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annotate lispref/macros.texi @ 61931:f3e1b2ceffd2
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author | Lute Kamstra <lute@gnu.org> |
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date | Fri, 29 Apr 2005 13:12:26 +0000 |
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6558 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6558 | 4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
5 @setfilename ../info/macros | |
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6 @node Macros, Customization, Functions, Top |
6558 | 7 @chapter Macros |
8 @cindex macros | |
9 | |
10 @dfn{Macros} enable you to define new control constructs and other | |
11 language features. A macro is defined much like a function, but instead | |
12 of telling how to compute a value, it tells how to compute another Lisp | |
13 expression which will in turn compute the value. We call this | |
14 expression the @dfn{expansion} of the macro. | |
15 | |
16 Macros can do this because they operate on the unevaluated expressions | |
17 for the arguments, not on the argument values as functions do. They can | |
18 therefore construct an expansion containing these argument expressions | |
19 or parts of them. | |
20 | |
21 If you are using a macro to do something an ordinary function could | |
22 do, just for the sake of speed, consider using an inline function | |
23 instead. @xref{Inline Functions}. | |
24 | |
25 @menu | |
26 * Simple Macro:: A basic example. | |
27 * Expansion:: How, when and why macros are expanded. | |
28 * Compiling Macros:: How macros are expanded by the compiler. | |
29 * Defining Macros:: How to write a macro definition. | |
30 * Backquote:: Easier construction of list structure. | |
31 * Problems with Macros:: Don't evaluate the macro arguments too many times. | |
32 Don't hide the user's variables. | |
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33 * Indenting Macros:: Specifying how to indent macro calls. |
6558 | 34 @end menu |
35 | |
36 @node Simple Macro | |
37 @section A Simple Example of a Macro | |
38 | |
39 Suppose we would like to define a Lisp construct to increment a | |
40 variable value, much like the @code{++} operator in C. We would like to | |
41 write @code{(inc x)} and have the effect of @code{(setq x (1+ x))}. | |
42 Here's a macro definition that does the job: | |
43 | |
44 @findex inc | |
45 @example | |
46 @group | |
47 (defmacro inc (var) | |
48 (list 'setq var (list '1+ var))) | |
49 @end group | |
50 @end example | |
51 | |
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52 When this is called with @code{(inc x)}, the argument @var{var} is the |
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53 symbol @code{x}---@emph{not} the @emph{value} of @code{x}, as it would |
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54 be in a function. The body of the macro uses this to construct the |
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55 expansion, which is @code{(setq x (1+ x))}. Once the macro definition |
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56 returns this expansion, Lisp proceeds to evaluate it, thus incrementing |
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57 @code{x}. |
6558 | 58 |
59 @node Expansion | |
60 @section Expansion of a Macro Call | |
61 @cindex expansion of macros | |
62 @cindex macro call | |
63 | |
64 A macro call looks just like a function call in that it is a list which | |
65 starts with the name of the macro. The rest of the elements of the list | |
66 are the arguments of the macro. | |
67 | |
68 Evaluation of the macro call begins like evaluation of a function call | |
69 except for one crucial difference: the macro arguments are the actual | |
70 expressions appearing in the macro call. They are not evaluated before | |
71 they are given to the macro definition. By contrast, the arguments of a | |
72 function are results of evaluating the elements of the function call | |
73 list. | |
74 | |
75 Having obtained the arguments, Lisp invokes the macro definition just | |
76 as a function is invoked. The argument variables of the macro are bound | |
77 to the argument values from the macro call, or to a list of them in the | |
78 case of a @code{&rest} argument. And the macro body executes and | |
79 returns its value just as a function body does. | |
80 | |
81 The second crucial difference between macros and functions is that the | |
82 value returned by the macro body is not the value of the macro call. | |
83 Instead, it is an alternate expression for computing that value, also | |
84 known as the @dfn{expansion} of the macro. The Lisp interpreter | |
85 proceeds to evaluate the expansion as soon as it comes back from the | |
86 macro. | |
87 | |
88 Since the expansion is evaluated in the normal manner, it may contain | |
89 calls to other macros. It may even be a call to the same macro, though | |
90 this is unusual. | |
91 | |
92 You can see the expansion of a given macro call by calling | |
93 @code{macroexpand}. | |
94 | |
95 @defun macroexpand form &optional environment | |
96 @cindex macro expansion | |
97 This function expands @var{form}, if it is a macro call. If the result | |
98 is another macro call, it is expanded in turn, until something which is | |
99 not a macro call results. That is the value returned by | |
100 @code{macroexpand}. If @var{form} is not a macro call to begin with, it | |
101 is returned as given. | |
102 | |
103 Note that @code{macroexpand} does not look at the subexpressions of | |
104 @var{form} (although some macro definitions may do so). Even if they | |
105 are macro calls themselves, @code{macroexpand} does not expand them. | |
106 | |
107 The function @code{macroexpand} does not expand calls to inline functions. | |
108 Normally there is no need for that, since a call to an inline function is | |
109 no harder to understand than a call to an ordinary function. | |
110 | |
111 If @var{environment} is provided, it specifies an alist of macro | |
112 definitions that shadow the currently defined macros. Byte compilation | |
113 uses this feature. | |
114 | |
115 @smallexample | |
116 @group | |
117 (defmacro inc (var) | |
118 (list 'setq var (list '1+ var))) | |
119 @result{} inc | |
120 @end group | |
121 | |
122 @group | |
123 (macroexpand '(inc r)) | |
124 @result{} (setq r (1+ r)) | |
125 @end group | |
126 | |
127 @group | |
128 (defmacro inc2 (var1 var2) | |
129 (list 'progn (list 'inc var1) (list 'inc var2))) | |
130 @result{} inc2 | |
131 @end group | |
132 | |
133 @group | |
134 (macroexpand '(inc2 r s)) | |
135 @result{} (progn (inc r) (inc s)) ; @r{@code{inc} not expanded here.} | |
136 @end group | |
137 @end smallexample | |
138 @end defun | |
139 | |
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140 |
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141 @defun macroexpand-all form &optional environment |
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142 @cindex macro expansion in entire form |
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143 @code{macroexpand-all} expands macros like @code{macroexpand}, but |
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144 will look for and expand all macros in @var{form}, not just at the |
60267 | 145 top-level. If no macros are expanded, the return value is @code{eq} |
146 to @var{form}. | |
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147 |
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148 Repeating the example used for @code{macroexpand} above with |
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149 @code{macroexpand-all}, we see that @code{macroexpand-all} @emph{does} |
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150 expand the embedded calls to @code{inc}: |
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151 |
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152 @smallexample |
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153 (macroexpand-all '(inc2 r s)) |
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154 @result{} (progn (setq r (1+ r)) (setq s (1+ s))) |
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155 @end smallexample |
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156 |
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157 @end defun |
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158 |
6558 | 159 @node Compiling Macros |
160 @section Macros and Byte Compilation | |
161 @cindex byte-compiling macros | |
162 | |
163 You might ask why we take the trouble to compute an expansion for a | |
164 macro and then evaluate the expansion. Why not have the macro body | |
165 produce the desired results directly? The reason has to do with | |
166 compilation. | |
167 | |
168 When a macro call appears in a Lisp program being compiled, the Lisp | |
169 compiler calls the macro definition just as the interpreter would, and | |
170 receives an expansion. But instead of evaluating this expansion, it | |
171 compiles the expansion as if it had appeared directly in the program. | |
172 As a result, the compiled code produces the value and side effects | |
173 intended for the macro, but executes at full compiled speed. This would | |
174 not work if the macro body computed the value and side effects | |
175 itself---they would be computed at compile time, which is not useful. | |
176 | |
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177 In order for compilation of macro calls to work, the macros must |
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178 already be defined in Lisp when the calls to them are compiled. The |
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179 compiler has a special feature to help you do this: if a file being |
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180 compiled contains a @code{defmacro} form, the macro is defined |
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181 temporarily for the rest of the compilation of that file. To make this |
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182 feature work, you must put the @code{defmacro} in the same file where it |
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183 is used, and before its first use. |
6558 | 184 |
185 Byte-compiling a file executes any @code{require} calls at top-level | |
186 in the file. This is in case the file needs the required packages for | |
187 proper compilation. One way to ensure that necessary macro definitions | |
12098 | 188 are available during compilation is to require the files that define |
189 them (@pxref{Named Features}). To avoid loading the macro definition files | |
190 when someone @emph{runs} the compiled program, write | |
191 @code{eval-when-compile} around the @code{require} calls (@pxref{Eval | |
192 During Compile}). | |
6558 | 193 |
194 @node Defining Macros | |
195 @section Defining Macros | |
196 | |
197 A Lisp macro is a list whose @sc{car} is @code{macro}. Its @sc{cdr} should | |
198 be a function; expansion of the macro works by applying the function | |
199 (with @code{apply}) to the list of unevaluated argument-expressions | |
200 from the macro call. | |
201 | |
202 It is possible to use an anonymous Lisp macro just like an anonymous | |
203 function, but this is never done, because it does not make sense to pass | |
12098 | 204 an anonymous macro to functionals such as @code{mapcar}. In practice, |
205 all Lisp macros have names, and they are usually defined with the | |
206 special form @code{defmacro}. | |
6558 | 207 |
208 @defspec defmacro name argument-list body-forms@dots{} | |
209 @code{defmacro} defines the symbol @var{name} as a macro that looks | |
210 like this: | |
211 | |
212 @example | |
213 (macro lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
214 @end example | |
215 | |
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216 (Note that the @sc{cdr} of this list is a function---a lambda expression.) |
6558 | 217 This macro object is stored in the function cell of @var{name}. The |
218 value returned by evaluating the @code{defmacro} form is @var{name}, but | |
219 usually we ignore this value. | |
220 | |
221 The shape and meaning of @var{argument-list} is the same as in a | |
222 function, and the keywords @code{&rest} and @code{&optional} may be used | |
223 (@pxref{Argument List}). Macros may have a documentation string, but | |
224 any @code{interactive} declaration is ignored since macros cannot be | |
225 called interactively. | |
226 @end defspec | |
227 | |
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228 The body of the macro definition can include a @code{declare} form, |
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229 which can specify how @key{TAB} should indent macro calls, and how to |
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230 step through them for Edebug. |
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231 |
56215 | 232 @defmac declare @var{specs}@dots{} |
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233 @anchor{Definition of declare} |
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234 A @code{declare} form is used in a macro definition to specify various |
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235 additional information about it. Two kinds of specification are |
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236 currently supported: |
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237 |
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238 @table @code |
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239 @item (debug @var{edebug-form-spec}) |
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240 Specify how to step through macro calls for Edebug. |
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241 @xref{Instrumenting Macro Calls}, for more details. |
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242 |
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243 @item (indent @var{indent-spec}) |
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244 Specify how to indent calls to this macro. @xref{Indenting Macros}, |
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245 for more details. |
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246 @end table |
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247 |
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248 A @code{declare} form only has its special effect in the body of a |
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249 @code{defmacro} form if it immediately follows the documentation |
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250 string, if present, or the argument list otherwise. (Strictly |
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251 speaking, @emph{several} @code{declare} forms can follow the |
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252 documentation string or argument list, but since a @code{declare} form |
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253 can have several @var{specs}, they can always be combined into a |
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254 single form.) When used at other places in a @code{defmacro} form, or |
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255 outside a @code{defmacro} form, @code{declare} just returns @code{nil} |
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256 without evaluating any @var{specs}. |
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257 @end defmac |
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258 |
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259 No macro absolutely needs a @code{declare} form, because that form |
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260 has no effect on how the macro expands, on what the macro means in the |
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261 program. It only affects secondary features: indentation and Edebug. |
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262 |
6558 | 263 @node Backquote |
264 @section Backquote | |
265 @cindex backquote (list substitution) | |
266 @cindex ` (list substitution) | |
12067 | 267 @findex ` |
6558 | 268 |
269 Macros often need to construct large list structures from a mixture of | |
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270 constants and nonconstant parts. To make this easier, use the @samp{`} |
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271 syntax (usually called @dfn{backquote}). |
6558 | 272 |
273 Backquote allows you to quote a list, but selectively evaluate | |
274 elements of that list. In the simplest case, it is identical to the | |
275 special form @code{quote} (@pxref{Quoting}). For example, these | |
276 two forms yield identical results: | |
277 | |
278 @example | |
279 @group | |
12067 | 280 `(a list of (+ 2 3) elements) |
6558 | 281 @result{} (a list of (+ 2 3) elements) |
282 @end group | |
283 @group | |
12067 | 284 '(a list of (+ 2 3) elements) |
6558 | 285 @result{} (a list of (+ 2 3) elements) |
286 @end group | |
287 @end example | |
288 | |
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289 @findex , @r{(with Backquote)} |
12098 | 290 The special marker @samp{,} inside of the argument to backquote |
6558 | 291 indicates a value that isn't constant. Backquote evaluates the |
12098 | 292 argument of @samp{,} and puts the value in the list structure: |
6558 | 293 |
294 @example | |
295 @group | |
296 (list 'a 'list 'of (+ 2 3) 'elements) | |
297 @result{} (a list of 5 elements) | |
298 @end group | |
299 @group | |
12067 | 300 `(a list of ,(+ 2 3) elements) |
6558 | 301 @result{} (a list of 5 elements) |
302 @end group | |
303 @end example | |
304 | |
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305 Substitution with @samp{,} is allowed at deeper levels of the list |
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306 structure also. For example: |
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307 |
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308 @example |
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309 @group |
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310 (defmacro t-becomes-nil (variable) |
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311 `(if (eq ,variable t) |
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312 (setq ,variable nil))) |
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313 @end group |
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314 |
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315 @group |
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316 (t-becomes-nil foo) |
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317 @equiv{} (if (eq foo t) (setq foo nil)) |
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318 @end group |
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319 @end example |
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320 |
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321 @findex ,@@ @r{(with Backquote)} |
6558 | 322 @cindex splicing (with backquote) |
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323 You can also @dfn{splice} an evaluated value into the resulting list, |
12098 | 324 using the special marker @samp{,@@}. The elements of the spliced list |
6558 | 325 become elements at the same level as the other elements of the resulting |
12098 | 326 list. The equivalent code without using @samp{`} is often unreadable. |
6558 | 327 Here are some examples: |
328 | |
329 @example | |
330 @group | |
331 (setq some-list '(2 3)) | |
332 @result{} (2 3) | |
333 @end group | |
334 @group | |
335 (cons 1 (append some-list '(4) some-list)) | |
336 @result{} (1 2 3 4 2 3) | |
337 @end group | |
338 @group | |
12067 | 339 `(1 ,@@some-list 4 ,@@some-list) |
6558 | 340 @result{} (1 2 3 4 2 3) |
341 @end group | |
342 | |
343 @group | |
344 (setq list '(hack foo bar)) | |
345 @result{} (hack foo bar) | |
346 @end group | |
347 @group | |
348 (cons 'use | |
349 (cons 'the | |
350 (cons 'words (append (cdr list) '(as elements))))) | |
351 @result{} (use the words foo bar as elements) | |
352 @end group | |
353 @group | |
12067 | 354 `(use the words ,@@(cdr list) as elements) |
6558 | 355 @result{} (use the words foo bar as elements) |
356 @end group | |
357 @end example | |
358 | |
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359 In old Emacs versions, before version 19.29, @samp{`} used a different |
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360 syntax which required an extra level of parentheses around the entire |
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361 backquote construct. Likewise, each @samp{,} or @samp{,@@} substitution |
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362 required an extra level of parentheses surrounding both the @samp{,} or |
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363 @samp{,@@} and the following expression. The old syntax required |
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364 whitespace between the @samp{`}, @samp{,} or @samp{,@@} and the |
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365 following expression. |
6558 | 366 |
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367 This syntax is still accepted, for compatibility with old Emacs |
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368 versions, but we recommend not using it in new programs. |
6558 | 369 |
370 @node Problems with Macros | |
371 @section Common Problems Using Macros | |
372 | |
373 The basic facts of macro expansion have counterintuitive consequences. | |
374 This section describes some important consequences that can lead to | |
375 trouble, and rules to follow to avoid trouble. | |
376 | |
377 @menu | |
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378 * Wrong Time:: Do the work in the expansion, not in the macro. |
6558 | 379 * Argument Evaluation:: The expansion should evaluate each macro arg once. |
380 * Surprising Local Vars:: Local variable bindings in the expansion | |
381 require special care. | |
382 * Eval During Expansion:: Don't evaluate them; put them in the expansion. | |
383 * Repeated Expansion:: Avoid depending on how many times expansion is done. | |
384 @end menu | |
385 | |
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386 @node Wrong Time |
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387 @subsection Wrong Time |
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388 |
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389 The most common problem in writing macros is doing some of the |
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390 real work prematurely---while expanding the macro, rather than in the |
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391 expansion itself. For instance, one real package had this macro |
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392 definition: |
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393 |
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394 @example |
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395 (defmacro my-set-buffer-multibyte (arg) |
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396 (if (fboundp 'set-buffer-multibyte) |
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397 (set-buffer-multibyte arg))) |
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398 @end example |
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399 |
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400 With this erroneous macro definition, the program worked fine when |
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401 interpreted but failed when compiled. This macro definition called |
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402 @code{set-buffer-multibyte} during compilation, which was wrong, and |
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403 then did nothing when the compiled package was run. The definition |
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404 that the programmer really wanted was this: |
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405 |
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406 @example |
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407 (defmacro my-set-buffer-multibyte (arg) |
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408 (if (fboundp 'set-buffer-multibyte) |
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409 `(set-buffer-multibyte ,arg))) |
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410 @end example |
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411 |
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412 @noindent |
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413 This macro expands, if appropriate, into a call to |
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414 @code{set-buffer-multibyte} that will be executed when the compiled |
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415 program is actually run. |
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416 |
6558 | 417 @node Argument Evaluation |
418 @subsection Evaluating Macro Arguments Repeatedly | |
419 | |
420 When defining a macro you must pay attention to the number of times | |
421 the arguments will be evaluated when the expansion is executed. The | |
422 following macro (used to facilitate iteration) illustrates the problem. | |
423 This macro allows us to write a simple ``for'' loop such as one might | |
424 find in Pascal. | |
425 | |
426 @findex for | |
427 @smallexample | |
428 @group | |
429 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body) | |
430 "Execute a simple \"for\" loop. | |
431 For example, (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))." | |
432 (list 'let (list (list var init)) | |
433 (cons 'while (cons (list '<= var final) | |
434 (append body (list (list 'inc var))))))) | |
435 @end group | |
436 @result{} for | |
437 | |
438 @group | |
439 (for i from 1 to 3 do | |
440 (setq square (* i i)) | |
441 (princ (format "\n%d %d" i square))) | |
442 @expansion{} | |
443 @end group | |
444 @group | |
445 (let ((i 1)) | |
446 (while (<= i 3) | |
447 (setq square (* i i)) | |
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448 (princ (format "\n%d %d" i square)) |
6558 | 449 (inc i))) |
450 @end group | |
451 @group | |
452 | |
453 @print{}1 1 | |
454 @print{}2 4 | |
455 @print{}3 9 | |
456 @result{} nil | |
457 @end group | |
458 @end smallexample | |
459 | |
460 @noindent | |
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461 The arguments @code{from}, @code{to}, and @code{do} in this macro are |
6558 | 462 ``syntactic sugar''; they are entirely ignored. The idea is that you |
463 will write noise words (such as @code{from}, @code{to}, and @code{do}) | |
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464 in those positions in the macro call. |
6558 | 465 |
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466 Here's an equivalent definition simplified through use of backquote: |
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467 |
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468 @smallexample |
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469 @group |
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470 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body) |
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471 "Execute a simple \"for\" loop. |
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472 For example, (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))." |
12098 | 473 `(let ((,var ,init)) |
474 (while (<= ,var ,final) | |
475 ,@@body | |
476 (inc ,var)))) | |
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477 @end group |
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478 @end smallexample |
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479 |
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480 Both forms of this definition (with backquote and without) suffer from |
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481 the defect that @var{final} is evaluated on every iteration. If |
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482 @var{final} is a constant, this is not a problem. If it is a more |
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483 complex form, say @code{(long-complex-calculation x)}, this can slow |
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484 down the execution significantly. If @var{final} has side effects, |
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485 executing it more than once is probably incorrect. |
6558 | 486 |
487 @cindex macro argument evaluation | |
488 A well-designed macro definition takes steps to avoid this problem by | |
489 producing an expansion that evaluates the argument expressions exactly | |
490 once unless repeated evaluation is part of the intended purpose of the | |
491 macro. Here is a correct expansion for the @code{for} macro: | |
492 | |
493 @smallexample | |
494 @group | |
495 (let ((i 1) | |
496 (max 3)) | |
497 (while (<= i max) | |
498 (setq square (* i i)) | |
499 (princ (format "%d %d" i square)) | |
500 (inc i))) | |
501 @end group | |
502 @end smallexample | |
503 | |
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504 Here is a macro definition that creates this expansion: |
6558 | 505 |
506 @smallexample | |
507 @group | |
508 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body) | |
509 "Execute a simple for loop: (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))." | |
12098 | 510 `(let ((,var ,init) |
511 (max ,final)) | |
512 (while (<= ,var max) | |
513 ,@@body | |
514 (inc ,var)))) | |
6558 | 515 @end group |
516 @end smallexample | |
517 | |
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518 Unfortunately, this fix introduces another problem, |
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519 described in the following section. |
6558 | 520 |
521 @node Surprising Local Vars | |
522 @subsection Local Variables in Macro Expansions | |
523 | |
27193 | 524 @ifnottex |
6558 | 525 In the previous section, the definition of @code{for} was fixed as |
526 follows to make the expansion evaluate the macro arguments the proper | |
527 number of times: | |
528 | |
529 @smallexample | |
530 @group | |
531 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body) | |
532 "Execute a simple for loop: (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))." | |
533 @end group | |
534 @group | |
12098 | 535 `(let ((,var ,init) |
536 (max ,final)) | |
537 (while (<= ,var max) | |
538 ,@@body | |
539 (inc ,var)))) | |
6558 | 540 @end group |
541 @end smallexample | |
27193 | 542 @end ifnottex |
6558 | 543 |
544 The new definition of @code{for} has a new problem: it introduces a | |
545 local variable named @code{max} which the user does not expect. This | |
546 causes trouble in examples such as the following: | |
547 | |
7734 | 548 @smallexample |
6558 | 549 @group |
550 (let ((max 0)) | |
551 (for x from 0 to 10 do | |
552 (let ((this (frob x))) | |
553 (if (< max this) | |
554 (setq max this))))) | |
555 @end group | |
7734 | 556 @end smallexample |
6558 | 557 |
558 @noindent | |
559 The references to @code{max} inside the body of the @code{for}, which | |
560 are supposed to refer to the user's binding of @code{max}, really access | |
561 the binding made by @code{for}. | |
562 | |
563 The way to correct this is to use an uninterned symbol instead of | |
564 @code{max} (@pxref{Creating Symbols}). The uninterned symbol can be | |
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565 bound and referred to just like any other symbol, but since it is |
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566 created by @code{for}, we know that it cannot already appear in the |
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567 user's program. Since it is not interned, there is no way the user can |
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568 put it into the program later. It will never appear anywhere except |
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569 where put by @code{for}. Here is a definition of @code{for} that works |
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570 this way: |
6558 | 571 |
572 @smallexample | |
573 @group | |
574 (defmacro for (var from init to final do &rest body) | |
575 "Execute a simple for loop: (for i from 1 to 10 do (print i))." | |
576 (let ((tempvar (make-symbol "max"))) | |
12098 | 577 `(let ((,var ,init) |
578 (,tempvar ,final)) | |
579 (while (<= ,var ,tempvar) | |
580 ,@@body | |
581 (inc ,var))))) | |
6558 | 582 @end group |
583 @end smallexample | |
584 | |
585 @noindent | |
586 This creates an uninterned symbol named @code{max} and puts it in the | |
587 expansion instead of the usual interned symbol @code{max} that appears | |
588 in expressions ordinarily. | |
589 | |
590 @node Eval During Expansion | |
591 @subsection Evaluating Macro Arguments in Expansion | |
592 | |
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593 Another problem can happen if the macro definition itself |
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594 evaluates any of the macro argument expressions, such as by calling |
6558 | 595 @code{eval} (@pxref{Eval}). If the argument is supposed to refer to the |
596 user's variables, you may have trouble if the user happens to use a | |
597 variable with the same name as one of the macro arguments. Inside the | |
598 macro body, the macro argument binding is the most local binding of this | |
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599 variable, so any references inside the form being evaluated do refer to |
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600 it. Here is an example: |
6558 | 601 |
602 @example | |
603 @group | |
604 (defmacro foo (a) | |
605 (list 'setq (eval a) t)) | |
606 @result{} foo | |
607 @end group | |
608 @group | |
609 (setq x 'b) | |
610 (foo x) @expansion{} (setq b t) | |
611 @result{} t ; @r{and @code{b} has been set.} | |
612 ;; @r{but} | |
613 (setq a 'c) | |
614 (foo a) @expansion{} (setq a t) | |
615 @result{} t ; @r{but this set @code{a}, not @code{c}.} | |
616 | |
617 @end group | |
618 @end example | |
619 | |
620 It makes a difference whether the user's variable is named @code{a} or | |
621 @code{x}, because @code{a} conflicts with the macro argument variable | |
622 @code{a}. | |
623 | |
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624 Another problem with calling @code{eval} in a macro definition is that |
6558 | 625 it probably won't do what you intend in a compiled program. The |
626 byte-compiler runs macro definitions while compiling the program, when | |
627 the program's own computations (which you might have wished to access | |
628 with @code{eval}) don't occur and its local variable bindings don't | |
629 exist. | |
630 | |
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631 To avoid these problems, @strong{don't evaluate an argument expression |
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632 while computing the macro expansion}. Instead, substitute the |
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633 expression into the macro expansion, so that its value will be computed |
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634 as part of executing the expansion. This is how the other examples in |
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635 this chapter work. |
6558 | 636 |
637 @node Repeated Expansion | |
638 @subsection How Many Times is the Macro Expanded? | |
639 | |
640 Occasionally problems result from the fact that a macro call is | |
641 expanded each time it is evaluated in an interpreted function, but is | |
642 expanded only once (during compilation) for a compiled function. If the | |
643 macro definition has side effects, they will work differently depending | |
644 on how many times the macro is expanded. | |
645 | |
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646 Therefore, you should avoid side effects in computation of the |
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647 macro expansion, unless you really know what you are doing. |
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648 |
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649 One special kind of side effect can't be avoided: constructing Lisp |
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650 objects. Almost all macro expansions include constructed lists; that is |
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651 the whole point of most macros. This is usually safe; there is just one |
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652 case where you must be careful: when the object you construct is part of a |
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653 quoted constant in the macro expansion. |
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654 |
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655 If the macro is expanded just once, in compilation, then the object is |
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656 constructed just once, during compilation. But in interpreted |
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657 execution, the macro is expanded each time the macro call runs, and this |
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658 means a new object is constructed each time. |
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659 |
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660 In most clean Lisp code, this difference won't matter. It can matter |
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661 only if you perform side-effects on the objects constructed by the macro |
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662 definition. Thus, to avoid trouble, @strong{avoid side effects on |
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663 objects constructed by macro definitions}. Here is an example of how |
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664 such side effects can get you into trouble: |
6558 | 665 |
666 @lisp | |
667 @group | |
668 (defmacro empty-object () | |
669 (list 'quote (cons nil nil))) | |
670 @end group | |
671 | |
672 @group | |
673 (defun initialize (condition) | |
674 (let ((object (empty-object))) | |
675 (if condition | |
676 (setcar object condition)) | |
677 object)) | |
678 @end group | |
679 @end lisp | |
680 | |
681 @noindent | |
682 If @code{initialize} is interpreted, a new list @code{(nil)} is | |
683 constructed each time @code{initialize} is called. Thus, no side effect | |
684 survives between calls. If @code{initialize} is compiled, then the | |
685 macro @code{empty-object} is expanded during compilation, producing a | |
686 single ``constant'' @code{(nil)} that is reused and altered each time | |
687 @code{initialize} is called. | |
688 | |
689 One way to avoid pathological cases like this is to think of | |
690 @code{empty-object} as a funny kind of constant, not as a memory | |
691 allocation construct. You wouldn't use @code{setcar} on a constant such | |
692 as @code{'(nil)}, so naturally you won't use it on @code{(empty-object)} | |
693 either. | |
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694 |
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695 @node Indenting Macros |
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696 @section Indenting Macros |
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697 |
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698 You can use the @code{declare} form in the macro definition to |
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699 specify how to @key{TAB} should indent indent calls to the macro. You |
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700 write it like this: |
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701 |
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702 @example |
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703 (declare (indent @var{indent-spec})) |
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704 @end example |
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705 |
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706 @noindent |
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707 Here are the possibilities for @var{indent-spec}: |
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708 |
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709 @table @asis |
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710 @item @code{nil} |
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711 This is the same as no property---use the standard indentation pattern. |
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712 @item @code{defun} |
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713 Handle this function like a @samp{def} construct: treat the second |
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714 line as the start of a @dfn{body}. |
60267 | 715 @item an integer, @var{number} |
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716 The first @var{number} arguments of the function are |
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717 @dfn{distinguished} arguments; the rest are considered the body |
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718 of the expression. A line in the expression is indented according to |
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719 whether the first argument on it is distinguished or not. If the |
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720 argument is part of the body, the line is indented @code{lisp-body-indent} |
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721 more columns than the open-parenthesis starting the containing |
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722 expression. If the argument is distinguished and is either the first |
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723 or second argument, it is indented @emph{twice} that many extra columns. |
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724 If the argument is distinguished and not the first or second argument, |
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725 the line uses the standard pattern. |
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726 @item a symbol, @var{symbol} |
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727 @var{symbol} should be a function name; that function is called to |
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728 calculate the indentation of a line within this expression. The |
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729 function receives two arguments: |
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730 @table @asis |
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731 @item @var{state} |
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732 The value returned by @code{parse-partial-sexp} (a Lisp primitive for |
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733 indentation and nesting computation) when it parses up to the |
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734 beginning of this line. |
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735 @item @var{pos} |
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736 The position at which the line being indented begins. |
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737 @end table |
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738 @noindent |
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739 It should return either a number, which is the number of columns of |
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740 indentation for that line, or a list whose car is such a number. The |
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741 difference between returning a number and returning a list is that a |
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742 number says that all following lines at the same nesting level should |
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743 be indented just like this one; a list says that following lines might |
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744 call for different indentations. This makes a difference when the |
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745 indentation is being computed by @kbd{C-M-q}; if the value is a |
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746 number, @kbd{C-M-q} need not recalculate indentation for the following |
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747 lines until the end of the list. |
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748 @end table |
52401 | 749 |
750 @ignore | |
751 arch-tag: d4cce66d-1047-45c3-bfde-db6719d6e82b | |
752 @end ignore |