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annotate lispref/numbers.texi @ 62095:f1e37047f8ed
(Pop-Up Menus): Complete description of `x-popup-menu'.
(Dialog Boxes): Complete description of `x-popup-dialog'.
author | Luc Teirlinck <teirllm@auburn.edu> |
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date | Thu, 05 May 2005 23:05:00 +0000 |
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rev | line source |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003 |
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4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/numbers | |
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7 @node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top |
6510 | 8 @chapter Numbers |
9 @cindex integers | |
10 @cindex numbers | |
11 | |
12 GNU Emacs supports two numeric data types: @dfn{integers} and | |
13 @dfn{floating point numbers}. Integers are whole numbers such as | |
14 @minus{}3, 0, 7, 13, and 511. Their values are exact. Floating point | |
15 numbers are numbers with fractional parts, such as @minus{}4.5, 0.0, or | |
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16 2.71828. They can also be expressed in exponential notation: 1.5e2 |
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17 equals 150; in this example, @samp{e2} stands for ten to the second |
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18 power, and that is multiplied by 1.5. Floating point values are not |
6510 | 19 exact; they have a fixed, limited amount of precision. |
20 | |
21 @menu | |
22 * Integer Basics:: Representation and range of integers. | |
23 * Float Basics:: Representation and range of floating point. | |
24 * Predicates on Numbers:: Testing for numbers. | |
25 * Comparison of Numbers:: Equality and inequality predicates. | |
26 * Numeric Conversions:: Converting float to integer and vice versa. | |
27 * Arithmetic Operations:: How to add, subtract, multiply and divide. | |
28 * Rounding Operations:: Explicitly rounding floating point numbers. | |
29 * Bitwise Operations:: Logical and, or, not, shifting. | |
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30 * Math Functions:: Trig, exponential and logarithmic functions. |
6510 | 31 * Random Numbers:: Obtaining random integers, predictable or not. |
32 @end menu | |
33 | |
34 @node Integer Basics | |
35 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
36 @section Integer Basics | |
37 | |
38 The range of values for an integer depends on the machine. The | |
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39 minimum range is @minus{}268435456 to 268435455 (29 bits; i.e., |
27193 | 40 @ifnottex |
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41 -2**28 |
27193 | 42 @end ifnottex |
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43 @tex |
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44 @math{-2^{28}} |
6510 | 45 @end tex |
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46 to |
27193 | 47 @ifnottex |
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48 2**28 - 1), |
27193 | 49 @end ifnottex |
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50 @tex |
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51 @math{2^{28}-1}), |
6510 | 52 @end tex |
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53 but some machines may provide a wider range. Many examples in this |
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54 chapter assume an integer has 29 bits. |
6510 | 55 @cindex overflow |
56 | |
57 The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional | |
58 initial sign and optional final period. | |
59 | |
60 @example | |
61 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
62 1. ; @r{The integer 1.} | |
63 +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} | |
64 -1 ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.} | |
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65 536870913 ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.} |
6510 | 66 0 ; @r{The integer 0.} |
67 -0 ; @r{The integer 0.} | |
68 @end example | |
69 | |
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70 @cindex integers in specific radix |
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71 @cindex radix for reading an integer |
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72 @cindex base for reading an integer |
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73 @cindex hex numbers |
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74 @cindex octal numbers |
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75 @cindex reading numbers in hex, octal, and binary |
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76 The syntax for integers in bases other than 10 uses @samp{#} |
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77 followed by a letter that specifies the radix: @samp{b} for binary, |
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78 @samp{o} for octal, @samp{x} for hex, or @samp{@var{radix}r} to |
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79 specify radix @var{radix}. Case is not significant for the letter |
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80 that specifies the radix. Thus, @samp{#b@var{integer}} reads |
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81 @var{integer} in binary, and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads |
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82 @var{integer} in radix @var{radix}. Allowed values of @var{radix} run |
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83 from 2 to 36. For example: |
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84 |
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85 @example |
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86 #b101100 @result{} 44 |
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87 #o54 @result{} 44 |
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88 #x2c @result{} 44 |
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89 #24r1k @result{} 44 |
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90 @end example |
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91 |
6510 | 92 To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the |
93 bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to | |
94 view the numbers in their binary form. | |
95 | |
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96 In 29-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this: |
6510 | 97 |
98 @example | |
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99 0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101 |
6510 | 100 @end example |
101 | |
102 @noindent | |
103 (We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces | |
104 between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.) | |
105 | |
106 The integer @minus{}1 looks like this: | |
107 | |
108 @example | |
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109 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 110 @end example |
111 | |
112 @noindent | |
113 @cindex two's complement | |
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114 @minus{}1 is represented as 29 ones. (This is called @dfn{two's |
6510 | 115 complement} notation.) |
116 | |
117 The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from | |
118 @minus{}1. In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100. Consequently, | |
119 @minus{}5 looks like this: | |
120 | |
121 @example | |
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122 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011 |
6510 | 123 @end example |
124 | |
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125 In this implementation, the largest 29-bit binary integer value is |
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126 268,435,455 in decimal. In binary, it looks like this: |
6510 | 127 |
128 @example | |
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129 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 130 @end example |
131 | |
132 Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go | |
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133 outside their range, when you add 1 to 268,435,455, the value is the |
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134 negative integer @minus{}268,435,456: |
6510 | 135 |
136 @example | |
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137 (+ 1 268435455) |
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138 @result{} -268435456 |
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139 @result{} 1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 |
6510 | 140 @end example |
141 | |
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142 Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for |
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143 arguments in place of numbers. (@xref{Markers}.) Since the actual |
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144 arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often |
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145 give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}. When the argument |
6510 | 146 value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored. |
147 | |
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148 @defvar most-positive-fixnum |
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149 The value of this variable is the largest integer that Emacs Lisp |
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150 can handle. |
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151 @end defvar |
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152 |
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153 @defvar most-negative-fixnum |
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154 The value of this variable is the smallest integer that Emacs Lisp can |
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155 handle. It is negative. |
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156 @end defvar |
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157 |
6510 | 158 @node Float Basics |
159 @section Floating Point Basics | |
160 | |
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161 Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are |
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162 not integral. The precise range of floating point numbers is |
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163 machine-specific; it is the same as the range of the C data type |
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164 @code{double} on the machine you are using. |
6510 | 165 |
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166 The read-syntax for floating point numbers requires either a decimal |
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167 point (with at least one digit following), an exponent, or both. For |
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168 example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and |
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169 @samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose |
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170 value is 1500. They are all equivalent. You can also use a minus sign |
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171 to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}. |
6510 | 172 |
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173 @cindex @acronym{IEEE} floating point |
6510 | 174 @cindex positive infinity |
175 @cindex negative infinity | |
176 @cindex infinity | |
177 @cindex NaN | |
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178 Most modern computers support the @acronym{IEEE} floating point standard, |
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179 which provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point |
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180 values. It also provides for a class of values called NaN or |
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181 ``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where |
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182 there is no correct answer. For example, @code{(/ 0.0 0.0)} returns a |
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183 NaN. For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between |
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184 different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely |
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185 which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp |
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186 doesn't try to distinguish them. Here are the read syntaxes for |
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187 these special floating point values: |
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188 |
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189 @table @asis |
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190 @item positive infinity |
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191 @samp{1.0e+INF} |
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192 @item negative infinity |
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193 @samp{-1.0e+INF} |
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194 @item Not-a-number |
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195 @samp{0.0e+NaN}. |
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196 @end table |
6510 | 197 |
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198 In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary |
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199 zero in @acronym{IEEE} floating point (although @code{equal} and |
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200 @code{=} consider them equal values). |
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201 |
6510 | 202 You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating |
203 point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer): | |
204 | |
205 @defun logb number | |
206 This function returns the binary exponent of @var{number}. More | |
207 precisely, the value is the logarithm of @var{number} base 2, rounded | |
208 down to an integer. | |
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209 |
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210 @example |
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211 (logb 10) |
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212 @result{} 3 |
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213 (logb 10.0e20) |
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214 @result{} 69 |
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215 @end example |
6510 | 216 @end defun |
217 | |
218 @node Predicates on Numbers | |
219 @section Type Predicates for Numbers | |
220 | |
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221 The functions in this section test for numbers, or for a specific |
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222 type of number. The functions @code{integerp} and @code{floatp} can |
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223 take any type of Lisp object as argument (they would not be of much |
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224 use otherwise), but the @code{zerop} predicate requires a number as |
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225 its argument. See also @code{integer-or-marker-p} and |
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226 @code{number-or-marker-p}, in @ref{Predicates on Markers}. |
6510 | 227 |
228 @defun floatp object | |
229 This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point | |
230 number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
231 | |
232 @code{floatp} does not exist in Emacs versions 18 and earlier. | |
233 @end defun | |
234 | |
235 @defun integerp object | |
236 This predicate tests whether its argument is an integer, and returns | |
237 @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
238 @end defun | |
239 | |
240 @defun numberp object | |
241 This predicate tests whether its argument is a number (either integer or | |
242 floating point), and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
243 @end defun | |
244 | |
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245 @defun wholenump object |
6510 | 246 @cindex natural numbers |
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247 The @code{wholenump} predicate (whose name comes from the phrase |
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248 ``whole-number-p'') tests to see whether its argument is a nonnegative |
6510 | 249 integer, and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. 0 is |
250 considered non-negative. | |
251 | |
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252 @findex natnump |
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253 @code{natnump} is an obsolete synonym for @code{wholenump}. |
6510 | 254 @end defun |
255 | |
256 @defun zerop number | |
257 This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t} | |
258 if so, @code{nil} otherwise. The argument must be a number. | |
259 | |
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260 @code{(zerop x)} is equivalent to @code{(= x 0)}. |
6510 | 261 @end defun |
262 | |
263 @node Comparison of Numbers | |
264 @section Comparison of Numbers | |
265 @cindex number equality | |
266 | |
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267 To test numbers for numerical equality, you should normally use |
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268 @code{=}, not @code{eq}. There can be many distinct floating point |
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269 number objects with the same numeric value. If you use @code{eq} to |
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270 compare them, then you test whether two values are the same |
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271 @emph{object}. By contrast, @code{=} compares only the numeric values |
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272 of the objects. |
6510 | 273 |
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274 At present, each integer value has a unique Lisp object in Emacs Lisp. |
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275 Therefore, @code{eq} is equivalent to @code{=} where integers are |
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276 concerned. It is sometimes convenient to use @code{eq} for comparing an |
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277 unknown value with an integer, because @code{eq} does not report an |
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278 error if the unknown value is not a number---it accepts arguments of any |
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279 type. By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not |
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280 numbers or markers. However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you |
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281 can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the |
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282 representation of integers in a future Emacs version. |
6510 | 283 |
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284 Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it |
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285 treats two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both |
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286 integers, or both floating point) and the same value. By contrast, |
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287 @code{=} can treat an integer and a floating point number as equal. |
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288 @xref{Equality Predicates}. |
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289 |
6510 | 290 There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not |
291 exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating | |
292 point values. Usually it is better to test for approximate equality. | |
293 Here's a function to do this: | |
294 | |
295 @example | |
296 (defvar fuzz-factor 1.0e-6) | |
297 (defun approx-equal (x y) | |
12098 | 298 (or (and (= x 0) (= y 0)) |
299 (< (/ (abs (- x y)) | |
300 (max (abs x) (abs y))) | |
301 fuzz-factor))) | |
6510 | 302 @end example |
303 | |
304 @cindex CL note---integers vrs @code{eq} | |
305 @quotation | |
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306 @b{Common Lisp note:} Comparing numbers in Common Lisp always requires |
6510 | 307 @code{=} because Common Lisp implements multi-word integers, and two |
308 distinct integer objects can have the same numeric value. Emacs Lisp | |
309 can have just one integer object for any given value because it has a | |
310 limited range of integer values. | |
311 @end quotation | |
312 | |
313 @defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
314 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
315 returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
316 @end defun | |
317 | |
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318 @defun eql value1 value2 |
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319 This function acts like @code{eq} except when both arguments are |
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320 numbers. It compares numbers by type and numberic value, so that |
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321 @code{(eql 1.0 1)} returns @code{nil}, but @code{(eql 1.0 1.0)} and |
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322 @code{(eql 1 1)} both return @code{t}. |
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323 @end defun |
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324 |
6510 | 325 @defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 |
326 This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and | |
327 returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are. | |
328 @end defun | |
329 | |
330 @defun < number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
331 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly less than | |
332 its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise. | |
333 @end defun | |
334 | |
335 @defun <= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
336 This function tests whether its first argument is less than or equal | |
337 to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
338 otherwise. | |
339 @end defun | |
340 | |
341 @defun > number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
342 This function tests whether its first argument is strictly greater | |
343 than its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
344 otherwise. | |
345 @end defun | |
346 | |
347 @defun >= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2 | |
348 This function tests whether its first argument is greater than or | |
349 equal to its second argument. It returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} | |
350 otherwise. | |
351 @end defun | |
352 | |
353 @defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
354 This function returns the largest of its arguments. | |
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355 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned |
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356 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 357 |
358 @example | |
359 (max 20) | |
360 @result{} 20 | |
361 (max 1 2.5) | |
362 @result{} 2.5 | |
363 (max 1 3 2.5) | |
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364 @result{} 3.0 |
6510 | 365 @end example |
366 @end defun | |
367 | |
368 @defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers | |
369 This function returns the smallest of its arguments. | |
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370 If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned |
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371 as floating point, even if it was given as an integer. |
6510 | 372 |
373 @example | |
374 (min -4 1) | |
375 @result{} -4 | |
376 @end example | |
377 @end defun | |
378 | |
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379 @defun abs number |
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380 This function returns the absolute value of @var{number}. |
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381 @end defun |
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382 |
6510 | 383 @node Numeric Conversions |
384 @section Numeric Conversions | |
385 @cindex rounding in conversions | |
386 | |
387 To convert an integer to floating point, use the function @code{float}. | |
388 | |
389 @defun float number | |
390 This returns @var{number} converted to floating point. | |
391 If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns | |
392 it unchanged. | |
393 @end defun | |
394 | |
395 There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers; | |
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396 they differ in how they round. All accept an argument @var{number} |
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397 and an optional argument @var{divisor}. Both arguments may be |
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398 integers or floating point numbers. @var{divisor} may also be |
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399 @code{nil}. If @var{divisor} is @code{nil} or omitted, these |
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400 functions convert @var{number} to an integer, or return it unchanged |
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401 if it already is an integer. If @var{divisor} is non-@code{nil}, they |
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402 divide @var{number} by @var{divisor} and convert the result to an |
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403 integer. An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. |
6510 | 404 |
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405 @defun truncate number &optional divisor |
6510 | 406 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards |
407 zero. | |
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408 |
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409 @example |
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410 (truncate 1.2) |
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411 @result{} 1 |
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412 (truncate 1.7) |
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413 @result{} 1 |
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414 (truncate -1.2) |
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415 @result{} -1 |
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416 (truncate -1.7) |
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417 @result{} -1 |
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418 @end example |
6510 | 419 @end defun |
420 | |
421 @defun floor number &optional divisor | |
422 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward | |
423 (towards negative infinity). | |
424 | |
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425 If @var{divisor} is specified, this uses the kind of division |
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426 operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward. |
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427 |
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428 @example |
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429 (floor 1.2) |
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430 @result{} 1 |
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431 (floor 1.7) |
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432 @result{} 1 |
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433 (floor -1.2) |
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434 @result{} -2 |
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435 (floor -1.7) |
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436 @result{} -2 |
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437 (floor 5.99 3) |
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438 @result{} 1 |
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439 @end example |
6510 | 440 @end defun |
441 | |
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442 @defun ceiling number &optional divisor |
6510 | 443 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward |
444 (towards positive infinity). | |
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445 |
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446 @example |
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447 (ceiling 1.2) |
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448 @result{} 2 |
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449 (ceiling 1.7) |
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450 @result{} 2 |
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451 (ceiling -1.2) |
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452 @result{} -1 |
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453 (ceiling -1.7) |
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454 @result{} -1 |
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455 @end example |
6510 | 456 @end defun |
457 | |
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458 @defun round number &optional divisor |
6510 | 459 This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the |
12098 | 460 nearest integer. Rounding a value equidistant between two integers |
461 may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer, | |
462 depending on your machine. | |
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463 |
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464 @example |
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465 (round 1.2) |
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466 @result{} 1 |
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467 (round 1.7) |
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468 @result{} 2 |
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469 (round -1.2) |
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470 @result{} -1 |
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471 (round -1.7) |
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472 @result{} -2 |
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473 @end example |
6510 | 474 @end defun |
475 | |
476 @node Arithmetic Operations | |
477 @section Arithmetic Operations | |
478 | |
479 Emacs Lisp provides the traditional four arithmetic operations: | |
480 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Remainder and modulus | |
481 functions supplement the division functions. The functions to | |
482 add or subtract 1 are provided because they are traditional in Lisp and | |
483 commonly used. | |
484 | |
485 All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value | |
486 if any argument is floating. | |
487 | |
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488 It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions |
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489 do not check for overflow. Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} may evaluate to |
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490 @minus{}268435456, depending on your hardware. |
6510 | 491 |
492 @defun 1+ number-or-marker | |
493 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1. | |
494 For example, | |
495 | |
496 @example | |
497 (setq foo 4) | |
498 @result{} 4 | |
499 (1+ foo) | |
500 @result{} 5 | |
501 @end example | |
502 | |
12098 | 503 This function is not analogous to the C operator @code{++}---it does not |
504 increment a variable. It just computes a sum. Thus, if we continue, | |
6510 | 505 |
506 @example | |
507 foo | |
508 @result{} 4 | |
509 @end example | |
510 | |
511 If you want to increment the variable, you must use @code{setq}, | |
512 like this: | |
513 | |
514 @example | |
515 (setq foo (1+ foo)) | |
516 @result{} 5 | |
517 @end example | |
518 @end defun | |
519 | |
520 @defun 1- number-or-marker | |
521 This function returns @var{number-or-marker} minus 1. | |
522 @end defun | |
523 | |
524 @defun + &rest numbers-or-markers | |
525 This function adds its arguments together. When given no arguments, | |
12098 | 526 @code{+} returns 0. |
6510 | 527 |
528 @example | |
529 (+) | |
530 @result{} 0 | |
531 (+ 1) | |
532 @result{} 1 | |
533 (+ 1 2 3 4) | |
534 @result{} 10 | |
535 @end example | |
536 @end defun | |
537 | |
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538 @defun - &optional number-or-marker &rest more-numbers-or-markers |
6510 | 539 The @code{-} function serves two purposes: negation and subtraction. |
540 When @code{-} has a single argument, the value is the negative of the | |
541 argument. When there are multiple arguments, @code{-} subtracts each of | |
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542 the @var{more-numbers-or-markers} from @var{number-or-marker}, |
12098 | 543 cumulatively. If there are no arguments, the result is 0. |
6510 | 544 |
545 @example | |
546 (- 10 1 2 3 4) | |
547 @result{} 0 | |
548 (- 10) | |
549 @result{} -10 | |
550 (-) | |
551 @result{} 0 | |
552 @end example | |
553 @end defun | |
554 | |
555 @defun * &rest numbers-or-markers | |
556 This function multiplies its arguments together, and returns the | |
12098 | 557 product. When given no arguments, @code{*} returns 1. |
6510 | 558 |
559 @example | |
560 (*) | |
561 @result{} 1 | |
562 (* 1) | |
563 @result{} 1 | |
564 (* 1 2 3 4) | |
565 @result{} 24 | |
566 @end example | |
567 @end defun | |
568 | |
569 @defun / dividend divisor &rest divisors | |
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570 This function divides @var{dividend} by @var{divisor} and returns the |
6510 | 571 quotient. If there are additional arguments @var{divisors}, then it |
572 divides @var{dividend} by each divisor in turn. Each argument may be a | |
573 number or a marker. | |
574 | |
575 If all the arguments are integers, then the result is an integer too. | |
576 This means the result has to be rounded. On most machines, the result | |
577 is rounded towards zero after each division, but some machines may round | |
578 differently with negative arguments. This is because the Lisp function | |
579 @code{/} is implemented using the C division operator, which also | |
580 permits machine-dependent rounding. As a practical matter, all known | |
581 machines round in the standard fashion. | |
582 | |
583 @cindex @code{arith-error} in division | |
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584 If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled. |
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585 (@xref{Errors}.) Floating point division by zero returns either |
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586 infinity or a NaN if your machine supports @acronym{IEEE} floating point; |
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587 otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error. |
6510 | 588 |
589 @example | |
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590 @group |
6510 | 591 (/ 6 2) |
592 @result{} 3 | |
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593 @end group |
6510 | 594 (/ 5 2) |
595 @result{} 2 | |
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596 (/ 5.0 2) |
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597 @result{} 2.5 |
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598 (/ 5 2.0) |
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599 @result{} 2.5 |
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600 (/ 5.0 2.0) |
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601 @result{} 2.5 |
6510 | 602 (/ 25 3 2) |
603 @result{} 4 | |
604 (/ -17 6) | |
605 @result{} -2 | |
606 @end example | |
607 | |
608 The result of @code{(/ -17 6)} could in principle be -3 on some | |
609 machines. | |
610 @end defun | |
611 | |
612 @defun % dividend divisor | |
613 @cindex remainder | |
614 This function returns the integer remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
615 by @var{divisor}. The arguments must be integers or markers. | |
616 | |
617 For negative arguments, the remainder is in principle machine-dependent | |
618 since the quotient is; but in practice, all known machines behave alike. | |
619 | |
620 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
621 | |
622 @example | |
623 (% 9 4) | |
624 @result{} 1 | |
625 (% -9 4) | |
626 @result{} -1 | |
627 (% 9 -4) | |
628 @result{} 1 | |
629 (% -9 -4) | |
630 @result{} -1 | |
631 @end example | |
632 | |
633 For any two integers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
634 | |
635 @example | |
636 @group | |
637 (+ (% @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
638 (* (/ @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
639 @end group | |
640 @end example | |
641 | |
642 @noindent | |
643 always equals @var{dividend}. | |
644 @end defun | |
645 | |
646 @defun mod dividend divisor | |
647 @cindex modulus | |
648 This function returns the value of @var{dividend} modulo @var{divisor}; | |
649 in other words, the remainder after division of @var{dividend} | |
650 by @var{divisor}, but with the same sign as @var{divisor}. | |
651 The arguments must be numbers or markers. | |
652 | |
653 Unlike @code{%}, @code{mod} returns a well-defined result for negative | |
654 arguments. It also permits floating point arguments; it rounds the | |
655 quotient downward (towards minus infinity) to an integer, and uses that | |
656 quotient to compute the remainder. | |
657 | |
658 An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0. | |
659 | |
660 @example | |
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661 @group |
6510 | 662 (mod 9 4) |
663 @result{} 1 | |
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664 @end group |
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665 @group |
6510 | 666 (mod -9 4) |
667 @result{} 3 | |
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668 @end group |
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669 @group |
6510 | 670 (mod 9 -4) |
671 @result{} -3 | |
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672 @end group |
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673 @group |
6510 | 674 (mod -9 -4) |
675 @result{} -1 | |
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676 @end group |
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677 @group |
6510 | 678 (mod 5.5 2.5) |
679 @result{} .5 | |
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680 @end group |
6510 | 681 @end example |
682 | |
683 For any two numbers @var{dividend} and @var{divisor}, | |
684 | |
685 @example | |
686 @group | |
687 (+ (mod @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) | |
688 (* (floor @var{dividend} @var{divisor}) @var{divisor})) | |
689 @end group | |
690 @end example | |
691 | |
692 @noindent | |
12098 | 693 always equals @var{dividend}, subject to rounding error if either |
694 argument is floating point. For @code{floor}, see @ref{Numeric | |
695 Conversions}. | |
6510 | 696 @end defun |
697 | |
698 @node Rounding Operations | |
699 @section Rounding Operations | |
700 @cindex rounding without conversion | |
701 | |
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702 The functions @code{ffloor}, @code{fceiling}, @code{fround}, and |
6510 | 703 @code{ftruncate} take a floating point argument and return a floating |
704 point result whose value is a nearby integer. @code{ffloor} returns the | |
8017 | 705 nearest integer below; @code{fceiling}, the nearest integer above; |
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706 @code{ftruncate}, the nearest integer in the direction towards zero; |
6510 | 707 @code{fround}, the nearest integer. |
708 | |
709 @defun ffloor float | |
710 This function rounds @var{float} to the next lower integral value, and | |
711 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
712 @end defun | |
713 | |
8017 | 714 @defun fceiling float |
6510 | 715 This function rounds @var{float} to the next higher integral value, and |
716 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
717 @end defun | |
718 | |
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719 @defun ftruncate float |
6510 | 720 This function rounds @var{float} towards zero to an integral value, and |
721 returns that value as a floating point number. | |
722 @end defun | |
723 | |
724 @defun fround float | |
725 This function rounds @var{float} to the nearest integral value, | |
726 and returns that value as a floating point number. | |
727 @end defun | |
728 | |
729 @node Bitwise Operations | |
730 @section Bitwise Operations on Integers | |
731 | |
732 In a computer, an integer is represented as a binary number, a | |
733 sequence of @dfn{bits} (digits which are either zero or one). A bitwise | |
734 operation acts on the individual bits of such a sequence. For example, | |
735 @dfn{shifting} moves the whole sequence left or right one or more places, | |
736 reproducing the same pattern ``moved over''. | |
737 | |
738 The bitwise operations in Emacs Lisp apply only to integers. | |
739 | |
740 @defun lsh integer1 count | |
741 @cindex logical shift | |
742 @code{lsh}, which is an abbreviation for @dfn{logical shift}, shifts the | |
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743 bits in @var{integer1} to the left @var{count} places, or to the right |
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744 if @var{count} is negative, bringing zeros into the vacated bits. If |
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745 @var{count} is negative, @code{lsh} shifts zeros into the leftmost |
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746 (most-significant) bit, producing a positive result even if |
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747 @var{integer1} is negative. Contrast this with @code{ash}, below. |
6510 | 748 |
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749 Here are two examples of @code{lsh}, shifting a pattern of bits one |
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750 place to the left. We show only the low-order eight bits of the binary |
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751 pattern; the rest are all zero. |
6510 | 752 |
753 @example | |
754 @group | |
755 (lsh 5 1) | |
756 @result{} 10 | |
757 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 10.} | |
758 00000101 @result{} 00001010 | |
759 | |
760 (lsh 7 1) | |
761 @result{} 14 | |
762 ;; @r{Decimal 7 becomes decimal 14.} | |
763 00000111 @result{} 00001110 | |
764 @end group | |
765 @end example | |
766 | |
767 @noindent | |
768 As the examples illustrate, shifting the pattern of bits one place to | |
769 the left produces a number that is twice the value of the previous | |
770 number. | |
771 | |
12098 | 772 Shifting a pattern of bits two places to the left produces results |
773 like this (with 8-bit binary numbers): | |
774 | |
775 @example | |
776 @group | |
777 (lsh 3 2) | |
778 @result{} 12 | |
779 ;; @r{Decimal 3 becomes decimal 12.} | |
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780 00000011 @result{} 00001100 |
12098 | 781 @end group |
782 @end example | |
783 | |
784 On the other hand, shifting one place to the right looks like this: | |
785 | |
786 @example | |
787 @group | |
788 (lsh 6 -1) | |
789 @result{} 3 | |
790 ;; @r{Decimal 6 becomes decimal 3.} | |
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791 00000110 @result{} 00000011 |
12098 | 792 @end group |
793 | |
794 @group | |
795 (lsh 5 -1) | |
796 @result{} 2 | |
797 ;; @r{Decimal 5 becomes decimal 2.} | |
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798 00000101 @result{} 00000010 |
12098 | 799 @end group |
800 @end example | |
801 | |
802 @noindent | |
803 As the example illustrates, shifting one place to the right divides the | |
804 value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward. | |
805 | |
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806 The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does |
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807 not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits |
12067 | 808 and change the sign of the number. For example, left shifting |
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809 268,435,455 produces @minus{}2 on a 29-bit machine: |
6510 | 810 |
811 @example | |
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812 (lsh 268435455 1) ; @r{left shift} |
6510 | 813 @result{} -2 |
814 @end example | |
815 | |
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816 In binary, in the 29-bit implementation, the argument looks like this: |
6510 | 817 |
818 @example | |
819 @group | |
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820 ;; @r{Decimal 268,435,455} |
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821 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 |
6510 | 822 @end group |
823 @end example | |
824 | |
825 @noindent | |
826 which becomes the following when left shifted: | |
827 | |
828 @example | |
829 @group | |
830 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2} | |
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831 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 |
6510 | 832 @end group |
833 @end example | |
834 @end defun | |
835 | |
836 @defun ash integer1 count | |
837 @cindex arithmetic shift | |
838 @code{ash} (@dfn{arithmetic shift}) shifts the bits in @var{integer1} | |
839 to the left @var{count} places, or to the right if @var{count} | |
840 is negative. | |
841 | |
842 @code{ash} gives the same results as @code{lsh} except when | |
843 @var{integer1} and @var{count} are both negative. In that case, | |
12098 | 844 @code{ash} puts ones in the empty bit positions on the left, while |
845 @code{lsh} puts zeros in those bit positions. | |
6510 | 846 |
847 Thus, with @code{ash}, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right | |
848 looks like this: | |
849 | |
850 @example | |
851 @group | |
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852 (ash -6 -1) @result{} -3 |
6510 | 853 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.} |
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854 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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855 @result{} |
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856 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 857 @end group |
858 @end example | |
859 | |
860 In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with | |
861 @code{lsh} looks like this: | |
862 | |
863 @example | |
864 @group | |
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865 (lsh -6 -1) @result{} 268435453 |
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866 ;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 268,435,453.} |
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867 1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010 |
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868 @result{} |
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869 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101 |
6510 | 870 @end group |
871 @end example | |
872 | |
873 Here are other examples: | |
874 | |
875 @c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format! XDVI shows problem | |
876 @c with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92 | |
877 @smallexample | |
878 @group | |
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879 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 880 |
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881 (lsh 5 2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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882 @result{} 20 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 0100} |
6510 | 883 @end group |
884 @group | |
885 (ash 5 2) | |
886 @result{} 20 | |
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887 (lsh -5 2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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888 @result{} -20 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110 1100} |
6510 | 889 (ash -5 2) |
890 @result{} -20 | |
891 @end group | |
892 @group | |
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893 (lsh 5 -2) ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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894 @result{} 1 ; = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001} |
6510 | 895 @end group |
896 @group | |
897 (ash 5 -2) | |
898 @result{} 1 | |
899 @end group | |
900 @group | |
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901 (lsh -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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902 @result{} 134217726 ; = @r{0 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 903 @end group |
904 @group | |
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905 (ash -5 -2) ; -5 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1011} |
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906 @result{} -2 ; = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110} |
6510 | 907 @end group |
908 @end smallexample | |
909 @end defun | |
910 | |
911 @defun logand &rest ints-or-markers | |
912 @cindex logical and | |
913 @cindex bitwise and | |
914 This function returns the ``logical and'' of the arguments: the | |
915 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is | |
916 set in all the arguments. (``Set'' means that the value of the bit is 1 | |
917 rather than 0.) | |
918 | |
919 For example, using 4-bit binary numbers, the ``logical and'' of 13 and | |
920 12 is 12: 1101 combined with 1100 produces 1100. | |
921 In both the binary numbers, the leftmost two bits are set (i.e., they | |
922 are 1's), so the leftmost two bits of the returned value are set. | |
923 However, for the rightmost two bits, each is zero in at least one of | |
924 the arguments, so the rightmost two bits of the returned value are 0's. | |
925 | |
926 @noindent | |
927 Therefore, | |
928 | |
929 @example | |
930 @group | |
931 (logand 13 12) | |
932 @result{} 12 | |
933 @end group | |
934 @end example | |
935 | |
936 If @code{logand} is not passed any argument, it returns a value of | |
937 @minus{}1. This number is an identity element for @code{logand} | |
938 because its binary representation consists entirely of ones. If | |
939 @code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
940 | |
941 @smallexample | |
942 @group | |
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943 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 944 |
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945 (logand 14 13) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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946 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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947 @result{} 12 ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
6510 | 948 @end group |
949 | |
950 @group | |
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951 (logand 14 13 4) ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
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952 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
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953 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
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954 @result{} 4 ; 4 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0100} |
6510 | 955 @end group |
956 | |
957 @group | |
958 (logand) | |
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959 @result{} -1 ; -1 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111} |
6510 | 960 @end group |
961 @end smallexample | |
962 @end defun | |
963 | |
964 @defun logior &rest ints-or-markers | |
965 @cindex logical inclusive or | |
966 @cindex bitwise or | |
967 This function returns the ``inclusive or'' of its arguments: the @var{n}th bit | |
968 is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is set in at least | |
969 one of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the result is zero, | |
970 which is an identity element for this operation. If @code{logior} is | |
971 passed just one argument, it returns that argument. | |
972 | |
973 @smallexample | |
974 @group | |
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975 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 976 |
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977 (logior 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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978 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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979 @result{} 13 ; 13 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101} |
6510 | 980 @end group |
981 | |
982 @group | |
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983 (logior 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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984 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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985 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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986 @result{} 15 ; 15 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111} |
6510 | 987 @end group |
988 @end smallexample | |
989 @end defun | |
990 | |
991 @defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers | |
992 @cindex bitwise exclusive or | |
993 @cindex logical exclusive or | |
994 This function returns the ``exclusive or'' of its arguments: the | |
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995 @var{n}th bit is set in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is |
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996 set in an odd number of the arguments. If there are no arguments, the |
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997 result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation. If |
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998 @code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument. |
6510 | 999 |
1000 @smallexample | |
1001 @group | |
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1002 ; @r{ 29-bit binary values} |
6510 | 1003 |
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1004 (logxor 12 5) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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1005 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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1006 @result{} 9 ; 9 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1001} |
6510 | 1007 @end group |
1008 | |
1009 @group | |
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1010 (logxor 12 5 7) ; 12 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100} |
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1011 ; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
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1012 ; 7 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111} |
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1013 @result{} 14 ; 14 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1110} |
6510 | 1014 @end group |
1015 @end smallexample | |
1016 @end defun | |
1017 | |
1018 @defun lognot integer | |
1019 @cindex logical not | |
1020 @cindex bitwise not | |
1021 This function returns the logical complement of its argument: the @var{n}th | |
1022 bit is one in the result if, and only if, the @var{n}th bit is zero in | |
1023 @var{integer}, and vice-versa. | |
1024 | |
1025 @example | |
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1026 (lognot 5) |
6510 | 1027 @result{} -6 |
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1028 ;; 5 = @r{0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0101} |
6510 | 1029 ;; @r{becomes} |
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1030 ;; -6 = @r{1 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010} |
6510 | 1031 @end example |
1032 @end defun | |
1033 | |
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1034 @node Math Functions |
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1035 @section Standard Mathematical Functions |
6510 | 1036 @cindex transcendental functions |
1037 @cindex mathematical functions | |
1038 | |
21682
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1039 These mathematical functions allow integers as well as floating point |
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|
1040 numbers as arguments. |
6510 | 1041 |
1042 @defun sin arg | |
1043 @defunx cos arg | |
1044 @defunx tan arg | |
1045 These are the ordinary trigonometric functions, with argument measured | |
1046 in radians. | |
1047 @end defun | |
1048 | |
1049 @defun asin arg | |
25454 | 1050 The value of @code{(asin @var{arg})} is a number between |
27193 | 1051 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1052 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1053 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1054 @tex |
25751
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|
1055 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1056 @end tex |
1057 and | |
27193 | 1058 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1059 pi/2 |
27193 | 1060 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1061 @tex |
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1062 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1063 @end tex |
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1064 (inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out of |
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1065 range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1066 @end defun |
1067 | |
1068 @defun acos arg | |
25454 | 1069 The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and |
27193 | 1070 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1071 pi |
27193 | 1072 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1073 @tex |
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1074 @math{\pi} |
25454 | 1075 @end tex |
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1076 (inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out |
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1077 of range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1078 @end defun |
1079 | |
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1080 @defun atan y &optional x |
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1081 The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between |
27193 | 1082 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1083 @minus{}pi/2 |
27193 | 1084 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1085 @tex |
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1086 @math{-\pi/2} |
25454 | 1087 @end tex |
1088 and | |
27193 | 1089 @ifnottex |
25454 | 1090 pi/2 |
27193 | 1091 @end ifnottex |
25454 | 1092 @tex |
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1093 @math{\pi/2} |
25454 | 1094 @end tex |
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1095 (exclusive) whose tangent is @var{y}. If the optional second |
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1096 argument @var{x} is given, the value of @code{(atan y x)} is the |
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1097 angle in radians between the vector @code{[@var{x}, @var{y}]} and the |
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1098 @code{X} axis. |
6510 | 1099 @end defun |
1100 | |
1101 @defun exp arg | |
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1102 This is the exponential function; it returns |
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1103 @tex |
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1104 @math{e} |
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1105 @end tex |
27193 | 1106 @ifnottex |
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1107 @i{e} |
27193 | 1108 @end ifnottex |
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1109 to the power @var{arg}. |
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1110 @tex |
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1111 @math{e} |
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1112 @end tex |
27193 | 1113 @ifnottex |
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1114 @i{e} |
27193 | 1115 @end ifnottex |
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1116 is a fundamental mathematical constant also called the base of natural |
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1117 logarithms. |
6510 | 1118 @end defun |
1119 | |
1120 @defun log arg &optional base | |
1121 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base @var{base}. | |
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1122 If you don't specify @var{base}, the base |
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1123 @tex |
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1124 @math{e} |
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1125 @end tex |
27193 | 1126 @ifnottex |
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1127 @i{e} |
27193 | 1128 @end ifnottex |
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1129 is used. If @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} |
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1130 error. |
6510 | 1131 @end defun |
1132 | |
1133 @ignore | |
1134 @defun expm1 arg | |
1135 This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1136 accurate than that when @var{arg} is negative and @code{(exp @var{arg})} | |
1137 is close to 1. | |
1138 @end defun | |
1139 | |
1140 @defun log1p arg | |
1141 This function returns @code{(log (1+ @var{arg}))}, but it is more | |
1142 accurate than that when @var{arg} is so small that adding 1 to it would | |
1143 lose accuracy. | |
1144 @end defun | |
1145 @end ignore | |
1146 | |
1147 @defun log10 arg | |
1148 This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10. If | |
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1149 @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
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1150 @code{(log10 @var{x})} @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least |
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1151 approximately. |
6510 | 1152 @end defun |
1153 | |
1154 @defun expt x y | |
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1155 This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}. If both |
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1156 arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an |
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1157 integer; in this case, overflow causes truncation, so watch out. |
6510 | 1158 @end defun |
1159 | |
1160 @defun sqrt arg | |
1161 This returns the square root of @var{arg}. If @var{arg} is negative, | |
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1162 it signals a @code{domain-error} error. |
6510 | 1163 @end defun |
1164 | |
1165 @node Random Numbers | |
1166 @section Random Numbers | |
1167 @cindex random numbers | |
1168 | |
1169 A deterministic computer program cannot generate true random numbers. | |
1170 For most purposes, @dfn{pseudo-random numbers} suffice. A series of | |
1171 pseudo-random numbers is generated in a deterministic fashion. The | |
1172 numbers are not truly random, but they have certain properties that | |
1173 mimic a random series. For example, all possible values occur equally | |
1174 often in a pseudo-random series. | |
1175 | |
1176 In Emacs, pseudo-random numbers are generated from a ``seed'' number. | |
1177 Starting from any given seed, the @code{random} function always | |
1178 generates the same sequence of numbers. Emacs always starts with the | |
1179 same seed value, so the sequence of values of @code{random} is actually | |
1180 the same in each Emacs run! For example, in one operating system, the | |
1181 first call to @code{(random)} after you start Emacs always returns | |
1182 -1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030. This | |
1183 repeatability is helpful for debugging. | |
1184 | |
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1185 If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute |
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1186 @code{(random t)}. This chooses a new seed based on the current time of |
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1187 day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number. |
6510 | 1188 |
1189 @defun random &optional limit | |
1190 This function returns a pseudo-random integer. Repeated calls return a | |
1191 series of pseudo-random integers. | |
1192 | |
12067 | 1193 If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be |
12098 | 1194 nonnegative and less than @var{limit}. |
6510 | 1195 |
1196 If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the | |
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1197 current time of day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number. |
6510 | 1198 @c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage! |
1199 | |
1200 On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result | |
1201 of @code{random}. On other machines, the result can never be larger | |
1202 than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum. | |
1203 @end defun | |
52401 | 1204 |
1205 @ignore | |
1206 arch-tag: 574e8dd2-d513-4616-9844-c9a27869782e | |
1207 @end ignore |