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annotate lispref/strings.texi @ 44008:f5d0fe8d01b4
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author | Pavel Janík <Pavel@Janik.cz> |
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date | Mon, 18 Mar 2002 18:14:38 +0000 |
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6550 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
27189 | 3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 |
4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
6550 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/strings | |
7 @node Strings and Characters, Lists, Numbers, Top | |
8 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
9 @chapter Strings and Characters | |
10 @cindex strings | |
11 @cindex character arrays | |
12 @cindex characters | |
13 @cindex bytes | |
14 | |
15 A string in Emacs Lisp is an array that contains an ordered sequence | |
16 of characters. Strings are used as names of symbols, buffers, and | |
24862 | 17 files; to send messages to users; to hold text being copied between |
18 buffers; and for many other purposes. Because strings are so important, | |
6550 | 19 Emacs Lisp has many functions expressly for manipulating them. Emacs |
20 Lisp programs use strings more often than individual characters. | |
21 | |
22 @xref{Strings of Events}, for special considerations for strings of | |
23 keyboard character events. | |
24 | |
25 @menu | |
26 * Basics: String Basics. Basic properties of strings and characters. | |
27 * Predicates for Strings:: Testing whether an object is a string or char. | |
28 * Creating Strings:: Functions to allocate new strings. | |
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29 * Modifying Strings:: Altering the contents of an existing string. |
6550 | 30 * Text Comparison:: Comparing characters or strings. |
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31 * String Conversion:: Converting to and from characters and strings. |
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32 * Formatting Strings:: @code{format}: Emacs's analogue of @code{printf}. |
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33 * Case Conversion:: Case conversion functions. |
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34 * Case Tables:: Customizing case conversion. |
6550 | 35 @end menu |
36 | |
37 @node String Basics | |
38 @section String and Character Basics | |
39 | |
24862 | 40 Characters are represented in Emacs Lisp as integers; |
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41 whether an integer is a character or not is determined only by how it is |
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42 used. Thus, strings really contain integers. |
6550 | 43 |
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44 The length of a string (like any array) is fixed, and cannot be |
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45 altered once the string exists. Strings in Lisp are @emph{not} |
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46 terminated by a distinguished character code. (By contrast, strings in |
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47 C are terminated by a character with @sc{ascii} code 0.) |
6550 | 48 |
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49 Since strings are arrays, and therefore sequences as well, you can |
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50 operate on them with the general array and sequence functions. |
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51 (@xref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}.) For example, you can access or |
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52 change individual characters in a string using the functions @code{aref} |
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53 and @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). |
6550 | 54 |
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55 There are two text representations for non-@sc{ascii} characters in |
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56 Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte (@pxref{Text |
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57 Representations}). An @sc{ascii} character always occupies one byte in a |
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58 string; in fact, when a string is all @sc{ascii}, there is no real |
24862 | 59 difference between the unibyte and multibyte representations. |
60 For most Lisp programming, you don't need to be concerned with these two | |
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61 representations. |
6550 | 62 |
63 Sometimes key sequences are represented as strings. When a string is | |
64 a key sequence, string elements in the range 128 to 255 represent meta | |
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65 characters (which are large integers) rather than character |
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66 codes in the range 128 to 255. |
6550 | 67 |
68 Strings cannot hold characters that have the hyper, super or alt | |
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69 modifiers; they can hold @sc{ascii} control characters, but no other |
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70 control characters. They do not distinguish case in @sc{ascii} control |
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71 characters. If you want to store such characters in a sequence, such as |
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72 a key sequence, you must use a vector instead of a string. |
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73 @xref{Character Type}, for more information about the representation of meta |
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74 and other modifiers for keyboard input characters. |
6550 | 75 |
12098 | 76 Strings are useful for holding regular expressions. You can also |
77 match regular expressions against strings (@pxref{Regexp Search}). The | |
78 functions @code{match-string} (@pxref{Simple Match Data}) and | |
79 @code{replace-match} (@pxref{Replacing Match}) are useful for | |
80 decomposing and modifying strings based on regular expression matching. | |
81 | |
6550 | 82 Like a buffer, a string can contain text properties for the characters |
83 in it, as well as the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
12098 | 84 All the Lisp primitives that copy text from strings to buffers or other |
85 strings also copy the properties of the characters being copied. | |
6550 | 86 |
87 @xref{Text}, for information about functions that display strings or | |
88 copy them into buffers. @xref{Character Type}, and @ref{String Type}, | |
89 for information about the syntax of characters and strings. | |
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90 @xref{Non-ASCII Characters}, for functions to convert between text |
24862 | 91 representations and to encode and decode character codes. |
6550 | 92 |
93 @node Predicates for Strings | |
94 @section The Predicates for Strings | |
95 | |
96 For more information about general sequence and array predicates, | |
97 see @ref{Sequences Arrays Vectors}, and @ref{Arrays}. | |
98 | |
99 @defun stringp object | |
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100 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string, @code{nil} |
6550 | 101 otherwise. |
102 @end defun | |
103 | |
104 @defun char-or-string-p object | |
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105 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a string or a |
6550 | 106 character (i.e., an integer), @code{nil} otherwise. |
107 @end defun | |
108 | |
109 @node Creating Strings | |
110 @section Creating Strings | |
111 | |
112 The following functions create strings, either from scratch, or by | |
113 putting strings together, or by taking them apart. | |
114 | |
115 @defun make-string count character | |
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116 This function returns a string made up of @var{count} repetitions of |
6550 | 117 @var{character}. If @var{count} is negative, an error is signaled. |
118 | |
119 @example | |
120 (make-string 5 ?x) | |
121 @result{} "xxxxx" | |
122 (make-string 0 ?x) | |
123 @result{} "" | |
124 @end example | |
125 | |
126 Other functions to compare with this one include @code{char-to-string} | |
127 (@pxref{String Conversion}), @code{make-vector} (@pxref{Vectors}), and | |
128 @code{make-list} (@pxref{Building Lists}). | |
129 @end defun | |
130 | |
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131 @defun string &rest characters |
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132 This returns a string containing the characters @var{characters}. |
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133 |
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134 @example |
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135 (string ?a ?b ?c) |
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136 @result{} "abc" |
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137 @end example |
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138 @end defun |
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139 |
6550 | 140 @defun substring string start &optional end |
12098 | 141 This function returns a new string which consists of those characters |
6550 | 142 from @var{string} in the range from (and including) the character at the |
143 index @var{start} up to (but excluding) the character at the index | |
144 @var{end}. The first character is at index zero. | |
145 | |
146 @example | |
147 @group | |
148 (substring "abcdefg" 0 3) | |
149 @result{} "abc" | |
150 @end group | |
151 @end example | |
152 | |
153 @noindent | |
154 Here the index for @samp{a} is 0, the index for @samp{b} is 1, and the | |
155 index for @samp{c} is 2. Thus, three letters, @samp{abc}, are copied | |
156 from the string @code{"abcdefg"}. The index 3 marks the character | |
157 position up to which the substring is copied. The character whose index | |
158 is 3 is actually the fourth character in the string. | |
159 | |
160 A negative number counts from the end of the string, so that @minus{}1 | |
161 signifies the index of the last character of the string. For example: | |
162 | |
163 @example | |
164 @group | |
165 (substring "abcdefg" -3 -1) | |
166 @result{} "ef" | |
167 @end group | |
168 @end example | |
169 | |
170 @noindent | |
171 In this example, the index for @samp{e} is @minus{}3, the index for | |
172 @samp{f} is @minus{}2, and the index for @samp{g} is @minus{}1. | |
173 Therefore, @samp{e} and @samp{f} are included, and @samp{g} is excluded. | |
174 | |
175 When @code{nil} is used as an index, it stands for the length of the | |
176 string. Thus, | |
177 | |
178 @example | |
179 @group | |
180 (substring "abcdefg" -3 nil) | |
181 @result{} "efg" | |
182 @end group | |
183 @end example | |
184 | |
185 Omitting the argument @var{end} is equivalent to specifying @code{nil}. | |
186 It follows that @code{(substring @var{string} 0)} returns a copy of all | |
187 of @var{string}. | |
188 | |
189 @example | |
190 @group | |
191 (substring "abcdefg" 0) | |
192 @result{} "abcdefg" | |
193 @end group | |
194 @end example | |
195 | |
196 @noindent | |
197 But we recommend @code{copy-sequence} for this purpose (@pxref{Sequence | |
198 Functions}). | |
199 | |
12098 | 200 If the characters copied from @var{string} have text properties, the |
201 properties are copied into the new string also. @xref{Text Properties}. | |
202 | |
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203 @code{substring} also accepts a vector for the first argument. |
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204 For example: |
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205 |
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206 @example |
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207 (substring [a b (c) "d"] 1 3) |
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208 @result{} [b (c)] |
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209 @end example |
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210 |
6550 | 211 A @code{wrong-type-argument} error is signaled if either @var{start} or |
212 @var{end} is not an integer or @code{nil}. An @code{args-out-of-range} | |
213 error is signaled if @var{start} indicates a character following | |
214 @var{end}, or if either integer is out of range for @var{string}. | |
215 | |
216 Contrast this function with @code{buffer-substring} (@pxref{Buffer | |
217 Contents}), which returns a string containing a portion of the text in | |
218 the current buffer. The beginning of a string is at index 0, but the | |
219 beginning of a buffer is at index 1. | |
220 @end defun | |
221 | |
222 @defun concat &rest sequences | |
223 @cindex copying strings | |
224 @cindex concatenating strings | |
225 This function returns a new string consisting of the characters in the | |
12098 | 226 arguments passed to it (along with their text properties, if any). The |
227 arguments may be strings, lists of numbers, or vectors of numbers; they | |
228 are not themselves changed. If @code{concat} receives no arguments, it | |
229 returns an empty string. | |
6550 | 230 |
231 @example | |
232 (concat "abc" "-def") | |
233 @result{} "abc-def" | |
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234 (concat "abc" (list 120 121) [122]) |
6550 | 235 @result{} "abcxyz" |
236 ;; @r{@code{nil} is an empty sequence.} | |
237 (concat "abc" nil "-def") | |
238 @result{} "abc-def" | |
239 (concat "The " "quick brown " "fox.") | |
240 @result{} "The quick brown fox." | |
241 (concat) | |
242 @result{} "" | |
243 @end example | |
244 | |
245 @noindent | |
246 The @code{concat} function always constructs a new string that is | |
247 not @code{eq} to any existing string. | |
248 | |
30498 | 249 In Emacs versions before 21, when an argument was an integer (not a |
250 sequence of integers), it was converted to a string of digits making up | |
251 the decimal printed representation of the integer. This obsolete usage | |
252 no longer works. The proper way to convert an integer to its decimal | |
253 printed form is with @code{format} (@pxref{Formatting Strings}) or | |
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254 @code{number-to-string} (@pxref{String Conversion}). |
6550 | 255 |
256 For information about other concatenation functions, see the | |
257 description of @code{mapconcat} in @ref{Mapping Functions}, | |
258 @code{vconcat} in @ref{Vectors}, and @code{append} in @ref{Building | |
259 Lists}. | |
260 @end defun | |
261 | |
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262 @defun split-string string separators |
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263 This function splits @var{string} into substrings at matches for the regular |
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264 expression @var{separators}. Each match for @var{separators} defines a |
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265 splitting point; the substrings between the splitting points are made |
24862 | 266 into a list, which is the value returned by @code{split-string}. |
267 If @var{separators} is @code{nil} (or omitted), | |
268 the default is @code{"[ \f\t\n\r\v]+"}. | |
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269 |
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270 For example, |
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271 |
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272 @example |
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273 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o") |
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274 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "" "d f" "" "d") |
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275 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o+") |
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276 @result{} ("S" "up is g" "d f" "d") |
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277 @end example |
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278 |
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279 When there is a match adjacent to the beginning or end of the string, |
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280 this does not cause a null string to appear at the beginning or end |
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281 of the list: |
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282 |
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283 @example |
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284 (split-string "out to moo" "o+") |
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285 @result{} ("ut t" " m") |
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286 @end example |
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287 |
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288 Empty matches do count, when not adjacent to another match: |
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289 |
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290 @example |
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291 (split-string "Soup is good food" "o*") |
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292 @result{}("S" "u" "p" " " "i" "s" " " "g" "d" " " "f" "d") |
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293 (split-string "Nice doggy!" "") |
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294 @result{}("N" "i" "c" "e" " " "d" "o" "g" "g" "y" "!") |
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295 @end example |
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296 @end defun |
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297 |
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298 @node Modifying Strings |
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299 @section Modifying Strings |
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300 |
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301 The most basic way to alter the contents of an existing string is with |
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302 @code{aset} (@pxref{Array Functions}). @code{(aset @var{string} |
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303 @var{idx} @var{char})} stores @var{char} into @var{string} at index |
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304 @var{idx}. Each character occupies one or more bytes, and if @var{char} |
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305 needs a different number of bytes from the character already present at |
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306 that index, @code{aset} signals an error. |
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307 |
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308 A more powerful function is @code{store-substring}: |
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309 |
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310 @defun store-substring string idx obj |
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311 This function alters part of the contents of the string @var{string}, by |
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312 storing @var{obj} starting at index @var{idx}. The argument @var{obj} |
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313 may be either a character or a (smaller) string. |
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314 |
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315 Since it is impossible to change the length of an existing string, it is |
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316 an error if @var{obj} doesn't fit within @var{string}'s actual length, |
24862 | 317 or if any new character requires a different number of bytes from the |
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318 character currently present at that point in @var{string}. |
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319 @end defun |
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320 |
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321 @need 2000 |
6550 | 322 @node Text Comparison |
323 @section Comparison of Characters and Strings | |
324 @cindex string equality | |
325 | |
326 @defun char-equal character1 character2 | |
327 This function returns @code{t} if the arguments represent the same | |
328 character, @code{nil} otherwise. This function ignores differences | |
329 in case if @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}. | |
330 | |
331 @example | |
332 (char-equal ?x ?x) | |
333 @result{} t | |
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334 (let ((case-fold-search nil)) |
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335 (char-equal ?x ?X)) |
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336 @result{} nil |
6550 | 337 @end example |
338 @end defun | |
339 | |
340 @defun string= string1 string2 | |
341 This function returns @code{t} if the characters of the two strings | |
24862 | 342 match exactly. |
343 Case is always significant, regardless of @code{case-fold-search}. | |
6550 | 344 |
345 @example | |
346 (string= "abc" "abc") | |
347 @result{} t | |
348 (string= "abc" "ABC") | |
349 @result{} nil | |
350 (string= "ab" "ABC") | |
351 @result{} nil | |
352 @end example | |
12067 | 353 |
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354 The function @code{string=} ignores the text properties of the two |
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355 strings. When @code{equal} (@pxref{Equality Predicates}) compares two |
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356 strings, it uses @code{string=}. |
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357 |
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358 If the strings contain non-@sc{ascii} characters, and one is unibyte |
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359 while the other is multibyte, then they cannot be equal. @xref{Text |
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360 Representations}. |
6550 | 361 @end defun |
362 | |
363 @defun string-equal string1 string2 | |
364 @code{string-equal} is another name for @code{string=}. | |
365 @end defun | |
366 | |
367 @cindex lexical comparison | |
368 @defun string< string1 string2 | |
369 @c (findex string< causes problems for permuted index!!) | |
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370 This function compares two strings a character at a time. It |
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371 scans both the strings at the same time to find the first pair of corresponding |
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372 characters that do not match. If the lesser character of these two is |
6550 | 373 the character from @var{string1}, then @var{string1} is less, and this |
374 function returns @code{t}. If the lesser character is the one from | |
375 @var{string2}, then @var{string1} is greater, and this function returns | |
376 @code{nil}. If the two strings match entirely, the value is @code{nil}. | |
377 | |
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378 Pairs of characters are compared according to their character codes. |
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379 Keep in mind that lower case letters have higher numeric values in the |
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380 @sc{ascii} character set than their upper case counterparts; digits and |
6550 | 381 many punctuation characters have a lower numeric value than upper case |
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382 letters. An @sc{ascii} character is less than any non-@sc{ascii} |
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383 character; a unibyte non-@sc{ascii} character is always less than any |
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384 multibyte non-@sc{ascii} character (@pxref{Text Representations}). |
6550 | 385 |
386 @example | |
387 @group | |
388 (string< "abc" "abd") | |
389 @result{} t | |
390 (string< "abd" "abc") | |
391 @result{} nil | |
392 (string< "123" "abc") | |
393 @result{} t | |
394 @end group | |
395 @end example | |
396 | |
397 When the strings have different lengths, and they match up to the | |
398 length of @var{string1}, then the result is @code{t}. If they match up | |
399 to the length of @var{string2}, the result is @code{nil}. A string of | |
400 no characters is less than any other string. | |
401 | |
402 @example | |
403 @group | |
404 (string< "" "abc") | |
405 @result{} t | |
406 (string< "ab" "abc") | |
407 @result{} t | |
408 (string< "abc" "") | |
409 @result{} nil | |
410 (string< "abc" "ab") | |
411 @result{} nil | |
412 (string< "" "") | |
413 @result{} nil | |
414 @end group | |
415 @end example | |
416 @end defun | |
417 | |
418 @defun string-lessp string1 string2 | |
419 @code{string-lessp} is another name for @code{string<}. | |
420 @end defun | |
421 | |
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422 @defun compare-strings string1 start1 end1 string2 start2 end2 &optional ignore-case |
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423 This function compares the specified part of @var{string1} with the |
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424 specified part of @var{string2}. The specified part of @var{string1} |
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425 runs from index @var{start1} up to index @var{end1} (@code{nil} means |
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426 the end of the string). The specified part of @var{string2} runs from |
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427 index @var{start2} up to index @var{end2} (@code{nil} means the end of |
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428 the string). |
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429 |
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430 The strings are both converted to multibyte for the comparison |
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431 (@pxref{Text Representations}) so that a unibyte string can be equal to |
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432 a multibyte string. If @var{ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, then case |
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433 is ignored, so that upper case letters can be equal to lower case letters. |
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434 |
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435 If the specified portions of the two strings match, the value is |
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436 @code{t}. Otherwise, the value is an integer which indicates how many |
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437 leading characters agree, and which string is less. Its absolute value |
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438 is one plus the number of characters that agree at the beginning of the |
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439 two strings. The sign is negative if @var{string1} (or its specified |
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440 portion) is less. |
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441 @end defun |
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442 |
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443 @defun assoc-ignore-case key alist |
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444 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a |
38790 | 445 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}, ignoring |
446 case differences. @xref{Association Lists}. | |
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447 @end defun |
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448 |
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449 @defun assoc-ignore-representation key alist |
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450 This function works like @code{assoc}, except that @var{key} must be a |
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451 string, and comparison is done using @code{compare-strings}. |
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452 Case differences are significant. |
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453 @end defun |
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454 |
6550 | 455 See also @code{compare-buffer-substrings} in @ref{Comparing Text}, for |
456 a way to compare text in buffers. The function @code{string-match}, | |
457 which matches a regular expression against a string, can be used | |
458 for a kind of string comparison; see @ref{Regexp Search}. | |
459 | |
460 @node String Conversion | |
461 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
462 @section Conversion of Characters and Strings | |
463 @cindex conversion of strings | |
464 | |
465 This section describes functions for conversions between characters, | |
466 strings and integers. @code{format} and @code{prin1-to-string} | |
467 (@pxref{Output Functions}) can also convert Lisp objects into strings. | |
468 @code{read-from-string} (@pxref{Input Functions}) can ``convert'' a | |
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469 string representation of a Lisp object into an object. The functions |
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470 @code{string-make-multibyte} and @code{string-make-unibyte} convert the |
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471 text representation of a string (@pxref{Converting Representations}). |
6550 | 472 |
473 @xref{Documentation}, for functions that produce textual descriptions | |
474 of text characters and general input events | |
475 (@code{single-key-description} and @code{text-char-description}). These | |
476 functions are used primarily for making help messages. | |
477 | |
478 @defun char-to-string character | |
479 @cindex character to string | |
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480 This function returns a new string containing one character, |
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481 @var{character}. This function is semi-obsolete because the function |
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482 @code{string} is more general. @xref{Creating Strings}. |
6550 | 483 @end defun |
484 | |
485 @defun string-to-char string | |
486 @cindex string to character | |
487 This function returns the first character in @var{string}. If the | |
488 string is empty, the function returns 0. The value is also 0 when the | |
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489 first character of @var{string} is the null character, @sc{ascii} code |
6550 | 490 0. |
491 | |
492 @example | |
493 (string-to-char "ABC") | |
494 @result{} 65 | |
495 (string-to-char "xyz") | |
496 @result{} 120 | |
497 (string-to-char "") | |
498 @result{} 0 | |
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499 @group |
6550 | 500 (string-to-char "\000") |
501 @result{} 0 | |
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502 @end group |
6550 | 503 @end example |
504 | |
505 This function may be eliminated in the future if it does not seem useful | |
506 enough to retain. | |
507 @end defun | |
508 | |
509 @defun number-to-string number | |
510 @cindex integer to string | |
511 @cindex integer to decimal | |
24862 | 512 This function returns a string consisting of the printed base-ten |
6550 | 513 representation of @var{number}, which may be an integer or a floating |
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514 point number. The returned value starts with a minus sign if the argument is |
6550 | 515 negative. |
516 | |
517 @example | |
518 (number-to-string 256) | |
519 @result{} "256" | |
520 (number-to-string -23) | |
521 @result{} "-23" | |
522 (number-to-string -23.5) | |
523 @result{} "-23.5" | |
524 @end example | |
525 | |
526 @cindex int-to-string | |
527 @code{int-to-string} is a semi-obsolete alias for this function. | |
528 | |
529 See also the function @code{format} in @ref{Formatting Strings}. | |
530 @end defun | |
531 | |
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532 @defun string-to-number string &optional base |
6550 | 533 @cindex string to number |
534 This function returns the numeric value of the characters in | |
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535 @var{string}. If @var{base} is non-@code{nil}, integers are converted |
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536 in that base. If @var{base} is @code{nil}, then base ten is used. |
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537 Floating point conversion always uses base ten; we have not implemented |
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538 other radices for floating point numbers, because that would be much |
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539 more work and does not seem useful. If @var{string} looks like an |
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540 integer but its value is too large to fit into a Lisp integer, |
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541 @code{string-to-number} returns a floating point result. |
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542 |
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543 The parsing skips spaces and tabs at the beginning of @var{string}, then |
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544 reads as much of @var{string} as it can interpret as a number. (On some |
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545 systems it ignores other whitespace at the beginning, not just spaces |
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546 and tabs.) If the first character after the ignored whitespace is |
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547 neither a digit, nor a plus or minus sign, nor the leading dot of a |
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548 floating point number, this function returns 0. |
6550 | 549 |
550 @example | |
551 (string-to-number "256") | |
552 @result{} 256 | |
553 (string-to-number "25 is a perfect square.") | |
554 @result{} 25 | |
555 (string-to-number "X256") | |
556 @result{} 0 | |
557 (string-to-number "-4.5") | |
558 @result{} -4.5 | |
38790 | 559 (string-to-number "1e5") |
560 @result{} 100000.0 | |
6550 | 561 @end example |
562 | |
563 @findex string-to-int | |
564 @code{string-to-int} is an obsolete alias for this function. | |
565 @end defun | |
566 | |
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567 Here are some other functions that can convert to or from a string: |
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568 |
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569 @table @code |
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570 @item concat |
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571 @code{concat} can convert a vector or a list into a string. |
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572 @xref{Creating Strings}. |
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573 |
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574 @item vconcat |
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575 @code{vconcat} can convert a string into a vector. @xref{Vector |
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576 Functions}. |
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577 |
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578 @item append |
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579 @code{append} can convert a string into a list. @xref{Building Lists}. |
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580 @end table |
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581 |
6550 | 582 @node Formatting Strings |
583 @comment node-name, next, previous, up | |
584 @section Formatting Strings | |
585 @cindex formatting strings | |
586 @cindex strings, formatting them | |
587 | |
588 @dfn{Formatting} means constructing a string by substitution of | |
24862 | 589 computed values at various places in a constant string. This constant string |
590 controls how the other values are printed, as well as where they appear; | |
6550 | 591 it is called a @dfn{format string}. |
592 | |
593 Formatting is often useful for computing messages to be displayed. In | |
594 fact, the functions @code{message} and @code{error} provide the same | |
595 formatting feature described here; they differ from @code{format} only | |
596 in how they use the result of formatting. | |
597 | |
598 @defun format string &rest objects | |
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599 This function returns a new string that is made by copying |
6550 | 600 @var{string} and then replacing any format specification |
601 in the copy with encodings of the corresponding @var{objects}. The | |
602 arguments @var{objects} are the computed values to be formatted. | |
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603 |
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604 The characters in @var{string}, other than the format specifications, |
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605 are copied directly into the output; starting in Emacs 21, if they have |
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606 text properties, these are copied into the output also. |
6550 | 607 @end defun |
608 | |
609 @cindex @samp{%} in format | |
610 @cindex format specification | |
611 A format specification is a sequence of characters beginning with a | |
612 @samp{%}. Thus, if there is a @samp{%d} in @var{string}, the | |
613 @code{format} function replaces it with the printed representation of | |
614 one of the values to be formatted (one of the arguments @var{objects}). | |
615 For example: | |
616 | |
617 @example | |
618 @group | |
619 (format "The value of fill-column is %d." fill-column) | |
620 @result{} "The value of fill-column is 72." | |
621 @end group | |
622 @end example | |
623 | |
624 If @var{string} contains more than one format specification, the | |
24862 | 625 format specifications correspond to successive values from |
6550 | 626 @var{objects}. Thus, the first format specification in @var{string} |
627 uses the first such value, the second format specification uses the | |
628 second such value, and so on. Any extra format specifications (those | |
629 for which there are no corresponding values) cause unpredictable | |
630 behavior. Any extra values to be formatted are ignored. | |
631 | |
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632 Certain format specifications require values of particular types. If |
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633 you supply a value that doesn't fit the requirements, an error is |
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634 signaled. |
6550 | 635 |
636 Here is a table of valid format specifications: | |
637 | |
638 @table @samp | |
639 @item %s | |
640 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
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641 made without quoting (that is, using @code{princ}, not |
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642 @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output Functions}). Thus, strings are represented |
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643 by their contents alone, with no @samp{"} characters, and symbols appear |
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644 without @samp{\} characters. |
6550 | 645 |
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646 Starting in Emacs 21, if the object is a string, its text properties are |
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647 copied into the output. The text properties of the @samp{%s} itself |
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648 are also copied, but those of the object take priority. |
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649 |
6550 | 650 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used. |
651 | |
652 @item %S | |
653 Replace the specification with the printed representation of the object, | |
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654 made with quoting (that is, using @code{prin1}---@pxref{Output |
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655 Functions}). Thus, strings are enclosed in @samp{"} characters, and |
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656 @samp{\} characters appear where necessary before special characters. |
6550 | 657 |
658 If there is no corresponding object, the empty string is used. | |
659 | |
660 @item %o | |
661 @cindex integer to octal | |
662 Replace the specification with the base-eight representation of an | |
663 integer. | |
664 | |
665 @item %d | |
666 Replace the specification with the base-ten representation of an | |
667 integer. | |
668 | |
669 @item %x | |
35036 | 670 @itemx %X |
6550 | 671 @cindex integer to hexadecimal |
672 Replace the specification with the base-sixteen representation of an | |
35036 | 673 integer. @samp{%x} uses lower case and @samp{%X} uses upper case. |
6550 | 674 |
675 @item %c | |
676 Replace the specification with the character which is the value given. | |
677 | |
678 @item %e | |
679 Replace the specification with the exponential notation for a floating | |
35071 | 680 point number. |
6550 | 681 |
682 @item %f | |
683 Replace the specification with the decimal-point notation for a floating | |
684 point number. | |
685 | |
686 @item %g | |
687 Replace the specification with notation for a floating point number, | |
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688 using either exponential notation or decimal-point notation, whichever |
35071 | 689 is shorter. |
6550 | 690 |
691 @item %% | |
35036 | 692 Replace the specification with a single @samp{%}. This format |
693 specification is unusual in that it does not use a value. For example, | |
694 @code{(format "%% %d" 30)} returns @code{"% 30"}. | |
6550 | 695 @end table |
696 | |
697 Any other format character results in an @samp{Invalid format | |
698 operation} error. | |
699 | |
700 Here are several examples: | |
701 | |
702 @example | |
703 @group | |
704 (format "The name of this buffer is %s." (buffer-name)) | |
705 @result{} "The name of this buffer is strings.texi." | |
706 | |
707 (format "The buffer object prints as %s." (current-buffer)) | |
13228 | 708 @result{} "The buffer object prints as strings.texi." |
6550 | 709 |
710 (format "The octal value of %d is %o, | |
711 and the hex value is %x." 18 18 18) | |
712 @result{} "The octal value of 18 is 22, | |
713 and the hex value is 12." | |
714 @end group | |
715 @end example | |
716 | |
717 @cindex numeric prefix | |
718 @cindex field width | |
719 @cindex padding | |
720 All the specification characters allow an optional numeric prefix | |
721 between the @samp{%} and the character. The optional numeric prefix | |
722 defines the minimum width for the object. If the printed representation | |
723 of the object contains fewer characters than this, then it is padded. | |
724 The padding is on the left if the prefix is positive (or starts with | |
725 zero) and on the right if the prefix is negative. The padding character | |
726 is normally a space, but if the numeric prefix starts with a zero, zeros | |
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727 are used for padding. Here are some examples of padding: |
6550 | 728 |
729 @example | |
730 (format "%06d is padded on the left with zeros" 123) | |
731 @result{} "000123 is padded on the left with zeros" | |
732 | |
733 (format "%-6d is padded on the right" 123) | |
734 @result{} "123 is padded on the right" | |
735 @end example | |
736 | |
737 @code{format} never truncates an object's printed representation, no | |
738 matter what width you specify. Thus, you can use a numeric prefix to | |
739 specify a minimum spacing between columns with no risk of losing | |
740 information. | |
741 | |
742 In the following three examples, @samp{%7s} specifies a minimum width | |
743 of 7. In the first case, the string inserted in place of @samp{%7s} has | |
744 only 3 letters, so 4 blank spaces are inserted for padding. In the | |
745 second case, the string @code{"specification"} is 13 letters wide but is | |
746 not truncated. In the third case, the padding is on the right. | |
747 | |
748 @smallexample | |
749 @group | |
750 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
751 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
752 @result{} "The word ` foo' actually has 3 letters in it." | |
753 @end group | |
754 | |
755 @group | |
756 (format "The word `%7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
757 "specification" (length "specification")) | |
758 @result{} "The word `specification' actually has 13 letters in it." | |
759 @end group | |
760 | |
761 @group | |
762 (format "The word `%-7s' actually has %d letters in it." | |
763 "foo" (length "foo")) | |
764 @result{} "The word `foo ' actually has 3 letters in it." | |
765 @end group | |
766 @end smallexample | |
767 | |
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768 @node Case Conversion |
6550 | 769 @comment node-name, next, previous, up |
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770 @section Case Conversion in Lisp |
6550 | 771 @cindex upper case |
772 @cindex lower case | |
773 @cindex character case | |
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774 @cindex case conversion in Lisp |
6550 | 775 |
776 The character case functions change the case of single characters or | |
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777 of the contents of strings. The functions normally convert only |
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778 alphabetic characters (the letters @samp{A} through @samp{Z} and |
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779 @samp{a} through @samp{z}, as well as non-@sc{ascii} letters); other |
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780 characters are not altered. You can specify a different case |
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781 conversion mapping by specifying a case table (@pxref{Case Tables}). |
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782 |
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783 These functions do not modify the strings that are passed to them as |
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784 arguments. |
6550 | 785 |
786 The examples below use the characters @samp{X} and @samp{x} which have | |
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787 @sc{ascii} codes 88 and 120 respectively. |
6550 | 788 |
789 @defun downcase string-or-char | |
790 This function converts a character or a string to lower case. | |
791 | |
792 When the argument to @code{downcase} is a string, the function creates | |
793 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
794 upper case is converted to lower case. When the argument to | |
795 @code{downcase} is a character, @code{downcase} returns the | |
796 corresponding lower case character. This value is an integer. If the | |
797 original character is lower case, or is not a letter, then the value | |
798 equals the original character. | |
799 | |
800 @example | |
801 (downcase "The cat in the hat") | |
802 @result{} "the cat in the hat" | |
803 | |
804 (downcase ?X) | |
805 @result{} 120 | |
806 @end example | |
807 @end defun | |
808 | |
809 @defun upcase string-or-char | |
810 This function converts a character or a string to upper case. | |
811 | |
812 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a string, the function creates | |
813 and returns a new string in which each letter in the argument that is | |
814 lower case is converted to upper case. | |
815 | |
816 When the argument to @code{upcase} is a character, @code{upcase} | |
817 returns the corresponding upper case character. This value is an integer. | |
818 If the original character is upper case, or is not a letter, then the | |
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819 value returned equals the original character. |
6550 | 820 |
821 @example | |
822 (upcase "The cat in the hat") | |
823 @result{} "THE CAT IN THE HAT" | |
824 | |
825 (upcase ?x) | |
826 @result{} 88 | |
827 @end example | |
828 @end defun | |
829 | |
830 @defun capitalize string-or-char | |
831 @cindex capitalization | |
832 This function capitalizes strings or characters. If | |
833 @var{string-or-char} is a string, the function creates and returns a new | |
834 string, whose contents are a copy of @var{string-or-char} in which each | |
835 word has been capitalized. This means that the first character of each | |
836 word is converted to upper case, and the rest are converted to lower | |
837 case. | |
838 | |
839 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that | |
840 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax | |
25454 | 841 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). |
6550 | 842 |
843 When the argument to @code{capitalize} is a character, @code{capitalize} | |
844 has the same result as @code{upcase}. | |
845 | |
846 @example | |
847 (capitalize "The cat in the hat") | |
848 @result{} "The Cat In The Hat" | |
849 | |
850 (capitalize "THE 77TH-HATTED CAT") | |
851 @result{} "The 77th-Hatted Cat" | |
852 | |
853 @group | |
854 (capitalize ?x) | |
855 @result{} 88 | |
856 @end group | |
857 @end example | |
858 @end defun | |
859 | |
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860 @defun upcase-initials string |
24862 | 861 This function capitalizes the initials of the words in @var{string}, |
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862 without altering any letters other than the initials. It returns a new |
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863 string whose contents are a copy of @var{string}, in which each word has |
24862 | 864 had its initial letter converted to upper case. |
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865 |
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866 The definition of a word is any sequence of consecutive characters that |
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867 are assigned to the word constituent syntax class in the current syntax |
25454 | 868 table (@pxref{Syntax Class Table}). |
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869 |
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870 @example |
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871 @group |
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872 (upcase-initials "The CAT in the hAt") |
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873 @result{} "The CAT In The HAt" |
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874 @end group |
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875 @end example |
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876 @end defun |
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877 |
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878 @xref{Text Comparison}, for functions that compare strings; some of |
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879 them ignore case differences, or can optionally ignore case differences. |
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880 |
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881 @node Case Tables |
6550 | 882 @section The Case Table |
883 | |
884 You can customize case conversion by installing a special @dfn{case | |
885 table}. A case table specifies the mapping between upper case and lower | |
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886 case letters. It affects both the case conversion functions for Lisp |
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887 objects (see the previous section) and those that apply to text in the |
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888 buffer (@pxref{Case Changes}). Each buffer has a case table; there is |
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889 also a standard case table which is used to initialize the case table |
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890 of new buffers. |
6550 | 891 |
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892 A case table is a char-table (@pxref{Char-Tables}) whose subtype is |
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893 @code{case-table}. This char-table maps each character into the |
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894 corresponding lower case character. It has three extra slots, which |
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895 hold related tables: |
6550 | 896 |
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897 @table @var |
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898 @item upcase |
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899 The upcase table maps each character into the corresponding upper |
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900 case character. |
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901 @item canonicalize |
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902 The canonicalize table maps all of a set of case-related characters |
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903 into a particular member of that set. |
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904 @item equivalences |
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905 The equivalences table maps each one of a set of case-related characters |
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906 into the next character in that set. |
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907 @end table |
6550 | 908 |
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909 In simple cases, all you need to specify is the mapping to lower-case; |
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910 the three related tables will be calculated automatically from that one. |
6550 | 911 |
912 For some languages, upper and lower case letters are not in one-to-one | |
913 correspondence. There may be two different lower case letters with the | |
914 same upper case equivalent. In these cases, you need to specify the | |
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915 maps for both lower case and upper case. |
6550 | 916 |
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917 The extra table @var{canonicalize} maps each character to a canonical |
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918 equivalent; any two characters that are related by case-conversion have |
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919 the same canonical equivalent character. For example, since @samp{a} |
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920 and @samp{A} are related by case-conversion, they should have the same |
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921 canonical equivalent character (which should be either @samp{a} for both |
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922 of them, or @samp{A} for both of them). |
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923 |
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924 The extra table @var{equivalences} is a map that cyclicly permutes |
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925 each equivalence class (of characters with the same canonical |
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926 equivalent). (For ordinary @sc{ascii}, this would map @samp{a} into |
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927 @samp{A} and @samp{A} into @samp{a}, and likewise for each set of |
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928 equivalent characters.) |
6550 | 929 |
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930 When you construct a case table, you can provide @code{nil} for |
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931 @var{canonicalize}; then Emacs fills in this slot from the lower case |
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932 and upper case mappings. You can also provide @code{nil} for |
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933 @var{equivalences}; then Emacs fills in this slot from |
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934 @var{canonicalize}. In a case table that is actually in use, those |
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935 components are non-@code{nil}. Do not try to specify @var{equivalences} |
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936 without also specifying @var{canonicalize}. |
6550 | 937 |
938 Here are the functions for working with case tables: | |
939 | |
940 @defun case-table-p object | |
941 This predicate returns non-@code{nil} if @var{object} is a valid case | |
942 table. | |
943 @end defun | |
944 | |
945 @defun set-standard-case-table table | |
946 This function makes @var{table} the standard case table, so that it will | |
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947 be used in any buffers created subsequently. |
6550 | 948 @end defun |
949 | |
950 @defun standard-case-table | |
951 This returns the standard case table. | |
952 @end defun | |
953 | |
954 @defun current-case-table | |
955 This function returns the current buffer's case table. | |
956 @end defun | |
957 | |
958 @defun set-case-table table | |
959 This sets the current buffer's case table to @var{table}. | |
960 @end defun | |
961 | |
962 The following three functions are convenient subroutines for packages | |
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963 that define non-@sc{ascii} character sets. They modify the specified |
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964 case table @var{case-table}; they also modify the standard syntax table. |
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965 @xref{Syntax Tables}. Normally you would use these functions to change |
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966 the standard case table. |
6550 | 967 |
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968 @defun set-case-syntax-pair uc lc case-table |
6550 | 969 This function specifies a pair of corresponding letters, one upper case |
970 and one lower case. | |
971 @end defun | |
972 | |
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973 @defun set-case-syntax-delims l r case-table |
6550 | 974 This function makes characters @var{l} and @var{r} a matching pair of |
975 case-invariant delimiters. | |
976 @end defun | |
977 | |
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978 @defun set-case-syntax char syntax case-table |
6550 | 979 This function makes @var{char} case-invariant, with syntax |
980 @var{syntax}. | |
981 @end defun | |
982 | |
983 @deffn Command describe-buffer-case-table | |
984 This command displays a description of the contents of the current | |
985 buffer's case table. | |
986 @end deffn |