using the @code{set-variable}
|
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diff
changeset
|
463 command. However, you should nearly always use @code{defcustom}
|
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Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
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|
464 instead of @code{defvar} to define such variables, so that users can
|
d9a2d006b717
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changeset
|
465 use @kbd{M-x customize} and related commands to set them. In that
|
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diff
changeset
|
466 case, it is not necessary to begin the documentation string with
|
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Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
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changeset
|
467 @samp{*}. @xref{Customization}.
|
|
84109
|
468
|
|
|
469 Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does not
|
|
|
470 initialize it:
|
|
|
471
|
|
|
472 @example
|
|
|
473 @group
|
|
|
474 (defvar foo)
|
|
|
475 @result{} foo
|
|
|
476 @end group
|
|
|
477 @end example
|
|
|
478
|
|
|
479 This example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and gives
|
|
|
480 it a documentation string:
|
|
|
481
|
|
|
482 @example
|
|
|
483 @group
|
|
|
484 (defvar bar 23
|
|
|
485 "The normal weight of a bar.")
|
|
|
486 @result{} bar
|
|
|
487 @end group
|
|
|
488 @end example
|
|
|
489
|
|
|
490 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar},
|
|
|
491 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar}
|
|
|
492 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an error
|
|
|
493 if it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.)
|
|
|
494
|
|
|
495 @example
|
|
|
496 @group
|
|
|
497 (defvar bar (1+ nil)
|
|
|
498 "*The normal weight of a bar.")
|
|
|
499 @result{} bar
|
|
|
500 @end group
|
|
|
501 @group
|
|
|
502 bar
|
|
|
503 @result{} 23
|
|
|
504 @end group
|
|
|
505 @end example
|
|
|
506
|
|
|
507 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form:
|
|
|
508
|
|
|
509 @example
|
|
|
510 @group
|
|
|
511 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string})
|
|
|
512 @equiv{}
|
|
|
513 (progn
|
|
|
514 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol}))
|
|
|
515 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value}))
|
|
|
516 (if '@var{doc-string}
|
|
|
517 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string}))
|
|
|
518 '@var{symbol})
|
|
|
519 @end group
|
|
|
520 @end example
|
|
|
521
|
|
|
522 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used
|
|
|
523 at top level in a file where its value does not matter.
|
|
|
524 @end defspec
|
|
|
525
|
|
|
526 @defspec defconst symbol value [doc-string]
|
|
|
527 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it.
|
|
|
528 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standard
|
|
|
529 global value, established here, that should not be changed by the user
|
|
|
530 or by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the
|
|
|
531 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}.
|
|
|
532
|
|
|
533 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of
|
|
|
534 @var{symbol} to the result. If @var{symbol} does have a buffer-local
|
|
|
535 binding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} sets the default value,
|
|
|
536 not the buffer-local value. (But you should not be making
|
|
|
537 buffer-local bindings for a symbol that is defined with
|
|
|
538 @code{defconst}.)
|
|
|
539
|
|
|
540 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed
|
|
|
541 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding).
|
|
|
542 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory.
|
|
|
543
|
|
|
544 @example
|
|
|
545 @group
|
|
|
546 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.")
|
|
|
547 @result{} pi
|
|
|
548 @end group
|
|
|
549 @group
|
|
|
550 (setq pi 3)
|
|
|
551 @result{} pi
|
|
|
552 @end group
|
|
|
553 @group
|
|
|
554 pi
|
|
|
555 @result{} 3
|
|
|
556 @end group
|
|
|
557 @end example
|
|
|
558 @end defspec
|
|
|
559
|
|
|
560 @defun user-variable-p variable
|
|
|
561 @cindex user option
|
|
|
562 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a
|
|
|
563 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and
|
|
|
564 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the
|
|
|
565 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.)
|
|
|
566
|
|
|
567 User option variables are distinguished from other variables either
|
|
|
568 though being declared using @code{defcustom}@footnote{They may also be
|
|
|
569 declared equivalently in @file{cus-start.el}.} or by the first character
|
|
|
570 of their @code{variable-documentation} property. If the property exists
|
|
|
571 and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, then the variable
|
|
|
572 is a user option. Aliases of user options are also user options.
|
|
|
573 @end defun
|
|
|
574
|
|
|
575 @kindex variable-interactive
|
|
|
576 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property,
|
|
|
577 the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading the
|
|
|
578 new value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it were
|
|
|
579 specified in @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However,
|
|
|
580 this feature is largely obsoleted by @code{defcustom}
|
|
|
581 (@pxref{Customization}).
|
|
|
582
|
|
|
583 @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special
|
|
|
584 forms are used while the variable has a local binding (made with
|
|
|
585 @code{let}, or a function argument), they set the local-binding's
|
|
|
586 value; the top-level binding is not changed. This is not what you
|
|
|
587 usually want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top level in
|
|
|
588 a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make sure to
|
|
|
589 load the file before making a local binding for the variable.
|
|
|
590
|
|
|
591 @node Tips for Defining
|
|
|
592 @section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly
|
|
|
593
|
|
|
594 When you define a variable whose value is a function, or a list of
|
|
|
595 functions, use a name that ends in @samp{-function} or
|
|
|
596 @samp{-functions}, respectively.
|
|
|
597
|
|
|
598 There are several other variable name conventions;
|
|
|
599 here is a complete list:
|
|
|
600
|
|
|
601 @table @samp
|
|
|
602 @item @dots{}-hook
|
|
|
603 The variable is a normal hook (@pxref{Hooks}).
|
|
|
604
|
|
|
605 @item @dots{}-function
|
|
|
606 The value is a function.
|
|
|
607
|
|
|
608 @item @dots{}-functions
|
|
|
609 The value is a list of functions.
|
|
|
610
|
|
|
611 @item @dots{}-form
|
|
|
612 The value is a form (an expression).
|
|
|
613
|
|
|
614 @item @dots{}-forms
|
|
|
615 The value is a list of forms (expressions).
|
|
|
616
|
|
|
617 @item @dots{}-predicate
|
|
|
618 The value is a predicate---a function of one argument that returns
|
|
|
619 non-@code{nil} for ``good'' arguments and @code{nil} for ``bad''
|
|
|
620 arguments.
|
|
|
621
|
|
|
622 @item @dots{}-flag
|
|
|
623 The value is significant only as to whether it is @code{nil} or not.
|
|
101143
|
624 Since such variables often end up acquiring more values over time,
|
|
101144
|
625 this convention is not strongly recommended.
|
|
84109
|
626
|
|
|
627 @item @dots{}-program
|
|
|
628 The value is a program name.
|
|
|
629
|
|
|
630 @item @dots{}-command
|
|
|
631 The value is a whole shell command.
|
|
|
632
|
|
|
633 @item @dots{}-switches
|
|
|
634 The value specifies options for a command.
|
|
|
635 @end table
|
|
|
636
|
|
|
637 When you define a variable, always consider whether you should mark
|
|
102306
|
638 it as ``safe'' or ``risky''; see @ref{File Local Variables}.
|
|
84109
|
639
|
|
|
640 When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicated
|
|
|
641 value (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put the
|
|
|
642 entire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this:
|
|
|
643
|
|
|
644 @example
|
|
|
645 (defvar my-mode-map
|
|
|
646 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap)))
|
|
|
647 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command)
|
|
|
648 @dots{}
|
|
|
649 map)
|
|
|
650 @var{docstring})
|
|
|
651 @end example
|
|
|
652
|
|
|
653 @noindent
|
|
|
654 This method has several benefits. First, if the user quits while
|
|
|
655 loading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized or
|
|
|
656 initialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized,
|
|
|
657 reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading the
|
|
|
658 file once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that is
|
|
|
659 important if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (such
|
|
|
660 as, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with
|
|
|
661 @kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely.
|
|
|
662
|
|
|
663 Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage:
|
|
|
664 it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names the
|
|
|
665 variable. Here's a safe way to avoid that:
|
|
|
666
|
|
|
667 @example
|
|
|
668 (defvar my-mode-map nil
|
|
|
669 @var{docstring})
|
|
|
670 (unless my-mode-map
|
|
|
671 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap)))
|
|
|
672 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command)
|
|
|
673 @dots{}
|
|
|
674 (setq my-mode-map map)))
|
|
|
675 @end example
|
|
|
676
|
|
|
677 @noindent
|
|
|
678 This has all the same advantages as putting the initialization inside
|
|
|
679 the @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once on
|
|
|
680 each form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable.
|
|
|
681
|
|
|
682 But be careful not to write the code like this:
|
|
|
683
|
|
|
684 @example
|
|
|
685 (defvar my-mode-map nil
|
|
|
686 @var{docstring})
|
|
|
687 (unless my-mode-map
|
|
|
688 (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap))
|
|
|
689 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command)
|
|
|
690 @dots{})
|
|
|
691 @end example
|
|
|
692
|
|
|
693 @noindent
|
|
|
694 This code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more than
|
|
|
695 one step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves the
|
|
|
696 variable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Once
|
|
|
697 that happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; it
|
|
|
698 will remain incomplete.
|
|
|
699
|
|
|
700 @node Accessing Variables
|
|
|
701 @section Accessing Variable Values
|
|
|
702
|
|
|
703 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which
|
|
|
704 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the
|
|
|
705 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what
|
|
|
706 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which
|
|
|
707 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}.
|
|
|
708
|
|
|
709 @defun symbol-value symbol
|
|
|
710 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in
|
|
|
711 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it
|
|
|
712 has no local bindings.
|
|
|
713
|
|
|
714 @example
|
|
|
715 @group
|
|
|
716 (setq abracadabra 5)
|
|
|
717 @result{} 5
|
|
|
718 @end group
|
|
|
719 @group
|
|
|
720 (setq foo 9)
|
|
|
721 @result{} 9
|
|
|
722 @end group
|
|
|
723
|
|
|
724 @group
|
|
|
725 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}}
|
|
|
726 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.}
|
|
|
727 (let ((abracadabra 'foo))
|
|
|
728 (symbol-value 'abracadabra))
|
|
|
729 @result{} foo
|
|
|
730 @end group
|
|
|
731
|
|
|
732 @group
|
|
|
733 ;; @r{Here, the value of @code{abracadabra},}
|
|
|
734 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},}
|
|
|
735 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.}
|
|
|
736 (let ((abracadabra 'foo))
|
|
|
737 (symbol-value abracadabra))
|
|
|
738 @result{} 9
|
|
|
739 @end group
|
|
|
740
|
|
|
741 @group
|
|
|
742 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)
|
|
|
743 @result{} 5
|
|
|
744 @end group
|
|
|
745 @end example
|
|
|
746
|
|
|
747 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of
|
|
|
748 @var{symbol} is void.
|
|
|
749 @end defun
|
|
|
750
|
|
|
751 @node Setting Variables
|
|
|
752 @section How to Alter a Variable Value
|
|
|
753
|
|
|
754 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special
|
|
|
755 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at
|
|
|
756 run time, use the function @code{set}.
|
|
|
757
|
|
|
758 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{}
|
|
|
759 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's
|
|
|
760 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of
|
|
|
761 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing
|
|
|
762 binding of the symbol is changed.
|
|
|
763
|
|
|
764 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you
|
|
|
765 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The
|
|
|
766 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.''
|
|
|
767
|
|
|
768 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}.
|
|
|
769
|
|
|
770 @example
|
|
|
771 @group
|
|
|
772 (setq x (1+ 2))
|
|
|
773 @result{} 3
|
|
|
774 @end group
|
|
|
775 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.}
|
|
|
776 @result{} 3
|
|
|
777 @group
|
|
|
778 (let ((x 5))
|
|
|
779 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.}
|
|
|
780 x)
|
|
|
781 @result{} 6
|
|
|
782 @end group
|
|
|
783 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.}
|
|
|
784 @result{} 3
|
|
|
785 @end example
|
|
|
786
|
|
|
787 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first
|
|
|
788 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the
|
|
|
789 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on:
|
|
|
790
|
|
|
791 @example
|
|
|
792 @group
|
|
|
793 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before}
|
|
|
794 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.}
|
|
|
795 @result{} 11
|
|
|
796 @end group
|
|
|
797 @end example
|
|
|
798 @end defspec
|
|
|
799
|
|
|
800 @defun set symbol value
|
|
|
801 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns
|
|
|
802 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for
|
|
|
803 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set.
|
|
|
804
|
|
|
805 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is
|
|
|
806 set; shadowed bindings are not affected.
|
|
|
807
|
|
|
808 @example
|
|
|
809 @group
|
|
|
810 (set one 1)
|
|
|
811 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one
|
|
|
812 @end group
|
|
|
813 @group
|
|
|
814 (set 'one 1)
|
|
|
815 @result{} 1
|
|
|
816 @end group
|
|
|
817 @group
|
|
|
818 (set 'two 'one)
|
|
|
819 @result{} one
|
|
|
820 @end group
|
|
|
821 @group
|
|
|
822 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.}
|
|
|
823 @result{} 2
|
|
|
824 @end group
|
|
|
825 @group
|
|
|
826 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.}
|
|
|
827 @result{} 2
|
|
|
828 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,}
|
|
|
829 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.}
|
|
|
830 one)
|
|
|
831 @result{} 3
|
|
|
832 @end group
|
|
|
833 @group
|
|
|
834 one
|
|
|
835 @result{} 2
|
|
|
836 @end group
|
|
|
837 @end example
|
|
|
838
|
|
|
839 If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument}
|
|
|
840 error is signaled.
|
|
|
841
|
|
|
842 @example
|
|
|
843 (set '(x y) 'z)
|
|
|
844 @error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y)
|
|
|
845 @end example
|
|
|
846
|
|
|
847 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than
|
|
|
848 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use
|
|
|
849 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the
|
|
|
850 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used;
|
|
|
851 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing
|
|
|
852 at run time which variable to set. For example, the command
|
|
|
853 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then
|
|
|
854 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}.
|
|
|
855
|
|
|
856 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local
|
|
|
857 @quotation
|
|
|
858 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the
|
|
|
859 symbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings.
|
|
|
860 In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set}
|
|
|
861 always affects the most local existing binding.
|
|
|
862 @end quotation
|
|
|
863 @end defun
|
|
|
864
|
|
|
865 @node Variable Scoping
|
|
|
866 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings
|
|
|
867
|
|
|
868 A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings,
|
|
|
869 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global
|
|
|
870 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over
|
|
|
871 the others.
|
|
|
872
|
|
|
873 @cindex scope
|
|
|
874 @cindex extent
|
|
|
875 @cindex dynamic scoping
|
|
|
876 @cindex lexical scoping
|
|
|
877 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and
|
|
|
878 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in
|
|
|
879 the source code the binding can be accessed. ``Indefinite scope'' means
|
|
|
880 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable
|
|
|
881 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is
|
|
|
882 executing, the binding exists. ``Dynamic extent'' means that the binding
|
|
|
883 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it.
|
|
|
884
|
|
|
885 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called
|
|
|
886 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use
|
|
|
887 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be
|
|
|
888 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable.
|
|
|
889
|
|
|
890 @cindex CL note---special variables
|
|
|
891 @quotation
|
|
|
892 @b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp are
|
|
|
893 dynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp.
|
|
|
894 @end quotation
|
|
|
895
|
|
|
896 @menu
|
|
|
897 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible.
|
|
|
898 Comparison with other languages.
|
|
|
899 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists.
|
|
|
900 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping.
|
|
|
901 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems.
|
|
|
902 @end menu
|
|
|
903
|
|
|
904 @node Scope
|
|
|
905 @subsection Scope
|
|
|
906
|
|
|
907 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings.
|
|
|
908 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a
|
|
|
909 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function
|
|
|
910 definitions:
|
|
|
911
|
|
|
912 @example
|
|
|
913 @group
|
|
|
914 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.}
|
|
|
915 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.}
|
|
|
916 @end group
|
|
|
917
|
|
|
918 @group
|
|
|
919 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.}
|
|
|
920 (list x))
|
|
|
921 @end group
|
|
|
922 @end example
|
|
|
923
|
|
|
924 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in
|
|
|
925 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because
|
|
|
926 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function
|
|
|
927 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically-scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user}
|
|
|
928 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in
|
|
|
929 @code{binder}, depending on the circumstances:
|
|
|
930
|
|
|
931 @itemize @bullet
|
|
|
932 @item
|
|
|
933 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all,
|
|
|
934 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from
|
|
|
935 @code{binder}.
|
|
|
936
|
|
|
937 @item
|
|
|
938 If we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then the
|
|
|
939 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}:
|
|
|
940
|
|
|
941 @example
|
|
|
942 @group
|
|
|
943 (defun foo (lose)
|
|
|
944 (user))
|
|
|
945 @end group
|
|
|
946 @end example
|
|
|
947
|
|
|
948 @item
|
|
|
949 However, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder},
|
|
|
950 then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in
|
|
|
951 @code{user}:
|
|
|
952
|
|
|
953 @example
|
|
|
954 (defun foo (x)
|
|
|
955 (user))
|
|
|
956 @end example
|
|
|
957
|
|
|
958 @noindent
|
|
|
959 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}.
|
|
|
960 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in
|
|
|
961 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound
|
|
|
962 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}.
|
|
|
963 @end itemize
|
|
|
964
|
|
|
965 Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of
|
|
|
966 lexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offer
|
|
|
967 dynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm,
|
|
|
968 there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particular
|
|
|
969 variable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, but
|
|
|
970 implementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier.
|
|
|
971
|
|
|
972 @node Extent
|
|
|
973 @subsection Extent
|
|
|
974
|
|
|
975 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a
|
|
|
976 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while
|
|
|
977 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic
|
|
|
978 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages,
|
|
|
979 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent.
|
|
|
980
|
|
|
981 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This
|
|
|
982 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form
|
|
|
983 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support
|
|
|
984 this, but Emacs Lisp does not.
|
|
|
985
|
|
|
986 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a
|
|
|
987 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. This
|
|
|
988 would work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp,
|
|
|
989 because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n}
|
|
|
990 is no longer bound to the actual argument 2.
|
|
|
991
|
|
|
992 @example
|
|
|
993 (defun make-add (n)
|
|
|
994 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.}
|
|
|
995 @result{} make-add
|
|
|
996 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}}
|
|
|
997 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.}
|
|
|
998 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m))
|
|
|
999 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.}
|
|
|
1000 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n
|
|
|
1001 @end example
|
|
|
1002
|
|
|
1003 @cindex closures not available
|
|
|
1004 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures,'' objects that are like functions
|
|
|
1005 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have
|
|
|
1006 closures.
|
|
|
1007
|
|
|
1008 @node Impl of Scope
|
|
|
1009 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping
|
|
|
1010 @cindex deep binding
|
|
|
1011
|
|
|
1012 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually
|
|
|
1013 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is
|
|
|
1014 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems.
|
|
|
1015
|
|
|
1016 Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs.
|
|
|
1017 At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings
|
|
|
1018 onto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. We
|
|
|
1019 can pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the binding
|
|
|
1020 construct.
|
|
|
1021
|
|
|
1022 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to
|
|
|
1023 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is
|
|
|
1024 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the
|
|
|
1025 current binding, then store the new value into that binding.
|
|
|
1026
|
|
|
1027 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it
|
|
|
1028 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is
|
|
|
1029 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function
|
|
|
1030 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the
|
|
|
1031 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite.
|
|
|
1032
|
|
|
1033 @cindex shallow binding
|
|
|
1034 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a
|
|
|
1035 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard
|
|
|
1036 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the
|
|
|
1037 symbol.
|
|
|
1038
|
|
|
1039 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in
|
|
|
1040 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value
|
|
|
1041 (belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the new
|
|
|
1042 local value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping
|
|
|
1043 the old value off the stack, into the value cell.
|
|
|
1044
|
|
|
1045 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep
|
|
|
1046 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a
|
|
|
1047 binding.
|
|
|
1048
|
|
|
1049 @node Using Scoping
|
|
|
1050 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping
|
|
|
1051
|
|
|
1052 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a
|
|
|
1053 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs
|
|
|
1054 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique:
|
|
|
1055
|
|
|
1056 @itemize @bullet
|
|
|
1057 @item
|
|
|
1058 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close
|
|
|
1059 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within
|
|
|
1060 one program.
|
|
|
1061
|
|
|
1062 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see
|
|
|
1063 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses
|
|
|
1064 elsewhere.
|
|
|
1065
|
|
|
1066 @item
|
|
|
1067 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all
|
|
|
1068 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever
|
|
|
1069 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable
|
|
|
1070 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case
|
|
|
1071 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it
|
|
|
1072 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it.
|
|
|
1073
|
|
|
1074 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what
|
|
|
1075 the effect will be.
|
|
|
1076 @end itemize
|
|
|
1077
|
|
|
1078 In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}.
|
|
|
1079 This helps other people understand your program by telling them to look
|
|
|
1080 for inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the byte
|
|
|
1081 compiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don't
|
|
|
1082 use short names like @code{x}.
|
|
|
1083
|
|
|
1084 @node Buffer-Local Variables
|
|
|
1085 @section Buffer-Local Variables
|
|
|
1086 @cindex variable, buffer-local
|
|
|
1087 @cindex buffer-local variables
|
|
|
1088
|
|
|
1089 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming
|
|
85688
|
1090 languages in one form or another. Emacs, however, also supports
|
|
|
1091 additional, unusual kinds of variable binding, such as
|
|
|
1092 @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which apply only in one buffer. Having
|
|
|
1093 different values for a variable in different buffers is an important
|
|
102306
|
1094 customization method. (Variables can also have bindings that are
|
102846
a447859a557b
* frames.texi (Frames): Clean up introduction. Document `ns'
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
changeset
|
1095 local to each terminal, or to each frame. @xref{Multiple Terminals},
|
|
102306
|
1096 and @xref{Frame-Local Variables}.)
|
|
84109
|
1097
|
|
|
1098 @menu
|
|
|
1099 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts.
|
|
|
1100 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings.
|
|
|
1101 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers
|
|
|
1102 that don't have their own buffer-local values.
|
|
|
1103 @end menu
|
|
|
1104
|
|
|
1105 @node Intro to Buffer-Local
|
|
|
1106 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables
|
|
|
1107
|
|
|
1108 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a
|
|
|
1109 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is
|
|
|
1110 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while
|
|
|
1111 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding,
|
|
|
1112 so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change is
|
|
|
1113 visible only in the buffer where you made it.
|
|
|
1114
|
|
|
1115 The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with any
|
|
|
1116 specific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases,
|
|
|
1117 this is the global binding.
|
|
|
1118
|
|
|
1119 A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in
|
|
|
1120 other buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers that
|
|
|
1121 don't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes all
|
|
|
1122 newly-created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that does
|
|
85688
|
1123 not have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding,
|
|
84109
|
1124 so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the default
|
|
|
1125 binding.
|
|
|
1126
|
|
|
1127 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change
|
|
|
1128 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and
|
|
|
1129 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only
|
|
|
1130 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable
|
|
|
1131 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and
|
|
|
1132 then setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}.
|
|
|
1133
|
|
|
1134 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with
|
|
|
1135 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typically
|
|
|
1136 use. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including
|
|
|
1137 those yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unless
|
|
|
1138 they are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings.
|
|
|
1139
|
|
|
1140 @cindex automatically buffer-local
|
|
|
1141 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as
|
|
|
1142 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling
|
|
|
1143 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the
|
|
|
1144 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More
|
|
|
1145 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes
|
|
|
1146 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All
|
|
|
1147 buffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual,
|
|
|
1148 but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the current
|
|
|
1149 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving
|
|
|
1150 the default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannot
|
|
|
1151 be changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it is
|
|
|
1152 with @code{setq-default}.
|
|
|
1153
|
|
85688
|
1154 @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local
|
|
84109
|
1155 bindings in one or more buffers, @code{let} rebinds the binding that's
|
|
|
1156 currently in effect. For instance, if the current buffer has a
|
|
|
1157 buffer-local value, @code{let} temporarily rebinds that. If no
|
|
85688
|
1158 buffer-local bindings are in effect, @code{let} rebinds
|
|
84109
|
1159 the default value. If inside the @code{let} you then change to a
|
|
|
1160 different current buffer in which a different binding is in effect,
|
|
|
1161 you won't see the @code{let} binding any more. And if you exit the
|
|
|
1162 @code{let} while still in the other buffer, you won't see the
|
|
|
1163 unbinding occur (though it will occur properly). Here is an example
|
|
|
1164 to illustrate:
|
|
|
1165
|
|
|
1166 @example
|
|
|
1167 @group
|
|
|
1168 (setq foo 'g)
|
|
|
1169 (set-buffer "a")
|
|
|
1170 (make-local-variable 'foo)
|
|
|
1171 @end group
|
|
|
1172 (setq foo 'a)
|
|
|
1173 (let ((foo 'temp))
|
|
|
1174 ;; foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{let binding in buffer @samp{a}}
|
|
|
1175 (set-buffer "b")
|
|
|
1176 ;; foo @result{} 'g ; @r{the global value since foo is not local in @samp{b}}
|
|
|
1177 @var{body}@dots{})
|
|
|
1178 @group
|
|
|
1179 foo @result{} 'g ; @r{exiting restored the local value in buffer @samp{a},}
|
|
|
1180 ; @r{but we don't see that in buffer @samp{b}}
|
|
|
1181 @end group
|
|
|
1182 @group
|
|
|
1183 (set-buffer "a") ; @r{verify the local value was restored}
|
|
|
1184 foo @result{} 'a
|
|
|
1185 @end group
|
|
|
1186 @end example
|
|
|
1187
|
|
|
1188 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the
|
|
|
1189 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}.
|
|
|
1190
|
|
|
1191 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local
|
|
|
1192 values when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, The
|
|
|
1193 GNU Emacs Manual}.
|
|
|
1194
|
|
102306
|
1195 A buffer-local variable cannot be made frame-local
|
|
98680
|
1196 (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}) or terminal-local (@pxref{Multiple
|
102846
a447859a557b
* frames.texi (Frames): Clean up introduction. Document `ns'
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
changeset
|
1197 Terminals}).
|
|
98680
|
1198
|
|
84109
|
1199 @node Creating Buffer-Local
|
|
|
1200 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings
|
|
|
1201
|
|
|
1202 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable
|
|
|
1203 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for
|
|
|
1204 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value
|
|
|
1205 returned is @var{variable}.
|
|
|
1206
|
|
|
1207 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value
|
|
|
1208 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains
|
|
|
1209 void.
|
|
|
1210
|
|
|
1211 @example
|
|
|
1212 @group
|
|
|
1213 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:}
|
|
|
1214 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.}
|
|
|
1215 @result{} 5
|
|
|
1216 @end group
|
|
|
1217 @group
|
|
|
1218 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.}
|
|
|
1219 @result{} foo
|
|
|
1220 @end group
|
|
|
1221 @group
|
|
|
1222 foo ; @r{That did not change}
|
|
|
1223 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.}
|
|
|
1224 @end group
|
|
|
1225 @group
|
|
|
1226 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value}
|
|
|
1227 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.}
|
|
|
1228 @end group
|
|
|
1229 @group
|
|
|
1230 foo
|
|
|
1231 @result{} 6
|
|
|
1232 @end group
|
|
|
1233
|
|
|
1234 @group
|
|
|
1235 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.}
|
|
|
1236 (save-excursion
|
|
|
1237 (set-buffer "b2")
|
|
|
1238 foo)
|
|
|
1239 @result{} 5
|
|
|
1240 @end group
|
|
|
1241 @end example
|
|
|
1242
|
|
|
1243 Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that
|
|
|
1244 variable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do this
|
|
|
1245 is not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This is
|
|
|
1246 because @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds of
|
|
|
1247 bindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for.
|
|
|
1248
|
102846
a447859a557b
* frames.texi (Frames): Clean up introduction. Document `ns'
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
changeset
|
1249 If the variable is terminal-local (@pxref{Multiple Terminals}), or
|
|
98680
|
1250 frame-local (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}), this function signals an
|
|
|
1251 error. Such variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well.
|
|
84109
|
1252
|
|
|
1253 @strong{Warning:} do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hook
|
|
|
1254 variable. The hook variables are automatically made buffer-local as
|
|
|
1255 needed if you use the @var{local} argument to @code{add-hook} or
|
|
|
1256 @code{remove-hook}.
|
|
|
1257 @end deffn
|
|
|
1258
|
|
|
1259 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable
|
|
|
1260 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically
|
|
|
1261 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it
|
|
|
1262 local to the current buffer at the time.
|
|
|
1263
|
|
|
1264 A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with
|
|
|
1265 @code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-local
|
|
|
1266 binding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or
|
|
|
1267 @code{setq}), while the variable does not have a @code{let}-style
|
|
|
1268 binding that was made in the current buffer, does so.
|
|
|
1269
|
|
|
1270 If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling this
|
|
|
1271 command will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable}
|
|
|
1272 already has a default value, that value remains unchanged.
|
|
|
1273 Subsequently calling @code{makunbound} on @var{variable} will result
|
|
|
1274 in a void buffer-local value and leave the default value unaffected.
|
|
|
1275
|
|
|
1276 The value returned is @var{variable}.
|
|
|
1277
|
|
|
1278 @strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use
|
|
|
1279 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simply
|
|
|
1280 because users @emph{might} want to customize them differently in
|
|
|
1281 different buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wish
|
|
|
1282 to. It is better to leave the choice to them.
|
|
|
1283
|
|
|
1284 The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucial
|
|
|
1285 that no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when a
|
|
|
1286 variable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which depends
|
|
|
1287 on having separate values in separate buffers, then using
|
|
|
1288 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution.
|
|
|
1289 @end deffn
|
|
|
1290
|
|
|
1291 @defun local-variable-p variable &optional buffer
|
|
|
1292 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer
|
|
|
1293 @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise,
|
|
|
1294 @code{nil}.
|
|
|
1295 @end defun
|
|
|
1296
|
|
|
1297 @defun local-variable-if-set-p variable &optional buffer
|
|
|
1298 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} will become buffer-local in
|
|
|
1299 buffer @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer) if it is
|
|
|
1300 set there.
|
|
|
1301 @end defun
|
|
|
1302
|
|
|
1303 @defun buffer-local-value variable buffer
|
|
|
1304 This function returns the buffer-local binding of @var{variable} (a
|
|
|
1305 symbol) in buffer @var{buffer}. If @var{variable} does not have a
|
|
|
1306 buffer-local binding in buffer @var{buffer}, it returns the default
|
|
|
1307 value (@pxref{Default Value}) of @var{variable} instead.
|
|
|
1308 @end defun
|
|
|
1309
|
|
|
1310 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer
|
|
|
1311 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in
|
|
|
1312 buffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer is
|
|
|
1313 used.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) in
|
|
|
1314 which each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value.
|
|
|
1315 However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void,
|
|
|
1316 then the variable appears directly in the resulting list.
|
|
|
1317
|
|
|
1318 @example
|
|
|
1319 @group
|
|
|
1320 (make-local-variable 'foobar)
|
|
|
1321 (makunbound 'foobar)
|
|
|
1322 (make-local-variable 'bind-me)
|
|
|
1323 (setq bind-me 69)
|
|
|
1324 @end group
|
|
|
1325 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables))
|
|
|
1326 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:}
|
|
|
1327 @result{} ((mark-active . nil)
|
|
|
1328 (buffer-undo-list . nil)
|
|
|
1329 (mode-name . "Fundamental")
|
|
|
1330 @dots{}
|
|
|
1331 @group
|
|
|
1332 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.}
|
|
|
1333 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:}
|
|
|
1334 foobar
|
|
|
1335 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:}
|
|
|
1336 (bind-me . 69))
|
|
|
1337 @end group
|
|
|
1338 @end example
|
|
|
1339
|
|
|
1340 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this
|
|
|
1341 list does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables.
|
|
|
1342 @end defun
|
|
|
1343
|
|
|
1344 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable
|
|
|
1345 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for
|
|
|
1346 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the
|
|
|
1347 default binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. This
|
|
|
1348 typically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since the
|
|
|
1349 default value is usually different from the buffer-local value just
|
|
|
1350 eliminated.
|
|
|
1351
|
|
|
1352 If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automatically
|
|
|
1353 becomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible in
|
|
|
1354 the current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will
|
|
|
1355 once again create a buffer-local binding for it.
|
|
|
1356
|
|
|
1357 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}.
|
|
|
1358
|
|
|
1359 This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one
|
|
|
1360 buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create
|
|
|
1361 buffer-local variables interactively.
|
|
|
1362 @end deffn
|
|
|
1363
|
|
|
1364 @defun kill-all-local-variables
|
|
|
1365 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the
|
98734
f20cbcf45bb3
(Creating Buffer-Local): Add an xref to "Setting Hooks" for the effect
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
diff
changeset
|
1366 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent'' and local
|
f20cbcf45bb3
(Creating Buffer-Local): Add an xref to "Setting Hooks" for the effect
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
diff
changeset
|
1367 hook functions that have a non-@code{nil} @code{permanent-local-hook}
|
f20cbcf45bb3
(Creating Buffer-Local): Add an xref to "Setting Hooks" for the effect
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
diff
changeset
|
1368 property (@pxref{Setting Hooks}). As a result, the buffer will see
|
f20cbcf45bb3
(Creating Buffer-Local): Add an xref to "Setting Hooks" for the effect
Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org>
diff
changeset
|
1369 the default values of most variables.
|
|
84109
|
1370
|
|
|
1371 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the
|
|
|
1372 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the
|
|
|
1373 value of @code{(standard-syntax-table)}, the case table to
|
|
|
1374 @code{(standard-case-table)}, and the abbrev table to the value of
|
|
|
1375 @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}.
|
|
|
1376
|
|
|
1377 The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook
|
|
|
1378 @code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below).
|
|
|
1379
|
|
|
1380 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the
|
|
|
1381 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects
|
|
|
1382 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the
|
|
|
1383 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent.
|
|
|
1384
|
|
|
1385 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}.
|
|
|
1386 @end defun
|
|
|
1387
|
|
|
1388 @defvar change-major-mode-hook
|
|
|
1389 The function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hook
|
|
|
1390 before it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrange
|
|
|
1391 for something special to be done if the user switches to a different
|
|
|
1392 major mode. It is also useful for buffer-specific minor modes
|
|
|
1393 that should be forgotten if the user changes the major mode.
|
|
|
1394
|
|
|
1395 For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that it will
|
|
|
1396 disappear after doing its job and will not interfere with the
|
|
|
1397 subsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}.
|
|
|
1398 @end defvar
|
|
|
1399
|
|
|
1400 @c Emacs 19 feature
|
|
|
1401 @cindex permanent local variable
|
|
|
1402 A buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a
|
|
|
1403 symbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}.
|
|
|
1404 Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file
|
|
|
1405 came from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents.
|
|
|
1406
|
|
|
1407 @node Default Value
|
|
|
1408 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable
|
|
|
1409 @cindex default value
|
|
|
1410
|
|
|
1411 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also
|
|
|
1412 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in
|
|
|
1413 effect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame has
|
|
|
1414 its own binding for the variable.
|
|
|
1415
|
|
|
1416 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and
|
|
|
1417 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current
|
|
|
1418 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use
|
|
|
1419 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of
|
|
|
1420 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when
|
|
|
1421 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for
|
|
|
1422 this variable.
|
|
|
1423
|
|
|
1424 @c Emacs 19 feature
|
|
|
1425 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the
|
|
|
1426 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any
|
|
85688
|
1427 buffer-local value.
|
|
84109
|
1428
|
|
|
1429 @defun default-value symbol
|
|
|
1430 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value
|
|
|
1431 that is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values for
|
|
|
1432 this variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent
|
|
|
1433 to @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}).
|
|
|
1434 @end defun
|
|
|
1435
|
|
|
1436 @c Emacs 19 feature
|
|
|
1437 @defun default-boundp symbol
|
|
|
1438 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s
|
|
|
1439 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns
|
|
|
1440 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error.
|
|
|
1441
|
|
|
1442 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to
|
|
|
1443 @code{symbol-value}.
|
|
|
1444 @end defun
|
|
|
1445
|
|
|
1446 @defspec setq-default [symbol form]@dots{}
|
|
|
1447 This special form gives each @var{symbol} a new default value, which is
|
|
|
1448 the result of evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. It does not
|
|
|
1449 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{form}. The value of the
|
|
|
1450 @code{setq-default} form is the value of the last @var{form}.
|
|
|
1451
|
|
|
1452 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not
|
|
|
1453 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same
|
|
|
1454 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current
|
|
|
1455 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long
|
|
|
1456 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the
|
|
|
1457 current buffer sees.
|
|
|
1458
|
|
|
1459 @example
|
|
|
1460 @group
|
|
|
1461 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:}
|
|
|
1462 (make-local-variable 'buffer-local)
|
|
|
1463 @result{} buffer-local
|
|
|
1464 @end group
|
|
|
1465 @group
|
|
|
1466 (setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo)
|
|
|
1467 @result{} value-in-foo
|
|
|
1468 @end group
|
|
|
1469 @group
|
|
|
1470 (setq-default buffer-local 'new-default)
|
|
|
1471 @result{} new-default
|
|
|
1472 @end group
|
|
|
1473 @group
|
|
|
1474 buffer-local
|
|
|
1475 @result{} value-in-foo
|
|
|
1476 @end group
|
|
|
1477 @group
|
|
|
1478 (default-value 'buffer-local)
|
|
|
1479 @result{} new-default
|
|
|
1480 @end group
|
|
|
1481
|
|
|
1482 @group
|
|
|
1483 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:}
|
|
|
1484 buffer-local
|
|
|
1485 @result{} new-default
|
|
|
1486 @end group
|
|
|
1487 @group
|
|
|
1488 (default-value 'buffer-local)
|
|
|
1489 @result{} new-default
|
|
|
1490 @end group
|
|
|
1491 @group
|
|
|
1492 (setq buffer-local 'another-default)
|
|
|
1493 @result{} another-default
|
|
|
1494 @end group
|
|
|
1495 @group
|
|
|
1496 (default-value 'buffer-local)
|
|
|
1497 @result{} another-default
|
|
|
1498 @end group
|
|
|
1499
|
|
|
1500 @group
|
|
|
1501 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:}
|
|
|
1502 buffer-local
|
|
|
1503 @result{} value-in-foo
|
|
|
1504 (default-value 'buffer-local)
|
|
|
1505 @result{} another-default
|
|
|
1506 @end group
|
|
|
1507 @end example
|
|
|
1508 @end defspec
|
|
|
1509
|
|
|
1510 @defun set-default symbol value
|
|
|
1511 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is
|
|
|
1512 an ordinary evaluated argument.
|
|
|
1513
|
|
|
1514 @example
|
|
|
1515 @group
|
|
|
1516 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23)
|
|
|
1517 @result{} 23
|
|
|
1518 @end group
|
|
|
1519 @group
|
|
|
1520 (default-value 'a)
|
|
|
1521 @result{} 23
|
|
|
1522 @end group
|
|
|
1523 @end example
|
|
|
1524 @end defun
|
|
|
1525
|
|
|
1526 @node File Local Variables
|
|
|
1527 @section File Local Variables
|
|
|
1528 @cindex file local variables
|
|
|
1529
|
|
|
1530 A file can specify local variable values; Emacs uses these to create
|
|
|
1531 buffer-local bindings for those variables in the buffer visiting that
|
|
|
1532 file. @xref{File variables, , Local Variables in Files, emacs, The
|
|
102306
|
1533 GNU Emacs Manual}, for basic information about file-local variables.
|
|
|
1534 This section describes the functions and variables that affect how
|
|
|
1535 file-local variables are processed.
|
|
|
1536
|
|
|
1537 If a file-local variable could specify an arbitrary function or Lisp
|
|
|
1538 expression that would be called later, visiting a file could take over
|
|
|
1539 your Emacs. Emacs protects against this by automatically setting only
|
|
|
1540 those file-local variables whose specified values are known to be
|
|
|
1541 safe. Other file-local variables are set only if the user agrees.
|
|
84109
|
1542
|
103102
789636652cc9
* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Note that read-circle is
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
changeset
|
1543 For additional safety, @code{read-circle} is temporarily bound to
|
789636652cc9
* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Note that read-circle is
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
changeset
|
1544 @code{nil} when Emacs reads file-local variables (@pxref{Input
|
789636652cc9
* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Note that read-circle is
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
changeset
|
1545 Functions}). This prevents the Lisp reader from recognizing circular
|
789636652cc9
* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Note that read-circle is
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
changeset
|
1546 and shared Lisp structures (@pxref{Circular Objects}).
|
789636652cc9
* variables.texi (File Local Variables): Note that read-circle is
Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com>
diff
changeset
|
1547
|
|
84109
|
1548 @defopt enable-local-variables
|
|
102306
|
1549 This variable controls whether to process file-local variables.
|
|
84109
|
1550 The possible values are:
|
|
|
1551
|
|
|
1552 @table @asis
|
|
|
1553 @item @code{t} (the default)
|
|
|
1554 Set the safe variables, and query (once) about any unsafe variables.
|
|
|
1555 @item @code{:safe}
|
|
|
1556 Set only the safe variables and do not query.
|
|
|
1557 @item @code{:all}
|
|
|
1558 Set all the variables and do not query.
|
|
|
1559 @item @code{nil}
|
|
|
1560 Don't set any variables.
|
|
|
1561 @item anything else
|
|
|
1562 Query (once) about all the variables.
|
|
|
1563 @end table
|
|
|
1564 @end defopt
|
|
|
1565
|
|
|
1566 @defun hack-local-variables &optional mode-only
|
|
|
1567 This function parses, and binds or evaluates as appropriate, any local
|
|
|
1568 variables specified by the contents of the current buffer. The variable
|
|
|
1569 @code{enable-local-variables} has its effect here. However, this
|
|
|
1570 function does not look for the @samp{mode:} local variable in the
|
|
|
1571 @w{@samp{-*-}} line. @code{set-auto-mode} does that, also taking
|
|
|
1572 @code{enable-local-variables} into account (@pxref{Auto Major Mode}).
|
|
|
1573
|
|
98881
|
1574 This function works by walking the alist stored in
|
|
98896
|
1575 @code{file-local-variables-alist} and applying each local variable in
|
|
98881
|
1576 turn. It calls @code{before-hack-local-variables-hook} and
|
|
|
1577 @code{hack-local-variables-hook} before and after applying the
|
|
|
1578 variables, respectively.
|
|
|
1579
|
|
84109
|
1580 If the optional argument @var{mode-only} is non-@code{nil}, then all
|
|
|
1581 this function does is return @code{t} if the @w{@samp{-*-}} line or
|
|
|
1582 the local variables list specifies a mode and @code{nil} otherwise.
|
|
102306
|
1583 It does not set the mode nor any other file-local variable.
|
|
84109
|
1584 @end defun
|
|
|
1585
|
|
98881
|
1586 @defvar file-local-variables-alist
|
|
|
1587 This buffer-local variable holds the alist of file-local variable
|
|
|
1588 settings. Each element of the alist is of the form
|
|
|
1589 @w{@code{(@var{var} . @var{value})}}, where @var{var} is a symbol of
|
|
|
1590 the local variable and @var{value} is its value. When Emacs visits a
|
|
|
1591 file, it first collects all the file-local variables into this alist,
|
|
|
1592 and then the @code{hack-local-variables} function applies them one by
|
|
|
1593 one.
|
|
|
1594 @end defvar
|
|
|
1595
|
|
|
1596 @defvar before-hack-local-variables-hook
|
|
|
1597 Emacs calls this hook immediately before applying file-local variables
|
|
|
1598 stored in @code{file-local-variables-alist}.
|
|
|
1599 @end defvar
|
|
|
1600
|
|
|
1601 @defvar hack-local-variables-hook
|
|
|
1602 Emacs calls this hook immediately after it finishes applying
|
|
|
1603 file-local variables stored in @code{file-local-variables-alist}.
|
|
|
1604 @end defvar
|
|
|
1605
|
|
84109
|
1606 @cindex safe local variable
|
|
|
1607 You can specify safe values for a variable with a
|
|
102306
|
1608 @code{safe-local-variable} property. The property has to be a
|
|
|
1609 function of one argument; any value is safe if the function returns
|
|
|
1610 non-@code{nil} given that value. Many commonly-encountered file
|
|
|
1611 variables have @code{safe-local-variable} properties; these include
|
|
|
1612 @code{fill-column}, @code{fill-prefix}, and @code{indent-tabs-mode}.
|
|
|
1613 For boolean-valued variables that are safe, use @code{booleanp} as the
|
|
|
1614 property value. Lambda expressions should be quoted so that
|
|
|
1615 @code{describe-variable} can display the predicate.
|
|
84109
|
1616
|
|
|
1617 @defopt safe-local-variable-values
|
|
|
1618 This variable provides another way to mark some variable values as
|
|
|
1619 safe. It is a list of cons cells @code{(@var{var} . @var{val})},
|
|
|
1620 where @var{var} is a variable name and @var{val} is a value which is
|
|
|
1621 safe for that variable.
|
|
|
1622
|
|
102306
|
1623 When Emacs asks the user whether or not to obey a set of file-local
|
|
84109
|
1624 variable specifications, the user can choose to mark them as safe.
|
|
|
1625 Doing so adds those variable/value pairs to
|
|
|
1626 @code{safe-local-variable-values}, and saves it to the user's custom
|
|
|
1627 file.
|
|
|
1628 @end defopt
|
|
|
1629
|
|
|
1630 @defun safe-local-variable-p sym val
|
|
|
1631 This function returns non-@code{nil} if it is safe to give @var{sym}
|
|
|
1632 the value @var{val}, based on the above criteria.
|
|
|
1633 @end defun
|
|
|
1634
|
|
|
1635 @c @cindex risky local variable Duplicates risky-local-variable
|
|
|
1636 Some variables are considered @dfn{risky}. A variable whose name
|
|
|
1637 ends in any of @samp{-command}, @samp{-frame-alist}, @samp{-function},
|
|
|
1638 @samp{-functions}, @samp{-hook}, @samp{-hooks}, @samp{-form},
|
|
|
1639 @samp{-forms}, @samp{-map}, @samp{-map-alist}, @samp{-mode-alist},
|
|
|
1640 @samp{-program}, or @samp{-predicate} is considered risky. The
|
|
|
1641 variables @samp{font-lock-keywords}, @samp{font-lock-keywords}
|
|
|
1642 followed by a digit, and @samp{font-lock-syntactic-keywords} are also
|
|
|
1643 considered risky. Finally, any variable whose name has a
|
|
|
1644 non-@code{nil} @code{risky-local-variable} property is considered
|
|
|
1645 risky.
|
|
|
1646
|
|
|
1647 @defun risky-local-variable-p sym
|
|
|
1648 This function returns non-@code{nil} if @var{sym} is a risky variable,
|
|
|
1649 based on the above criteria.
|
|
|
1650 @end defun
|
|
|
1651
|
|
|
1652 If a variable is risky, it will not be entered automatically into
|
|
|
1653 @code{safe-local-variable-values} as described above. Therefore,
|
|
|
1654 Emacs will always query before setting a risky variable, unless the
|
|
|
1655 user explicitly allows the setting by customizing
|
|
|
1656 @code{safe-local-variable-values} directly.
|
|
|
1657
|
|
|
1658 @defvar ignored-local-variables
|
|
|
1659 This variable holds a list of variables that should not be given local
|
|
|
1660 values by files. Any value specified for one of these variables is
|
|
|
1661 completely ignored.
|
|
|
1662 @end defvar
|
|
|
1663
|
|
|
1664 The @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' is also a potential loophole, so Emacs
|
|
|
1665 normally asks for confirmation before handling it.
|
|
|
1666
|
|
|
1667 @defopt enable-local-eval
|
|
|
1668 This variable controls processing of @samp{Eval:} in @samp{-*-} lines
|
|
|
1669 or local variables
|
|
|
1670 lists in files being visited. A value of @code{t} means process them
|
|
|
1671 unconditionally; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else means ask
|
|
|
1672 the user what to do for each file. The default value is @code{maybe}.
|
|
|
1673 @end defopt
|
|
|
1674
|
|
|
1675 @defopt safe-local-eval-forms
|
|
|
1676 This variable holds a list of expressions that are safe to
|
|
|
1677 evaluate when found in the @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' in a file
|
|
|
1678 local variables list.
|
|
|
1679 @end defopt
|
|
|
1680
|
|
|
1681 If the expression is a function call and the function has a
|
|
|
1682 @code{safe-local-eval-function} property, the property value
|
|
|
1683 determines whether the expression is safe to evaluate. The property
|
|
|
1684 value can be a predicate to call to test the expression, a list of
|
|
|
1685 such predicates (it's safe if any predicate succeeds), or @code{t}
|
|
|
1686 (always safe provided the arguments are constant).
|
|
|
1687
|
|
|
1688 Text properties are also potential loopholes, since their values
|
|
|
1689 could include functions to call. So Emacs discards all text
|
|
102306
|
1690 properties from string values specified for file-local variables.
|
|
84109
|
1691
|
|
100710
|
1692 @node Directory Local Variables
|
|
|
1693 @section Directory Local Variables
|
|
|
1694 @cindex directory local variables
|
|
|
1695
|
|
|
1696 A directory can specify local variable values common to all files in
|
|
|
1697 that directory; Emacs uses these to create buffer-local bindings for
|
|
|
1698 those variables in buffers visiting any file in that directory. This
|
|
|
1699 is useful when the files in the directory belong to some @dfn{project}
|
|
|
1700 and therefore share the same local variables.
|
|
|
1701
|
|
|
1702 There are two different methods for specifying directory local
|
|
|
1703 variables: by putting them in a special file, or by defining a
|
|
|
1704 @dfn{project class} for that directory.
|
|
|
1705
|
|
|
1706 @defvr Constant dir-locals-file
|
|
|
1707 This constant is the name of the file where Emacs expects to find the
|
|
|
1708 directory-local variables. The name of the file is
|
|
|
1709 @file{.dir-locals.el}@footnote{
|
|
|
1710 The MS-DOS version of Emacs uses @file{_dir-locals.el} instead, due to
|
|
|
1711 limitations of the DOS filesystems.
|
|
|
1712 }. A file by that name in a directory causes Emacs to apply its
|
|
|
1713 settings to any file in that directory or any of its subdirectories.
|
|
|
1714 If some of the subdirectories have their own @file{.dir-locals.el}
|
|
|
1715 files, Emacs uses the settings from the deepest file it finds starting
|
|
|
1716 from the file's directory and moving up the directory tree. The file
|
|
|
1717 specifies local variables as a specially formatted list; see
|
|
|
1718 @ref{Directory Variables, , Per-directory Local Variables, emacs, The
|
|
|
1719 GNU Emacs Manual}, for more details.
|
|
|
1720 @end defvr
|
|
|
1721
|
|
|
1722 @defun hack-dir-local-variables
|
|
|
1723 This function reads the @code{.dir-locals.el} file and stores the
|
|
|
1724 directory-local variables in @code{file-local-variables-alist} that is
|
|
|
1725 local to the buffer visiting any file in the directory, without
|
|
|
1726 applying them. It also stores the directory-local settings in
|
|
|
1727 @code{dir-locals-class-alist}, where it defines a special class for
|
|
|
1728 the directory in which @file{.dir-locals.el} file was found. This
|
|
|
1729 function works by calling @code{dir-locals-set-class-variables} and
|
|
|
1730 @code{dir-locals-set-directory-class}, described below.
|
|
|
1731 @end defun
|
|
|
1732
|
|
|
1733 @defun dir-locals-set-class-variables class variables
|
|
|
1734 This function defines a set of variable settings for the named
|
|
|
1735 @var{class}, which is a symbol. You can later assign the class to one
|
|
|
1736 or more directories, and Emacs will apply those variable settings to
|
|
|
1737 all files in those directories. The list in @var{variables} can be of
|
|
|
1738 one of the two forms: @code{(@var{major-mode} . @var{alist})} or
|
|
|
1739 @code{(@var{directory} . @var{list})}. With the first form, if the
|
|
|
1740 file's buffer turns on a mode that is derived from @var{major-mode},
|
|
|
1741 then the all the variables in the associated @var{alist} are applied;
|
|
|
1742 @var{alist} should be of the form @code{(@var{name} . @var{value})}.
|
|
|
1743 A special value @code{nil} for @var{major-mode} means the settings are
|
|
|
1744 applicable to any mode.
|
|
|
1745
|
|
|
1746 With the second form of @var{variables}, if @var{directory} is the
|
|
|
1747 initial substring of the file's directory, then @var{list} is applied
|
|
|
1748 recursively by following the above rules; @var{list} should be of one
|
|
|
1749 of the two forms accepted by this function in @var{variables}.
|
|
|
1750 @end defun
|
|
|
1751
|
|
|
1752 @defun dir-locals-set-directory-class directory class
|
|
|
1753 This function assigns @var{class} to all the files in @code{directory}
|
|
|
1754 and its subdirectories. Thereafter, all the variable settings
|
|
|
1755 specified for @var{class} will be applied to any visited file in
|
|
|
1756 @var{directory} and its children. @var{class} must have been already
|
|
|
1757 defined by @code{dir-locals-set-class-variables}
|
|
|
1758 @end defun
|
|
|
1759
|
|
|
1760 @defvar dir-locals-class-alist
|
|
|
1761 This alist holds the class symbols and the associated variable
|
|
|
1762 settings. It is updated by @code{dir-locals-set-class-variables}.
|
|
|
1763 @end defvar
|
|
|
1764
|
|
103456
|
1765 @defvar dir-locals-directory-cache
|
|
|
1766 This alist holds directory names, their assigned class names, and
|
|
|
1767 modification times of the associated directory local variables file.
|
|
|
1768 It is updated by @code{dir-locals-set-directory-class}.
|
|
100710
|
1769 @end defvar
|
|
|
1770
|
|
98680
|
1771 @node Frame-Local Variables
|
|
|
1772 @section Frame-Local Values for Variables
|
|
|
1773 @cindex frame-local variables
|
|
|
1774
|
|
|
1775 In addition to buffer-local variable bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local
|
|
|
1776 Variables}), Emacs supports @dfn{frame-local} bindings. A frame-local
|
|
|
1777 binding for a variable is in effect in a frame for which it was
|
|
102306
|
1778 defined.
|
|
98680
|
1779
|
|
102306
|
1780 In practice, frame-local variables have not proven very useful.
|
|
|
1781 Ordinary frame parameters are generally used instead (@pxref{Frame
|
|
|
1782 Parameters}). The function @code{make-variable-frame-local}, which
|
|
|
1783 was used to define frame-local variables, has been deprecated since
|
|
|
1784 Emacs 22.2. However, you can still define a frame-specific binding
|
|
|
1785 for a variable @var{var} in frame @var{frame}, by setting the
|
|
|
1786 @var{var} frame parameter for that frame:
|
|
98680
|
1787
|
|
|
1788 @lisp
|
|
|
1789 (modify-frame-parameters @var{frame} '((@var{var} . @var{value})))
|
|
|
1790 @end lisp
|
|
|
1791
|
|
|
1792 @noindent
|
|
|
1793 This causes the variable @var{var} to be bound to the specified
|
|
102306
|
1794 @var{value} in the named @var{frame}. To check the frame-specific
|
|
|
1795 values of such variables, use @code{frame-parameter}. @xref{Parameter
|
|
|
1796 Access}.
|
|
100710
|
1797
|
|
102306
|
1798 Note that you cannot have a frame-local binding for a variable that
|
|
|
1799 has a buffer-local binding.
|
|
100710
|
1800
|
|
84109
|
1801 @node Variable Aliases
|
|
|
1802 @section Variable Aliases
|
|
|
1803 @cindex variable aliases
|
|
|
1804
|
|
|
1805 It is sometimes useful to make two variables synonyms, so that both
|
|
|
1806 variables always have the same value, and changing either one also
|
|
|
1807 changes the other. Whenever you change the name of a
|
|
|
1808 variable---either because you realize its old name was not well
|
|
|
1809 chosen, or because its meaning has partly changed---it can be useful
|
|
|
1810 to keep the old name as an @emph{alias} of the new one for
|
|
|
1811 compatibility. You can do this with @code{defvaralias}.
|
|
|
1812
|
|
|
1813 @defun defvaralias new-alias base-variable &optional docstring
|
|
|
1814 This function defines the symbol @var{new-alias} as a variable alias
|
|
|
1815 for symbol @var{base-variable}. This means that retrieving the value
|
|
|
1816 of @var{new-alias} returns the value of @var{base-variable}, and
|
|
|
1817 changing the value of @var{new-alias} changes the value of
|
|
|
1818 @var{base-variable}. The two aliased variable names always share the
|
|
|
1819 same value and the same bindings.
|
|
|
1820
|
|
|
1821 If the @var{docstring} argument is non-@code{nil}, it specifies the
|
|
|
1822 documentation for @var{new-alias}; otherwise, the alias gets the same
|
|
|
1823 documentation as @var{base-variable} has, if any, unless
|
|
|
1824 @var{base-variable} is itself an alias, in which case @var{new-alias} gets
|
|
|
1825 the documentation of the variable at the end of the chain of aliases.
|
|
|
1826
|
|
|
1827 This function returns @var{base-variable}.
|
|
|
1828 @end defun
|
|
|
1829
|
|
|
1830 Variable aliases are convenient for replacing an old name for a
|
|
|
1831 variable with a new name. @code{make-obsolete-variable} declares that
|
|
|
1832 the old name is obsolete and therefore that it may be removed at some
|
|
|
1833 stage in the future.
|
|
|
1834
|
|
|
1835 @defun make-obsolete-variable obsolete-name current-name &optional when
|
|
86434
|
1836 This function makes the byte compiler warn that the variable
|
|
84109
|
1837 @var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, it is
|
|
|
1838 the variable's new name; then the warning message says to use
|
|
|
1839 @var{current-name} instead of @var{obsolete-name}. If @var{current-name}
|
|
|
1840 is a string, this is the message and there is no replacement variable.
|
|
|
1841
|
|
|
1842 If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the
|
|
|
1843 variable was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release
|
|
|
1844 number.
|
|
|
1845 @end defun
|
|
|
1846
|
|
|
1847 You can make two variables synonyms and declare one obsolete at the
|
|
|
1848 same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-variable-alias}.
|
|
|
1849
|
|
|
1850 @defmac define-obsolete-variable-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring
|
|
|
1851 This macro marks the variable @var{obsolete-name} as obsolete and also
|
|
|
1852 makes it an alias for the variable @var{current-name}. It is
|
|
|
1853 equivalent to the following:
|
|
|
1854
|
|
|
1855 @example
|
|
|
1856 (defvaralias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring})
|
|
|
1857 (make-obsolete-variable @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when})
|
|
|
1858 @end example
|
|
|
1859 @end defmac
|
|
|
1860
|
|
|
1861 @defun indirect-variable variable
|
|
|
1862 This function returns the variable at the end of the chain of aliases
|
|
|
1863 of @var{variable}. If @var{variable} is not a symbol, or if @var{variable} is
|
|
|
1864 not defined as an alias, the function returns @var{variable}.
|
|
|
1865
|
|
|
1866 This function signals a @code{cyclic-variable-indirection} error if
|
|
|
1867 there is a loop in the chain of symbols.
|
|
|
1868 @end defun
|
|
|
1869
|
|
|
1870 @example
|
|
|
1871 (defvaralias 'foo 'bar)
|
|
|
1872 (indirect-variable 'foo)
|
|
|
1873 @result{} bar
|
|
|
1874 (indirect-variable 'bar)
|
|
|
1875 @result{} bar
|
|
|
1876 (setq bar 2)
|
|
|
1877 bar
|
|
|
1878 @result{} 2
|
|
|
1879 @group
|
|
|
1880 foo
|
|
|
1881 @result{} 2
|
|
|
1882 @end group
|
|
|
1883 (setq foo 0)
|
|
|
1884 bar
|
|
|
1885 @result{} 0
|
|
|
1886 foo
|
|
|
1887 @result{} 0
|
|
|
1888 @end example
|
|
|
1889
|
|
|
1890 @node Variables with Restricted Values
|
|
|
1891 @section Variables with Restricted Values
|
|
|
1892
|
|
|
1893 Ordinary Lisp variables can be assigned any value that is a valid
|
|
|
1894 Lisp object. However, certain Lisp variables are not defined in Lisp,
|
|
|
1895 but in C. Most of these variables are defined in the C code using
|
|
|
1896 @code{DEFVAR_LISP}. Like variables defined in Lisp, these can take on
|
|
|
1897 any value. However, some variables are defined using
|
|
|
1898 @code{DEFVAR_INT} or @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. @xref{Defining Lisp
|
|
|
1899 variables in C,, Writing Emacs Primitives}, in particular the
|
|
|
1900 description of functions of the type @code{syms_of_@var{filename}},
|
|
|
1901 for a brief discussion of the C implementation.
|
|
|
1902
|
|
|
1903 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} can only take on the values
|
|
|
1904 @code{nil} or @code{t}. Attempting to assign them any other value
|
|
|
1905 will set them to @code{t}:
|
|
|
1906
|
|
|
1907 @example
|
|
|
1908 (let ((display-hourglass 5))
|
|
|
1909 display-hourglass)
|
|
|
1910 @result{} t
|
|
|
1911 @end example
|
|
|
1912
|
|
|
1913 @defvar byte-boolean-vars
|
|
|
1914 This variable holds a list of all variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}.
|
|
|
1915 @end defvar
|
|
|
1916
|
|
|
1917 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_INT} can only take on integer values.
|
|
|
1918 Attempting to assign them any other value will result in an error:
|
|
|
1919
|
|
|
1920 @example
|
|
|
1921 (setq window-min-height 5.0)
|
|
|
1922 @error{} Wrong type argument: integerp, 5.0
|
|
|
1923 @end example
|
|
|
1924
|
|
|
1925 @ignore
|
|
|
1926 arch-tag: 5ff62c44-2b51-47bb-99d4-fea5aeec5d3e
|
|
|
1927 @end ignore
|
