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annotate lispref/control.texi @ 21009:f3149849a051
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author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
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date | Sun, 01 Mar 1998 22:22:58 +0000 |
parents | 66d807bdc5b4 |
children | 90da2489c498 |
rev | line source |
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6453 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6453 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/control | |
6 @node Control Structures, Variables, Evaluation, Top | |
7 @chapter Control Structures | |
8 @cindex special forms for control structures | |
9 @cindex control structures | |
10 | |
11 A Lisp program consists of expressions or @dfn{forms} (@pxref{Forms}). | |
12 We control the order of execution of the forms by enclosing them in | |
13 @dfn{control structures}. Control structures are special forms which | |
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14 control when, whether, or how many times to execute the forms they |
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15 contain. |
6453 | 16 |
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17 The simplest order of execution is sequential execution: first form |
6453 | 18 @var{a}, then form @var{b}, and so on. This is what happens when you |
19 write several forms in succession in the body of a function, or at top | |
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20 level in a file of Lisp code---the forms are executed in the order |
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21 written. We call this @dfn{textual order}. For example, if a function |
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22 body consists of two forms @var{a} and @var{b}, evaluation of the |
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23 function evaluates first @var{a} and then @var{b}, and the function's |
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24 value is the value of @var{b}. |
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25 |
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26 Explicit control structures make possible an order of execution other |
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27 than sequential. |
6453 | 28 |
29 Emacs Lisp provides several kinds of control structure, including | |
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30 other varieties of sequencing, conditionals, iteration, and (controlled) |
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31 jumps---all discussed below. The built-in control structures are |
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32 special forms since their subforms are not necessarily evaluated or not |
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33 evaluated sequentially. You can use macros to define your own control |
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34 structure constructs (@pxref{Macros}). |
6453 | 35 |
36 @menu | |
37 * Sequencing:: Evaluation in textual order. | |
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38 * Conditionals:: @code{if}, @code{cond}, @code{when}, @code{unless}. |
6453 | 39 * Combining Conditions:: @code{and}, @code{or}, @code{not}. |
40 * Iteration:: @code{while} loops. | |
41 * Nonlocal Exits:: Jumping out of a sequence. | |
42 @end menu | |
43 | |
44 @node Sequencing | |
45 @section Sequencing | |
46 | |
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47 Evaluating forms in the order they appear is the most common way |
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48 control passes from one form to another. In some contexts, such as in a |
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49 function body, this happens automatically. Elsewhere you must use a |
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50 control structure construct to do this: @code{progn}, the simplest |
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51 control construct of Lisp. |
6453 | 52 |
53 A @code{progn} special form looks like this: | |
54 | |
55 @example | |
56 @group | |
57 (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} @dots{}) | |
58 @end group | |
59 @end example | |
60 | |
61 @noindent | |
62 and it says to execute the forms @var{a}, @var{b}, @var{c} and so on, in | |
63 that order. These forms are called the body of the @code{progn} form. | |
64 The value of the last form in the body becomes the value of the entire | |
65 @code{progn}. | |
66 | |
67 @cindex implicit @code{progn} | |
68 In the early days of Lisp, @code{progn} was the only way to execute | |
69 two or more forms in succession and use the value of the last of them. | |
70 But programmers found they often needed to use a @code{progn} in the | |
71 body of a function, where (at that time) only one form was allowed. So | |
72 the body of a function was made into an ``implicit @code{progn}'': | |
73 several forms are allowed just as in the body of an actual @code{progn}. | |
74 Many other control structures likewise contain an implicit @code{progn}. | |
75 As a result, @code{progn} is not used as often as it used to be. It is | |
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76 needed now most often inside an @code{unwind-protect}, @code{and}, |
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77 @code{or}, or in the @var{then}-part of an @code{if}. |
6453 | 78 |
79 @defspec progn forms@dots{} | |
80 This special form evaluates all of the @var{forms}, in textual | |
81 order, returning the result of the final form. | |
82 | |
83 @example | |
84 @group | |
85 (progn (print "The first form") | |
86 (print "The second form") | |
87 (print "The third form")) | |
88 @print{} "The first form" | |
89 @print{} "The second form" | |
90 @print{} "The third form" | |
91 @result{} "The third form" | |
92 @end group | |
93 @end example | |
94 @end defspec | |
95 | |
96 Two other control constructs likewise evaluate a series of forms but return | |
97 a different value: | |
98 | |
99 @defspec prog1 form1 forms@dots{} | |
100 This special form evaluates @var{form1} and all of the @var{forms}, in | |
101 textual order, returning the result of @var{form1}. | |
102 | |
103 @example | |
104 @group | |
105 (prog1 (print "The first form") | |
106 (print "The second form") | |
107 (print "The third form")) | |
108 @print{} "The first form" | |
109 @print{} "The second form" | |
110 @print{} "The third form" | |
111 @result{} "The first form" | |
112 @end group | |
113 @end example | |
114 | |
115 Here is a way to remove the first element from a list in the variable | |
116 @code{x}, then return the value of that former element: | |
117 | |
118 @example | |
119 (prog1 (car x) (setq x (cdr x))) | |
120 @end example | |
121 @end defspec | |
122 | |
123 @defspec prog2 form1 form2 forms@dots{} | |
124 This special form evaluates @var{form1}, @var{form2}, and all of the | |
125 following @var{forms}, in textual order, returning the result of | |
126 @var{form2}. | |
127 | |
128 @example | |
129 @group | |
130 (prog2 (print "The first form") | |
131 (print "The second form") | |
132 (print "The third form")) | |
133 @print{} "The first form" | |
134 @print{} "The second form" | |
135 @print{} "The third form" | |
136 @result{} "The second form" | |
137 @end group | |
138 @end example | |
139 @end defspec | |
140 | |
141 @node Conditionals | |
142 @section Conditionals | |
143 @cindex conditional evaluation | |
144 | |
145 Conditional control structures choose among alternatives. Emacs Lisp | |
16850 | 146 has four conditional forms: @code{if}, which is much the same as in |
147 other languages; @code{when} and @code{unless}, which are variants of | |
148 @code{if}; and @code{cond}, which is a generalized case statement. | |
6453 | 149 |
150 @defspec if condition then-form else-forms@dots{} | |
151 @code{if} chooses between the @var{then-form} and the @var{else-forms} | |
152 based on the value of @var{condition}. If the evaluated @var{condition} is | |
153 non-@code{nil}, @var{then-form} is evaluated and the result returned. | |
154 Otherwise, the @var{else-forms} are evaluated in textual order, and the | |
155 value of the last one is returned. (The @var{else} part of @code{if} is | |
156 an example of an implicit @code{progn}. @xref{Sequencing}.) | |
157 | |
158 If @var{condition} has the value @code{nil}, and no @var{else-forms} are | |
159 given, @code{if} returns @code{nil}. | |
160 | |
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161 @code{if} is a special form because the branch that is not selected is |
6453 | 162 never evaluated---it is ignored. Thus, in the example below, |
163 @code{true} is not printed because @code{print} is never called. | |
164 | |
165 @example | |
166 @group | |
167 (if nil | |
168 (print 'true) | |
169 'very-false) | |
170 @result{} very-false | |
171 @end group | |
172 @end example | |
173 @end defspec | |
174 | |
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175 @tindex when |
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176 @defmac when condition then-forms@dots{} |
16850 | 177 This is a variant of @code{if} where there are no @var{else-forms}, |
178 and possibly several @var{then-forms}. In particular, | |
179 | |
180 @example | |
181 (when @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
182 @end example | |
183 | |
184 @noindent | |
185 is entirely equivalent to | |
186 | |
187 @example | |
188 (if @var{condition} (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) nil) | |
189 @end example | |
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190 @end defmac |
16850 | 191 |
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192 @tindex condition |
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193 @defmac unless condition forms@dots{} |
16850 | 194 This is a variant of @code{if} where there is no @var{then-form}: |
195 | |
196 @example | |
197 (unless @var{condition} @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
198 @end example | |
199 | |
200 @noindent | |
201 is entirely equivalent to | |
202 | |
203 @example | |
204 (if @var{condition} nil | |
205 @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
206 @end example | |
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207 @end defmac |
16850 | 208 |
6453 | 209 @defspec cond clause@dots{} |
210 @code{cond} chooses among an arbitrary number of alternatives. Each | |
211 @var{clause} in the @code{cond} must be a list. The @sc{car} of this | |
212 list is the @var{condition}; the remaining elements, if any, the | |
213 @var{body-forms}. Thus, a clause looks like this: | |
214 | |
215 @example | |
216 (@var{condition} @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
217 @end example | |
218 | |
219 @code{cond} tries the clauses in textual order, by evaluating the | |
220 @var{condition} of each clause. If the value of @var{condition} is | |
221 non-@code{nil}, the clause ``succeeds''; then @code{cond} evaluates its | |
222 @var{body-forms}, and the value of the last of @var{body-forms} becomes | |
223 the value of the @code{cond}. The remaining clauses are ignored. | |
224 | |
225 If the value of @var{condition} is @code{nil}, the clause ``fails'', so | |
226 the @code{cond} moves on to the following clause, trying its | |
227 @var{condition}. | |
228 | |
229 If every @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil}, so that every clause | |
230 fails, @code{cond} returns @code{nil}. | |
231 | |
232 A clause may also look like this: | |
233 | |
234 @example | |
235 (@var{condition}) | |
236 @end example | |
237 | |
238 @noindent | |
239 Then, if @var{condition} is non-@code{nil} when tested, the value of | |
240 @var{condition} becomes the value of the @code{cond} form. | |
241 | |
242 The following example has four clauses, which test for the cases where | |
243 the value of @code{x} is a number, string, buffer and symbol, | |
244 respectively: | |
245 | |
246 @example | |
247 @group | |
248 (cond ((numberp x) x) | |
249 ((stringp x) x) | |
250 ((bufferp x) | |
251 (setq temporary-hack x) ; @r{multiple body-forms} | |
252 (buffer-name x)) ; @r{in one clause} | |
253 ((symbolp x) (symbol-value x))) | |
254 @end group | |
255 @end example | |
256 | |
257 Often we want to execute the last clause whenever none of the previous | |
258 clauses was successful. To do this, we use @code{t} as the | |
259 @var{condition} of the last clause, like this: @code{(t | |
260 @var{body-forms})}. The form @code{t} evaluates to @code{t}, which is | |
261 never @code{nil}, so this clause never fails, provided the @code{cond} | |
262 gets to it at all. | |
263 | |
264 For example, | |
265 | |
266 @example | |
267 @group | |
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268 (cond ((eq a 'hack) 'foo) |
6453 | 269 (t "default")) |
270 @result{} "default" | |
271 @end group | |
272 @end example | |
273 | |
274 @noindent | |
275 This expression is a @code{cond} which returns @code{foo} if the value | |
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276 of @code{a} is @code{hack}, and returns the string @code{"default"} otherwise. |
6453 | 277 @end defspec |
278 | |
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279 Any conditional construct can be expressed with @code{cond} or with |
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280 @code{if}. Therefore, the choice between them is a matter of style. |
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281 For example: |
6453 | 282 |
283 @example | |
284 @group | |
285 (if @var{a} @var{b} @var{c}) | |
286 @equiv{} | |
287 (cond (@var{a} @var{b}) (t @var{c})) | |
288 @end group | |
289 @end example | |
290 | |
291 @node Combining Conditions | |
292 @section Constructs for Combining Conditions | |
293 | |
294 This section describes three constructs that are often used together | |
295 with @code{if} and @code{cond} to express complicated conditions. The | |
296 constructs @code{and} and @code{or} can also be used individually as | |
297 kinds of multiple conditional constructs. | |
298 | |
299 @defun not condition | |
300 This function tests for the falsehood of @var{condition}. It returns | |
301 @code{t} if @var{condition} is @code{nil}, and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
302 The function @code{not} is identical to @code{null}, and we recommend | |
303 using the name @code{null} if you are testing for an empty list. | |
304 @end defun | |
305 | |
306 @defspec and conditions@dots{} | |
307 The @code{and} special form tests whether all the @var{conditions} are | |
308 true. It works by evaluating the @var{conditions} one by one in the | |
309 order written. | |
310 | |
311 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to @code{nil}, then the result | |
312 of the @code{and} must be @code{nil} regardless of the remaining | |
313 @var{conditions}; so @code{and} returns right away, ignoring the | |
314 remaining @var{conditions}. | |
315 | |
316 If all the @var{conditions} turn out non-@code{nil}, then the value of | |
317 the last of them becomes the value of the @code{and} form. | |
318 | |
319 Here is an example. The first condition returns the integer 1, which is | |
320 not @code{nil}. Similarly, the second condition returns the integer 2, | |
321 which is not @code{nil}. The third condition is @code{nil}, so the | |
322 remaining condition is never evaluated. | |
323 | |
324 @example | |
325 @group | |
326 (and (print 1) (print 2) nil (print 3)) | |
327 @print{} 1 | |
328 @print{} 2 | |
329 @result{} nil | |
330 @end group | |
331 @end example | |
332 | |
333 Here is a more realistic example of using @code{and}: | |
334 | |
335 @example | |
336 @group | |
337 (if (and (consp foo) (eq (car foo) 'x)) | |
338 (message "foo is a list starting with x")) | |
339 @end group | |
340 @end example | |
341 | |
342 @noindent | |
343 Note that @code{(car foo)} is not executed if @code{(consp foo)} returns | |
344 @code{nil}, thus avoiding an error. | |
345 | |
346 @code{and} can be expressed in terms of either @code{if} or @code{cond}. | |
347 For example: | |
348 | |
349 @example | |
350 @group | |
351 (and @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3}) | |
352 @equiv{} | |
353 (if @var{arg1} (if @var{arg2} @var{arg3})) | |
354 @equiv{} | |
355 (cond (@var{arg1} (cond (@var{arg2} @var{arg3})))) | |
356 @end group | |
357 @end example | |
358 @end defspec | |
359 | |
360 @defspec or conditions@dots{} | |
361 The @code{or} special form tests whether at least one of the | |
362 @var{conditions} is true. It works by evaluating all the | |
363 @var{conditions} one by one in the order written. | |
364 | |
365 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to a non-@code{nil} value, then | |
366 the result of the @code{or} must be non-@code{nil}; so @code{or} returns | |
367 right away, ignoring the remaining @var{conditions}. The value it | |
368 returns is the non-@code{nil} value of the condition just evaluated. | |
369 | |
370 If all the @var{conditions} turn out @code{nil}, then the @code{or} | |
371 expression returns @code{nil}. | |
372 | |
373 For example, this expression tests whether @code{x} is either 0 or | |
374 @code{nil}: | |
375 | |
376 @example | |
377 (or (eq x nil) (eq x 0)) | |
378 @end example | |
379 | |
380 Like the @code{and} construct, @code{or} can be written in terms of | |
381 @code{cond}. For example: | |
382 | |
383 @example | |
384 @group | |
385 (or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3}) | |
386 @equiv{} | |
387 (cond (@var{arg1}) | |
388 (@var{arg2}) | |
389 (@var{arg3})) | |
390 @end group | |
391 @end example | |
392 | |
393 You could almost write @code{or} in terms of @code{if}, but not quite: | |
394 | |
395 @example | |
396 @group | |
397 (if @var{arg1} @var{arg1} | |
398 (if @var{arg2} @var{arg2} | |
399 @var{arg3})) | |
400 @end group | |
401 @end example | |
402 | |
403 @noindent | |
404 This is not completely equivalent because it can evaluate @var{arg1} or | |
405 @var{arg2} twice. By contrast, @code{(or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} | |
406 @var{arg3})} never evaluates any argument more than once. | |
407 @end defspec | |
408 | |
409 @node Iteration | |
410 @section Iteration | |
411 @cindex iteration | |
412 @cindex recursion | |
413 | |
414 Iteration means executing part of a program repetitively. For | |
415 example, you might want to repeat some computation once for each element | |
416 of a list, or once for each integer from 0 to @var{n}. You can do this | |
417 in Emacs Lisp with the special form @code{while}: | |
418 | |
419 @defspec while condition forms@dots{} | |
420 @code{while} first evaluates @var{condition}. If the result is | |
421 non-@code{nil}, it evaluates @var{forms} in textual order. Then it | |
422 reevaluates @var{condition}, and if the result is non-@code{nil}, it | |
423 evaluates @var{forms} again. This process repeats until @var{condition} | |
424 evaluates to @code{nil}. | |
425 | |
426 There is no limit on the number of iterations that may occur. The loop | |
427 will continue until either @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil} or | |
428 until an error or @code{throw} jumps out of it (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}). | |
429 | |
430 The value of a @code{while} form is always @code{nil}. | |
431 | |
432 @example | |
433 @group | |
434 (setq num 0) | |
435 @result{} 0 | |
436 @end group | |
437 @group | |
438 (while (< num 4) | |
439 (princ (format "Iteration %d." num)) | |
440 (setq num (1+ num))) | |
441 @print{} Iteration 0. | |
442 @print{} Iteration 1. | |
443 @print{} Iteration 2. | |
444 @print{} Iteration 3. | |
445 @result{} nil | |
446 @end group | |
447 @end example | |
448 | |
449 If you would like to execute something on each iteration before the | |
450 end-test, put it together with the end-test in a @code{progn} as the | |
451 first argument of @code{while}, as shown here: | |
452 | |
453 @example | |
454 @group | |
455 (while (progn | |
456 (forward-line 1) | |
457 (not (looking-at "^$")))) | |
458 @end group | |
459 @end example | |
460 | |
461 @noindent | |
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462 This moves forward one line and continues moving by lines until it |
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463 reaches an empty. It is unusual in that the @code{while} has no body, |
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464 just the end test (which also does the real work of moving point). |
6453 | 465 @end defspec |
466 | |
467 @node Nonlocal Exits | |
468 @section Nonlocal Exits | |
469 @cindex nonlocal exits | |
470 | |
471 A @dfn{nonlocal exit} is a transfer of control from one point in a | |
472 program to another remote point. Nonlocal exits can occur in Emacs Lisp | |
473 as a result of errors; you can also use them under explicit control. | |
474 Nonlocal exits unbind all variable bindings made by the constructs being | |
475 exited. | |
476 | |
477 @menu | |
478 * Catch and Throw:: Nonlocal exits for the program's own purposes. | |
479 * Examples of Catch:: Showing how such nonlocal exits can be written. | |
480 * Errors:: How errors are signaled and handled. | |
481 * Cleanups:: Arranging to run a cleanup form if an error happens. | |
482 @end menu | |
483 | |
484 @node Catch and Throw | |
485 @subsection Explicit Nonlocal Exits: @code{catch} and @code{throw} | |
486 | |
487 Most control constructs affect only the flow of control within the | |
488 construct itself. The function @code{throw} is the exception to this | |
489 rule of normal program execution: it performs a nonlocal exit on | |
490 request. (There are other exceptions, but they are for error handling | |
491 only.) @code{throw} is used inside a @code{catch}, and jumps back to | |
492 that @code{catch}. For example: | |
493 | |
494 @example | |
495 @group | |
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496 (defun foo-outer () |
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497 (catch 'foo |
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498 (foo-inner))) |
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499 |
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500 (defun foo-inner () |
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501 @dots{} |
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502 (if x |
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503 (throw 'foo t)) |
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504 @dots{}) |
6453 | 505 @end group |
506 @end example | |
507 | |
508 @noindent | |
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509 The @code{throw} form, if executed, transfers control straight back to |
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510 the corresponding @code{catch}, which returns immediately. The code |
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511 following the @code{throw} is not executed. The second argument of |
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512 @code{throw} is used as the return value of the @code{catch}. |
6453 | 513 |
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514 The function @code{throw} finds the matching @code{catch} based on the |
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515 first argument: it searches for a @code{catch} whose first argument is |
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516 @code{eq} to the one specified in the @code{throw}. If there is more |
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517 than one applicable @code{catch}, the innermost one takes precedence. |
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518 Thus, in the above example, the @code{throw} specifies @code{foo}, and |
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519 the @code{catch} in @code{foo-outer} specifies the same symbol, so that |
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520 @code{catch} is the applicable one (assuming there is no other matching |
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521 @code{catch} in between). |
6453 | 522 |
523 Executing @code{throw} exits all Lisp constructs up to the matching | |
524 @code{catch}, including function calls. When binding constructs such as | |
525 @code{let} or function calls are exited in this way, the bindings are | |
526 unbound, just as they are when these constructs exit normally | |
527 (@pxref{Local Variables}). Likewise, @code{throw} restores the buffer | |
528 and position saved by @code{save-excursion} (@pxref{Excursions}), and | |
529 the narrowing status saved by @code{save-restriction} and the window | |
530 selection saved by @code{save-window-excursion} (@pxref{Window | |
531 Configurations}). It also runs any cleanups established with the | |
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532 @code{unwind-protect} special form when it exits that form |
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533 (@pxref{Cleanups}). |
6453 | 534 |
535 The @code{throw} need not appear lexically within the @code{catch} | |
536 that it jumps to. It can equally well be called from another function | |
537 called within the @code{catch}. As long as the @code{throw} takes place | |
538 chronologically after entry to the @code{catch}, and chronologically | |
539 before exit from it, it has access to that @code{catch}. This is why | |
540 @code{throw} can be used in commands such as @code{exit-recursive-edit} | |
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541 that throw back to the editor command loop (@pxref{Recursive Editing}). |
6453 | 542 |
543 @cindex CL note---only @code{throw} in Emacs | |
544 @quotation | |
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545 @b{Common Lisp note:} Most other versions of Lisp, including Common Lisp, |
6453 | 546 have several ways of transferring control nonsequentially: @code{return}, |
547 @code{return-from}, and @code{go}, for example. Emacs Lisp has only | |
548 @code{throw}. | |
549 @end quotation | |
550 | |
551 @defspec catch tag body@dots{} | |
552 @cindex tag on run time stack | |
553 @code{catch} establishes a return point for the @code{throw} function. The | |
554 return point is distinguished from other such return points by @var{tag}, | |
555 which may be any Lisp object. The argument @var{tag} is evaluated normally | |
556 before the return point is established. | |
557 | |
558 With the return point in effect, @code{catch} evaluates the forms of the | |
559 @var{body} in textual order. If the forms execute normally, without | |
560 error or nonlocal exit, the value of the last body form is returned from | |
561 the @code{catch}. | |
562 | |
563 If a @code{throw} is done within @var{body} specifying the same value | |
564 @var{tag}, the @code{catch} exits immediately; the value it returns is | |
565 whatever was specified as the second argument of @code{throw}. | |
566 @end defspec | |
567 | |
568 @defun throw tag value | |
569 The purpose of @code{throw} is to return from a return point previously | |
570 established with @code{catch}. The argument @var{tag} is used to choose | |
571 among the various existing return points; it must be @code{eq} to the value | |
572 specified in the @code{catch}. If multiple return points match @var{tag}, | |
573 the innermost one is used. | |
574 | |
575 The argument @var{value} is used as the value to return from that | |
576 @code{catch}. | |
577 | |
578 @kindex no-catch | |
579 If no return point is in effect with tag @var{tag}, then a @code{no-catch} | |
580 error is signaled with data @code{(@var{tag} @var{value})}. | |
581 @end defun | |
582 | |
583 @node Examples of Catch | |
584 @subsection Examples of @code{catch} and @code{throw} | |
585 | |
586 One way to use @code{catch} and @code{throw} is to exit from a doubly | |
587 nested loop. (In most languages, this would be done with a ``go to''.) | |
588 Here we compute @code{(foo @var{i} @var{j})} for @var{i} and @var{j} | |
589 varying from 0 to 9: | |
590 | |
591 @example | |
592 @group | |
593 (defun search-foo () | |
594 (catch 'loop | |
595 (let ((i 0)) | |
596 (while (< i 10) | |
597 (let ((j 0)) | |
598 (while (< j 10) | |
599 (if (foo i j) | |
600 (throw 'loop (list i j))) | |
601 (setq j (1+ j)))) | |
602 (setq i (1+ i)))))) | |
603 @end group | |
604 @end example | |
605 | |
606 @noindent | |
607 If @code{foo} ever returns non-@code{nil}, we stop immediately and return a | |
608 list of @var{i} and @var{j}. If @code{foo} always returns @code{nil}, the | |
609 @code{catch} returns normally, and the value is @code{nil}, since that | |
610 is the result of the @code{while}. | |
611 | |
612 Here are two tricky examples, slightly different, showing two | |
613 return points at once. First, two return points with the same tag, | |
614 @code{hack}: | |
615 | |
616 @example | |
617 @group | |
618 (defun catch2 (tag) | |
619 (catch tag | |
620 (throw 'hack 'yes))) | |
621 @result{} catch2 | |
622 @end group | |
623 | |
624 @group | |
625 (catch 'hack | |
626 (print (catch2 'hack)) | |
627 'no) | |
628 @print{} yes | |
629 @result{} no | |
630 @end group | |
631 @end example | |
632 | |
633 @noindent | |
634 Since both return points have tags that match the @code{throw}, it goes to | |
635 the inner one, the one established in @code{catch2}. Therefore, | |
636 @code{catch2} returns normally with value @code{yes}, and this value is | |
637 printed. Finally the second body form in the outer @code{catch}, which is | |
638 @code{'no}, is evaluated and returned from the outer @code{catch}. | |
639 | |
640 Now let's change the argument given to @code{catch2}: | |
641 | |
642 @example | |
643 @group | |
644 (defun catch2 (tag) | |
645 (catch tag | |
646 (throw 'hack 'yes))) | |
647 @result{} catch2 | |
648 @end group | |
649 | |
650 @group | |
651 (catch 'hack | |
652 (print (catch2 'quux)) | |
653 'no) | |
654 @result{} yes | |
655 @end group | |
656 @end example | |
657 | |
658 @noindent | |
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659 We still have two return points, but this time only the outer one has |
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660 the tag @code{hack}; the inner one has the tag @code{quux} instead. |
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661 Therefore, @code{throw} makes the outer @code{catch} return the value |
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662 @code{yes}. The function @code{print} is never called, and the |
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663 body-form @code{'no} is never evaluated. |
6453 | 664 |
665 @node Errors | |
666 @subsection Errors | |
667 @cindex errors | |
668 | |
669 When Emacs Lisp attempts to evaluate a form that, for some reason, | |
670 cannot be evaluated, it @dfn{signals} an @dfn{error}. | |
671 | |
672 When an error is signaled, Emacs's default reaction is to print an | |
673 error message and terminate execution of the current command. This is | |
674 the right thing to do in most cases, such as if you type @kbd{C-f} at | |
675 the end of the buffer. | |
676 | |
677 In complicated programs, simple termination may not be what you want. | |
678 For example, the program may have made temporary changes in data | |
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679 structures, or created temporary buffers that should be deleted before |
6453 | 680 the program is finished. In such cases, you would use |
681 @code{unwind-protect} to establish @dfn{cleanup expressions} to be | |
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682 evaluated in case of error. (@xref{Cleanups}.) Occasionally, you may |
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683 wish the program to continue execution despite an error in a subroutine. |
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684 In these cases, you would use @code{condition-case} to establish |
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685 @dfn{error handlers} to recover control in case of error. |
6453 | 686 |
687 Resist the temptation to use error handling to transfer control from | |
688 one part of the program to another; use @code{catch} and @code{throw} | |
689 instead. @xref{Catch and Throw}. | |
690 | |
691 @menu | |
692 * Signaling Errors:: How to report an error. | |
693 * Processing of Errors:: What Emacs does when you report an error. | |
694 * Handling Errors:: How you can trap errors and continue execution. | |
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695 * Error Symbols:: How errors are classified for trapping them. |
6453 | 696 @end menu |
697 | |
698 @node Signaling Errors | |
699 @subsubsection How to Signal an Error | |
700 @cindex signaling errors | |
701 | |
702 Most errors are signaled ``automatically'' within Lisp primitives | |
703 which you call for other purposes, such as if you try to take the | |
704 @sc{car} of an integer or move forward a character at the end of the | |
705 buffer; you can also signal errors explicitly with the functions | |
706 @code{error} and @code{signal}. | |
707 | |
708 Quitting, which happens when the user types @kbd{C-g}, is not | |
709 considered an error, but it is handled almost like an error. | |
710 @xref{Quitting}. | |
711 | |
712 @defun error format-string &rest args | |
713 This function signals an error with an error message constructed by | |
714 applying @code{format} (@pxref{String Conversion}) to | |
715 @var{format-string} and @var{args}. | |
716 | |
717 These examples show typical uses of @code{error}: | |
718 | |
719 @example | |
720 @group | |
721 (error "You have committed an error. | |
722 Try something else.") | |
723 @error{} You have committed an error. | |
724 Try something else. | |
725 @end group | |
726 | |
727 @group | |
728 (error "You have committed %d errors." 10) | |
729 @error{} You have committed 10 errors. | |
730 @end group | |
731 @end example | |
732 | |
733 @code{error} works by calling @code{signal} with two arguments: the | |
734 error symbol @code{error}, and a list containing the string returned by | |
735 @code{format}. | |
736 | |
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737 @strong{Warning:} If you want to use your own string as an error message |
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738 verbatim, don't just write @code{(error @var{string})}. If @var{string} |
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739 contains @samp{%}, it will be interpreted as a format specifier, with |
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740 undesirable results. Instead, use @code{(error "%s" @var{string})}. |
6453 | 741 @end defun |
742 | |
743 @defun signal error-symbol data | |
744 This function signals an error named by @var{error-symbol}. The | |
745 argument @var{data} is a list of additional Lisp objects relevant to the | |
746 circumstances of the error. | |
747 | |
748 The argument @var{error-symbol} must be an @dfn{error symbol}---a symbol | |
749 bearing a property @code{error-conditions} whose value is a list of | |
750 condition names. This is how Emacs Lisp classifies different sorts of | |
751 errors. | |
752 | |
753 The number and significance of the objects in @var{data} depends on | |
754 @var{error-symbol}. For example, with a @code{wrong-type-arg} error, | |
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755 there are two objects in the list: a predicate that describes the type |
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756 that was expected, and the object that failed to fit that type. |
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757 @xref{Error Symbols}, for a description of error symbols. |
6453 | 758 |
759 Both @var{error-symbol} and @var{data} are available to any error | |
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760 handlers that handle the error: @code{condition-case} binds a local |
6453 | 761 variable to a list of the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} .@: |
762 @var{data})} (@pxref{Handling Errors}). If the error is not handled, | |
763 these two values are used in printing the error message. | |
764 | |
765 The function @code{signal} never returns (though in older Emacs versions | |
766 it could sometimes return). | |
767 | |
768 @smallexample | |
769 @group | |
770 (signal 'wrong-number-of-arguments '(x y)) | |
771 @error{} Wrong number of arguments: x, y | |
772 @end group | |
773 | |
774 @group | |
775 (signal 'no-such-error '("My unknown error condition.")) | |
776 @error{} peculiar error: "My unknown error condition." | |
777 @end group | |
778 @end smallexample | |
779 @end defun | |
780 | |
781 @cindex CL note---no continuable errors | |
782 @quotation | |
783 @b{Common Lisp note:} Emacs Lisp has nothing like the Common Lisp | |
784 concept of continuable errors. | |
785 @end quotation | |
786 | |
787 @node Processing of Errors | |
788 @subsubsection How Emacs Processes Errors | |
789 | |
790 When an error is signaled, @code{signal} searches for an active | |
791 @dfn{handler} for the error. A handler is a sequence of Lisp | |
792 expressions designated to be executed if an error happens in part of the | |
793 Lisp program. If the error has an applicable handler, the handler is | |
794 executed, and control resumes following the handler. The handler | |
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795 executes in the environment of the @code{condition-case} that |
6453 | 796 established it; all functions called within that @code{condition-case} |
797 have already been exited, and the handler cannot return to them. | |
798 | |
799 If there is no applicable handler for the error, the current command is | |
800 terminated and control returns to the editor command loop, because the | |
801 command loop has an implicit handler for all kinds of errors. The | |
802 command loop's handler uses the error symbol and associated data to | |
803 print an error message. | |
804 | |
805 @cindex @code{debug-on-error} use | |
806 An error that has no explicit handler may call the Lisp debugger. The | |
807 debugger is enabled if the variable @code{debug-on-error} (@pxref{Error | |
808 Debugging}) is non-@code{nil}. Unlike error handlers, the debugger runs | |
809 in the environment of the error, so that you can examine values of | |
810 variables precisely as they were at the time of the error. | |
811 | |
812 @node Handling Errors | |
813 @subsubsection Writing Code to Handle Errors | |
814 @cindex error handler | |
815 @cindex handling errors | |
816 | |
817 The usual effect of signaling an error is to terminate the command | |
818 that is running and return immediately to the Emacs editor command loop. | |
819 You can arrange to trap errors occurring in a part of your program by | |
820 establishing an error handler, with the special form | |
821 @code{condition-case}. A simple example looks like this: | |
822 | |
823 @example | |
824 @group | |
825 (condition-case nil | |
826 (delete-file filename) | |
827 (error nil)) | |
828 @end group | |
829 @end example | |
830 | |
831 @noindent | |
832 This deletes the file named @var{filename}, catching any error and | |
833 returning @code{nil} if an error occurs. | |
834 | |
835 The second argument of @code{condition-case} is called the | |
836 @dfn{protected form}. (In the example above, the protected form is a | |
837 call to @code{delete-file}.) The error handlers go into effect when | |
838 this form begins execution and are deactivated when this form returns. | |
839 They remain in effect for all the intervening time. In particular, they | |
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840 are in effect during the execution of functions called by this form, in |
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841 their subroutines, and so on. This is a good thing, since, strictly |
6453 | 842 speaking, errors can be signaled only by Lisp primitives (including |
843 @code{signal} and @code{error}) called by the protected form, not by the | |
844 protected form itself. | |
845 | |
846 The arguments after the protected form are handlers. Each handler | |
847 lists one or more @dfn{condition names} (which are symbols) to specify | |
848 which errors it will handle. The error symbol specified when an error | |
849 is signaled also defines a list of condition names. A handler applies | |
850 to an error if they have any condition names in common. In the example | |
851 above, there is one handler, and it specifies one condition name, | |
852 @code{error}, which covers all errors. | |
853 | |
854 The search for an applicable handler checks all the established handlers | |
855 starting with the most recently established one. Thus, if two nested | |
856 @code{condition-case} forms offer to handle the same error, the inner of | |
857 the two will actually handle it. | |
858 | |
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859 If an error is handled by some @code{condition-case} form, this |
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860 ordinarily prevents the debugger from being run, even if |
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861 @code{debug-on-error} says this error should invoke the debugger. |
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862 @xref{Error Debugging}. If you want to be able to debug errors that are |
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863 caught by a @code{condition-case}, set the variable |
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864 @code{debug-on-signal} to a non-@code{nil} value. |
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865 |
6453 | 866 When an error is handled, control returns to the handler. Before this |
867 happens, Emacs unbinds all variable bindings made by binding constructs | |
868 that are being exited and executes the cleanups of all | |
869 @code{unwind-protect} forms that are exited. Once control arrives at | |
870 the handler, the body of the handler is executed. | |
871 | |
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872 After execution of the handler body, execution returns from the |
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873 @code{condition-case} form. Because the protected form is exited |
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874 completely before execution of the handler, the handler cannot resume |
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875 execution at the point of the error, nor can it examine variable |
6453 | 876 bindings that were made within the protected form. All it can do is |
877 clean up and proceed. | |
878 | |
879 @code{condition-case} is often used to trap errors that are | |
880 predictable, such as failure to open a file in a call to | |
881 @code{insert-file-contents}. It is also used to trap errors that are | |
882 totally unpredictable, such as when the program evaluates an expression | |
883 read from the user. | |
884 | |
885 Error signaling and handling have some resemblance to @code{throw} and | |
886 @code{catch}, but they are entirely separate facilities. An error | |
887 cannot be caught by a @code{catch}, and a @code{throw} cannot be handled | |
888 by an error handler (though using @code{throw} when there is no suitable | |
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889 @code{catch} signals an error that can be handled). |
6453 | 890 |
891 @defspec condition-case var protected-form handlers@dots{} | |
892 This special form establishes the error handlers @var{handlers} around | |
893 the execution of @var{protected-form}. If @var{protected-form} executes | |
894 without error, the value it returns becomes the value of the | |
895 @code{condition-case} form; in this case, the @code{condition-case} has | |
896 no effect. The @code{condition-case} form makes a difference when an | |
897 error occurs during @var{protected-form}. | |
898 | |
899 Each of the @var{handlers} is a list of the form @code{(@var{conditions} | |
900 @var{body}@dots{})}. Here @var{conditions} is an error condition name | |
901 to be handled, or a list of condition names; @var{body} is one or more | |
902 Lisp expressions to be executed when this handler handles an error. | |
903 Here are examples of handlers: | |
904 | |
905 @smallexample | |
906 @group | |
907 (error nil) | |
908 | |
909 (arith-error (message "Division by zero")) | |
910 | |
911 ((arith-error file-error) | |
912 (message | |
913 "Either division by zero or failure to open a file")) | |
914 @end group | |
915 @end smallexample | |
916 | |
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917 Each error that occurs has an @dfn{error symbol} that describes what |
6453 | 918 kind of error it is. The @code{error-conditions} property of this |
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919 symbol is a list of condition names (@pxref{Error Symbols}). Emacs |
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920 searches all the active @code{condition-case} forms for a handler that |
6453 | 921 specifies one or more of these condition names; the innermost matching |
922 @code{condition-case} handles the error. Within this | |
923 @code{condition-case}, the first applicable handler handles the error. | |
924 | |
925 After executing the body of the handler, the @code{condition-case} | |
926 returns normally, using the value of the last form in the handler body | |
927 as the overall value. | |
928 | |
15725 | 929 @cindex error description |
6453 | 930 The argument @var{var} is a variable. @code{condition-case} does not |
931 bind this variable when executing the @var{protected-form}, only when it | |
15725 | 932 handles an error. At that time, it binds @var{var} locally to an |
933 @dfn{error description}, which is a list giving the particulars of the | |
934 error. The error description has the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} | |
935 . @var{data})}. The handler can refer to this list to decide what to | |
936 do. For example, if the error is for failure opening a file, the file | |
937 name is the second element of @var{data}---the third element of the | |
938 error description. | |
6453 | 939 |
940 If @var{var} is @code{nil}, that means no variable is bound. Then the | |
941 error symbol and associated data are not available to the handler. | |
942 @end defspec | |
943 | |
15725 | 944 @defun error-message-string error-description |
945 This function returns the error message string for a given error | |
946 descriptor. It is useful if you want to handle an error by printing the | |
947 usual error message for that error. | |
948 @end defun | |
949 | |
6453 | 950 @cindex @code{arith-error} example |
951 Here is an example of using @code{condition-case} to handle the error | |
15725 | 952 that results from dividing by zero. The handler displays the error |
953 message (but without a beep), then returns a very large number. | |
6453 | 954 |
955 @smallexample | |
956 @group | |
957 (defun safe-divide (dividend divisor) | |
958 (condition-case err | |
959 ;; @r{Protected form.} | |
960 (/ dividend divisor) | |
961 ;; @r{The handler.} | |
962 (arith-error ; @r{Condition.} | |
15725 | 963 ;; @r{Display the usual message for this error.} |
964 (message "%s" (error-message-string err)) | |
6453 | 965 1000000))) |
966 @result{} safe-divide | |
967 @end group | |
968 | |
969 @group | |
970 (safe-divide 5 0) | |
971 @print{} Arithmetic error: (arith-error) | |
972 @result{} 1000000 | |
973 @end group | |
974 @end smallexample | |
975 | |
976 @noindent | |
977 The handler specifies condition name @code{arith-error} so that it will handle only division-by-zero errors. Other kinds of errors will not be handled, at least not by this @code{condition-case}. Thus, | |
978 | |
979 @smallexample | |
980 @group | |
981 (safe-divide nil 3) | |
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982 @error{} Wrong type argument: number-or-marker-p, nil |
6453 | 983 @end group |
984 @end smallexample | |
985 | |
986 Here is a @code{condition-case} that catches all kinds of errors, | |
987 including those signaled with @code{error}: | |
988 | |
989 @smallexample | |
990 @group | |
991 (setq baz 34) | |
992 @result{} 34 | |
993 @end group | |
994 | |
995 @group | |
996 (condition-case err | |
997 (if (eq baz 35) | |
998 t | |
999 ;; @r{This is a call to the function @code{error}.} | |
12098 | 1000 (error "Rats! The variable %s was %s, not 35" 'baz baz)) |
6453 | 1001 ;; @r{This is the handler; it is not a form.} |
1002 (error (princ (format "The error was: %s" err)) | |
1003 2)) | |
12098 | 1004 @print{} The error was: (error "Rats! The variable baz was 34, not 35") |
6453 | 1005 @result{} 2 |
1006 @end group | |
1007 @end smallexample | |
1008 | |
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1009 @node Error Symbols |
6453 | 1010 @subsubsection Error Symbols and Condition Names |
1011 @cindex error symbol | |
1012 @cindex error name | |
1013 @cindex condition name | |
1014 @cindex user-defined error | |
1015 @kindex error-conditions | |
1016 | |
1017 When you signal an error, you specify an @dfn{error symbol} to specify | |
1018 the kind of error you have in mind. Each error has one and only one | |
1019 error symbol to categorize it. This is the finest classification of | |
1020 errors defined by the Emacs Lisp language. | |
1021 | |
1022 These narrow classifications are grouped into a hierarchy of wider | |
1023 classes called @dfn{error conditions}, identified by @dfn{condition | |
1024 names}. The narrowest such classes belong to the error symbols | |
1025 themselves: each error symbol is also a condition name. There are also | |
1026 condition names for more extensive classes, up to the condition name | |
1027 @code{error} which takes in all kinds of errors. Thus, each error has | |
1028 one or more condition names: @code{error}, the error symbol if that | |
1029 is distinct from @code{error}, and perhaps some intermediate | |
1030 classifications. | |
1031 | |
1032 In order for a symbol to be an error symbol, it must have an | |
1033 @code{error-conditions} property which gives a list of condition names. | |
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1034 This list defines the conditions that this kind of error belongs to. |
6453 | 1035 (The error symbol itself, and the symbol @code{error}, should always be |
1036 members of this list.) Thus, the hierarchy of condition names is | |
1037 defined by the @code{error-conditions} properties of the error symbols. | |
1038 | |
1039 In addition to the @code{error-conditions} list, the error symbol | |
1040 should have an @code{error-message} property whose value is a string to | |
1041 be printed when that error is signaled but not handled. If the | |
1042 @code{error-message} property exists, but is not a string, the error | |
1043 message @samp{peculiar error} is used. | |
1044 @cindex peculiar error | |
1045 | |
1046 Here is how we define a new error symbol, @code{new-error}: | |
1047 | |
1048 @example | |
1049 @group | |
1050 (put 'new-error | |
1051 'error-conditions | |
1052 '(error my-own-errors new-error)) | |
1053 @result{} (error my-own-errors new-error) | |
1054 @end group | |
1055 @group | |
1056 (put 'new-error 'error-message "A new error") | |
1057 @result{} "A new error" | |
1058 @end group | |
1059 @end example | |
1060 | |
1061 @noindent | |
1062 This error has three condition names: @code{new-error}, the narrowest | |
1063 classification; @code{my-own-errors}, which we imagine is a wider | |
1064 classification; and @code{error}, which is the widest of all. | |
12098 | 1065 |
1066 The error string should start with a capital letter but it should | |
1067 not end with a period. This is for consistency with the rest of Emacs. | |
6453 | 1068 |
1069 Naturally, Emacs will never signal @code{new-error} on its own; only | |
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1070 an explicit call to @code{signal} (@pxref{Signaling Errors}) in your |
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1071 code can do this: |
6453 | 1072 |
1073 @example | |
1074 @group | |
1075 (signal 'new-error '(x y)) | |
1076 @error{} A new error: x, y | |
1077 @end group | |
1078 @end example | |
1079 | |
1080 This error can be handled through any of the three condition names. | |
1081 This example handles @code{new-error} and any other errors in the class | |
1082 @code{my-own-errors}: | |
1083 | |
1084 @example | |
1085 @group | |
1086 (condition-case foo | |
1087 (bar nil t) | |
1088 (my-own-errors nil)) | |
1089 @end group | |
1090 @end example | |
1091 | |
1092 The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition | |
1093 names---the names used to match errors with handlers. An error symbol | |
1094 serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message | |
1095 and list of condition names. It would be cumbersome to give | |
1096 @code{signal} a list of condition names rather than one error symbol. | |
1097 | |
1098 By contrast, using only error symbols without condition names would | |
1099 seriously decrease the power of @code{condition-case}. Condition names | |
1100 make it possible to categorize errors at various levels of generality | |
1101 when you write an error handler. Using error symbols alone would | |
1102 eliminate all but the narrowest level of classification. | |
1103 | |
1104 @xref{Standard Errors}, for a list of all the standard error symbols | |
1105 and their conditions. | |
1106 | |
1107 @node Cleanups | |
1108 @subsection Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits | |
1109 | |
1110 The @code{unwind-protect} construct is essential whenever you | |
1111 temporarily put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits | |
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1112 you to make the data consistent again in the event of an error or throw. |
6453 | 1113 |
1114 @defspec unwind-protect body cleanup-forms@dots{} | |
1115 @cindex cleanup forms | |
1116 @cindex protected forms | |
1117 @cindex error cleanup | |
1118 @cindex unwinding | |
1119 @code{unwind-protect} executes the @var{body} with a guarantee that the | |
1120 @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated if control leaves @var{body}, no | |
1121 matter how that happens. The @var{body} may complete normally, or | |
1122 execute a @code{throw} out of the @code{unwind-protect}, or cause an | |
1123 error; in all cases, the @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated. | |
1124 | |
1125 If the @var{body} forms finish normally, @code{unwind-protect} returns | |
1126 the value of the last @var{body} form, after it evaluates the | |
1127 @var{cleanup-forms}. If the @var{body} forms do not finish, | |
1128 @code{unwind-protect} does not return any value in the normal sense. | |
1129 | |
1130 Only the @var{body} is actually protected by the @code{unwind-protect}. | |
1131 If any of the @var{cleanup-forms} themselves exits nonlocally (e.g., via | |
1132 a @code{throw} or an error), @code{unwind-protect} is @emph{not} | |
1133 guaranteed to evaluate the rest of them. If the failure of one of the | |
1134 @var{cleanup-forms} has the potential to cause trouble, then protect it | |
1135 with another @code{unwind-protect} around that form. | |
1136 | |
1137 The number of currently active @code{unwind-protect} forms counts, | |
1138 together with the number of local variable bindings, against the limit | |
1139 @code{max-specpdl-size} (@pxref{Local Variables}). | |
1140 @end defspec | |
1141 | |
1142 For example, here we make an invisible buffer for temporary use, and | |
1143 make sure to kill it before finishing: | |
1144 | |
1145 @smallexample | |
1146 @group | |
1147 (save-excursion | |
1148 (let ((buffer (get-buffer-create " *temp*"))) | |
1149 (set-buffer buffer) | |
1150 (unwind-protect | |
1151 @var{body} | |
1152 (kill-buffer buffer)))) | |
1153 @end group | |
1154 @end smallexample | |
1155 | |
1156 @noindent | |
1157 You might think that we could just as well write @code{(kill-buffer | |
1158 (current-buffer))} and dispense with the variable @code{buffer}. | |
1159 However, the way shown above is safer, if @var{body} happens to get an | |
1160 error after switching to a different buffer! (Alternatively, you could | |
1161 write another @code{save-excursion} around the body, to ensure that the | |
1162 temporary buffer becomes current in time to kill it.) | |
1163 | |
1164 @findex ftp-login | |
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1165 Here is an actual example taken from the file @file{ftp.el}. It |
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1166 creates a process (@pxref{Processes}) to try to establish a connection |
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1167 to a remote machine. As the function @code{ftp-login} is highly |
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1168 susceptible to numerous problems that the writer of the function cannot |
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1169 anticipate, it is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the |
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1170 process in the event of failure. Otherwise, Emacs might fill up with |
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1171 useless subprocesses. |
6453 | 1172 |
1173 @smallexample | |
1174 @group | |
1175 (let ((win nil)) | |
1176 (unwind-protect | |
1177 (progn | |
1178 (setq process (ftp-setup-buffer host file)) | |
1179 (if (setq win (ftp-login process host user password)) | |
1180 (message "Logged in") | |
1181 (error "Ftp login failed"))) | |
1182 (or win (and process (delete-process process))))) | |
1183 @end group | |
1184 @end smallexample | |
1185 | |
1186 This example actually has a small bug: if the user types @kbd{C-g} to | |
1187 quit, and the quit happens immediately after the function | |
1188 @code{ftp-setup-buffer} returns but before the variable @code{process} is | |
1189 set, the process will not be killed. There is no easy way to fix this bug, | |
1190 but at least it is very unlikely. | |
1191 | |
1192 Here is another example which uses @code{unwind-protect} to make sure | |
1193 to kill a temporary buffer. In this example, the value returned by | |
1194 @code{unwind-protect} is used. | |
1195 | |
7734 | 1196 @smallexample |
6453 | 1197 (defun shell-command-string (cmd) |
1198 "Return the output of the shell command CMD, as a string." | |
1199 (save-excursion | |
1200 (set-buffer (generate-new-buffer " OS*cmd")) | |
1201 (shell-command cmd t) | |
1202 (unwind-protect | |
1203 (buffer-string) | |
1204 (kill-buffer (current-buffer))))) | |
7734 | 1205 @end smallexample |