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annotate lispref/variables.texi @ 39180:f952f4f3d625
(archive-dostime): Fix a typo in minutes' computation.
author | Eli Zaretskii <eliz@gnu.org> |
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date | Fri, 07 Sep 2001 12:39:42 +0000 |
parents | 27db1f1aac19 |
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6510 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000 |
27189 | 4 @c Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
6510 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
6 @setfilename ../info/variables | |
7 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top | |
8 @chapter Variables | |
9 @cindex variable | |
10 | |
11 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value. | |
12 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the | |
13 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for | |
14 symbols. | |
15 | |
16 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented | |
17 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp | |
18 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable | |
19 name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the | |
20 symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as | |
21 a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
22 | |
23 The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual | |
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24 form of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp |
6510 | 25 objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program |
26 is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the | |
27 variable. | |
28 | |
29 @menu | |
30 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere. | |
31 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change. | |
32 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily. | |
33 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values. | |
34 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable. | |
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35 * Tips for Defining:: Things you should think about when you |
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36 define a variable. |
6510 | 37 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names |
38 are known only at run time. | |
39 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables. | |
40 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values. | |
41 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer. | |
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42 * Frame-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one frame. |
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43 * Future Local Variables:: New kinds of local values we might add some day. |
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44 * File Local Variables:: Handling local variable lists in files. |
6510 | 45 @end menu |
46 | |
47 @node Global Variables | |
48 @section Global Variables | |
49 @cindex global variable | |
50 | |
51 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that | |
52 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect | |
53 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains | |
54 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the | |
55 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable. | |
56 | |
57 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example, | |
58 | |
59 @example | |
60 (setq x '(a b)) | |
61 @end example | |
62 | |
63 @noindent | |
64 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that | |
65 @code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the | |
66 variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value. | |
67 | |
68 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol | |
69 by itself as an expression. Thus, | |
70 | |
71 @example | |
72 @group | |
73 x @result{} (a b) | |
74 @end group | |
75 @end example | |
76 | |
77 @noindent | |
78 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed. | |
79 | |
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80 If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the old |
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81 one: |
6510 | 82 |
83 @example | |
84 @group | |
85 x | |
86 @result{} (a b) | |
87 @end group | |
88 @group | |
89 (setq x 4) | |
90 @result{} 4 | |
91 @end group | |
92 @group | |
93 x | |
94 @result{} 4 | |
95 @end group | |
96 @end example | |
97 | |
98 @node Constant Variables | |
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99 @section Variables that Never Change |
6510 | 100 @vindex nil |
101 @vindex t | |
102 @kindex setting-constant | |
26200 | 103 @cindex keyword symbol |
6510 | 104 |
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105 In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. These |
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106 include @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name starts |
26200 | 107 with @samp{:} (these are called @dfn{keywords}). These symbols cannot |
108 be rebound, nor can their values be changed. Any attempt to set or bind | |
109 @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. The | |
110 same is true for a keyword (a symbol whose name starts with @samp{:}), | |
111 if it is interned in the standard obarray, except that setting such a | |
112 symbol to itself is not an error. | |
6510 | 113 |
114 @example | |
115 @group | |
116 nil @equiv{} 'nil | |
117 @result{} nil | |
118 @end group | |
119 @group | |
120 (setq nil 500) | |
121 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil | |
122 @end group | |
123 @end example | |
124 | |
27528 | 125 @defun keywordp object |
126 @tindex keywordp | |
127 function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol whose name | |
128 starts with @samp{:}, interned in the standard obarray, and returns | |
129 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
130 @end defun | |
131 | |
6510 | 132 @node Local Variables |
133 @section Local Variables | |
134 @cindex binding local variables | |
135 @cindex local variables | |
136 @cindex local binding | |
137 @cindex global binding | |
138 | |
139 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded | |
140 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that | |
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141 exist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes. |
6510 | 142 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are |
143 called @dfn{local variables}. | |
144 | |
145 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive | |
146 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let} | |
147 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified | |
148 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form. | |
149 | |
150 @cindex shadowing of variables | |
151 Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of | |
152 one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over, | |
153 the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the | |
154 previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and | |
155 local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}). | |
156 | |
157 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local, | |
158 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or | |
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159 previous local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we |
6510 | 160 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value. |
161 | |
162 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value. | |
163 Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the | |
164 local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the | |
165 local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value | |
166 is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a | |
167 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does | |
168 not create a new binding. | |
169 | |
170 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where | |
171 (conceptually) the global value is kept. | |
172 | |
173 @cindex current binding | |
174 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for | |
175 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a | |
176 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the | |
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177 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called |
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178 @dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no |
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179 local bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding. |
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180 We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existing |
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181 binding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns |
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182 the value of its current binding. |
6510 | 183 |
184 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create | |
185 local bindings. | |
186 | |
187 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
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188 This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then |
6510 | 189 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form |
190 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}. | |
191 | |
192 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case | |
193 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form | |
194 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is | |
195 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form} | |
196 is omitted, @code{nil} is used. | |
197 | |
198 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the | |
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199 order they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them. |
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200 Here is an example of this: @code{Z} is bound to the old value of |
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201 @code{Y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{Y}, which is 1. |
6510 | 202 |
203 @example | |
204 @group | |
205 (setq Y 2) | |
206 @result{} 2 | |
207 @end group | |
208 @group | |
209 (let ((Y 1) | |
210 (Z Y)) | |
211 (list Y Z)) | |
212 @result{} (1 2) | |
213 @end group | |
214 @end example | |
215 @end defspec | |
216 | |
217 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
218 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right | |
219 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for | |
220 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can | |
221 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*} | |
222 form. Compare the following example with the example above for | |
223 @code{let}. | |
224 | |
225 @example | |
226 @group | |
227 (setq Y 2) | |
228 @result{} 2 | |
229 @end group | |
230 @group | |
231 (let* ((Y 1) | |
232 (Z Y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{Y}.} | |
233 (list Y Z)) | |
234 @result{} (1 1) | |
235 @end group | |
236 @end example | |
237 @end defspec | |
238 | |
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239 Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local |
6510 | 240 bindings: |
241 | |
242 @itemize @bullet | |
243 @item | |
244 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}). | |
245 | |
246 @item | |
247 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}). | |
248 | |
249 @item | |
250 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}). | |
251 @end itemize | |
252 | |
12098 | 253 Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local |
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254 Variables}) and frame-local bindings (@pxref{Frame-Local Variables}); a |
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255 few variables have terminal-local bindings (@pxref{Multiple Displays}). |
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256 These kinds of bindings work somewhat like ordinary local bindings, but |
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257 they are localized depending on ``where'' you are in Emacs, rather than |
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258 localized in time. |
12098 | 259 |
6510 | 260 @defvar max-specpdl-size |
261 @cindex variable limit error | |
262 @cindex evaluation error | |
263 @cindex infinite recursion | |
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264 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable |
6510 | 265 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}) |
266 that are allowed before signaling an error (with data @code{"Variable | |
267 binding depth exceeds max-specpdl-size"}). | |
268 | |
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269 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way |
6510 | 270 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function. |
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271 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting. |
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272 @xref{Eval}. |
6510 | 273 |
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274 The default value is 600. Entry to the Lisp debugger increases the |
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275 value, if there is little room left, to make sure the debugger itself |
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276 has room to execute. |
6510 | 277 @end defvar |
278 | |
279 @node Void Variables | |
280 @section When a Variable is ``Void'' | |
281 @kindex void-variable | |
282 @cindex void variable | |
283 | |
284 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we | |
285 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the | |
286 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to | |
287 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than | |
288 a value. | |
289 | |
290 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol | |
291 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any | |
292 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not | |
293 have any value. | |
294 | |
295 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more | |
296 using @code{makunbound}. | |
297 | |
298 @defun makunbound symbol | |
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299 This function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void. |
6510 | 300 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal |
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301 the error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again. |
6510 | 302 |
303 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}. | |
304 | |
305 @example | |
306 @group | |
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307 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.} |
6510 | 308 @result{} x |
309 @end group | |
310 @group | |
311 x | |
312 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
313 @end group | |
314 @end example | |
315 | |
316 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most | |
317 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void | |
318 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings | |
319 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as | |
320 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from | |
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321 the construct that made it, the previous local or global binding is |
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322 reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly |
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323 reexposed binding was void all along. |
6510 | 324 |
325 @smallexample | |
326 @group | |
327 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.} | |
328 @result{} 1 | |
329 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
330 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.} | |
331 x) | |
332 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
333 @end group | |
334 @group | |
335 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.} | |
336 @result{} 1 | |
337 | |
338 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
339 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.} | |
340 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.} | |
341 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.} | |
342 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
343 @end group | |
344 | |
345 @group | |
346 (let ((x 2)) | |
347 (let ((x 3)) | |
348 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.} | |
349 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.} | |
350 @result{} 2 | |
351 @end group | |
352 @end smallexample | |
353 @end defun | |
354 | |
355 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is | |
356 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has | |
357 always been void. | |
358 | |
359 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is | |
360 currently void. | |
361 | |
362 @defun boundp variable | |
363 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void; | |
364 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns | |
365 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
366 | |
367 @smallexample | |
368 @group | |
369 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.} | |
370 @result{} nil | |
371 @end group | |
372 @group | |
373 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
374 (boundp 'abracadabra)) | |
375 @result{} t | |
376 @end group | |
377 @group | |
378 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.} | |
379 @result{} nil | |
380 @end group | |
381 @group | |
382 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.} | |
383 @result{} 5 | |
384 @end group | |
385 @group | |
386 (boundp 'abracadabra) | |
387 @result{} t | |
388 @end group | |
389 @end smallexample | |
390 @end defun | |
391 | |
392 @node Defining Variables | |
393 @section Defining Global Variables | |
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394 @cindex variable definition |
6510 | 395 |
396 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable | |
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397 with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst} |
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398 or @code{defvar}. |
6510 | 399 |
400 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform | |
401 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be | |
402 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system | |
403 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they | |
404 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and | |
405 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and | |
406 variables in a program. | |
407 | |
408 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily | |
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409 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the value |
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410 should ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a |
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411 variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar} |
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412 declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization: |
6510 | 413 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while |
414 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void. | |
415 | |
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416 @ignore |
6510 | 417 One would expect user option variables to be defined with |
418 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this | |
419 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded: | |
420 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is | |
421 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init | |
422 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For | |
423 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}. | |
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424 @end ignore |
6510 | 425 |
426 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
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427 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can also |
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428 initialize and document it. The definition informs a person reading |
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429 your code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set or |
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430 changed. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be |
6510 | 431 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}. |
432 | |
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433 If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar} |
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434 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol} |
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435 already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not even |
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436 evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value} |
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437 is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case. |
6510 | 438 |
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439 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, |
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440 @code{defvar} operates on the default value, which is buffer-independent, |
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441 not the current (buffer-local) binding. It sets the default value if |
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442 the default value is void. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. |
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443 |
12098 | 444 When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} in |
445 Emacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of | |
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446 @code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally, without |
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447 testing whether its value is void. |
6510 | 448 |
449 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation | |
450 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of | |
451 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is | |
452 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The | |
453 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property. | |
454 | |
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455 If the variable is a user option that users would want to set |
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456 interactively, you should use @samp{*} as the first character of |
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457 @var{doc-string}. This lets users set the variable conveniently using |
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458 the @code{set-variable} command. Note that you should nearly always |
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459 use @code{defcustom} instead of @code{defvar} to define these |
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460 variables, so that users can use @kbd{M-x customize} and related |
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461 commands to set them. @xref{Customization}. |
6510 | 462 |
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463 Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does not |
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464 initialize it: |
6510 | 465 |
466 @example | |
467 @group | |
468 (defvar foo) | |
469 @result{} foo | |
470 @end group | |
471 @end example | |
472 | |
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473 This example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and gives |
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474 it a documentation string: |
6510 | 475 |
476 @example | |
477 @group | |
478 (defvar bar 23 | |
479 "The normal weight of a bar.") | |
480 @result{} bar | |
481 @end group | |
482 @end example | |
483 | |
484 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar}, | |
485 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar} | |
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486 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an error |
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487 if it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.) |
6510 | 488 |
489 @example | |
490 @group | |
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491 (defvar bar (1+ nil) |
6510 | 492 "*The normal weight of a bar.") |
493 @result{} bar | |
494 @end group | |
495 @group | |
496 bar | |
497 @result{} 23 | |
498 @end group | |
499 @end example | |
500 | |
501 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form: | |
502 | |
503 @example | |
504 @group | |
505 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string}) | |
506 @equiv{} | |
507 (progn | |
508 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol})) | |
509 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value})) | |
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510 (if '@var{doc-string} |
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511 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string})) |
6510 | 512 '@var{symbol}) |
513 @end group | |
514 @end example | |
515 | |
516 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used | |
517 at top level in a file where its value does not matter. | |
518 @end defspec | |
519 | |
520 @defspec defconst symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
521 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it. | |
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522 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standard |
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523 global value, established here, that should not be changed by the user |
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524 or by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the |
6510 | 525 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}. |
526 | |
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527 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of |
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528 @var{symbol} to the result if @var{value} is given. If @var{symbol} |
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529 does have a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} |
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530 sets the default value, not the buffer-local value. (But you should not |
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531 be making buffer-local bindings for a symbol that is defined with |
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532 @code{defconst}.) |
6510 | 533 |
534 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed | |
535 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding). | |
536 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory. | |
537 | |
538 @example | |
539 @group | |
540 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.") | |
541 @result{} pi | |
542 @end group | |
543 @group | |
544 (setq pi 3) | |
545 @result{} pi | |
546 @end group | |
547 @group | |
548 pi | |
549 @result{} 3 | |
550 @end group | |
551 @end example | |
552 @end defspec | |
553 | |
554 @defun user-variable-p variable | |
555 @cindex user option | |
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556 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a |
6510 | 557 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and |
558 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the | |
559 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.) | |
560 | |
27528 | 561 User option variables are distinguished from other variables either |
562 though being declared using @code{defcustom}@footnote{They may also be | |
563 declared equivalently in @file{cus-start.el}.} or by the first character | |
564 of their @code{variable-documentation} property. If the property exists | |
565 and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, then the variable | |
566 is a user option. | |
6510 | 567 @end defun |
568 | |
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569 @kindex variable-interactive |
6510 | 570 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property, |
12098 | 571 the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading the |
572 new value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it were | |
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573 specified in @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However, |
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574 this feature is largely obsoleted by @code{defcustom} |
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575 (@pxref{Customization}). |
6510 | 576 |
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577 @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special |
6510 | 578 forms are used while the variable has a local binding, they set the |
579 local binding's value; the global binding is not changed. This is not | |
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580 what you usually want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top |
6510 | 581 level in a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make |
582 sure to load the file before making a local binding for the variable. | |
583 | |
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584 @node Tips for Defining |
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585 @section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly |
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586 |
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587 When you define a variable whose value is a function, or a list of |
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588 functions, use a name that ends in @samp{-function} or |
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589 @samp{-functions}, respectively. |
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590 |
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591 There are several other variable name conventions; |
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592 here is a complete list: |
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593 |
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594 @table @samp |
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595 @item @dots{}-hook |
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596 The variable is a normal hook (@pxref{Hooks}). |
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597 |
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598 @item @dots{}-function |
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599 The value is a function. |
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600 |
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601 @item @dots{}-functions |
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602 The value is a list of functions. |
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603 |
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604 @item @dots{}-form |
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605 The value is a form (an expression). |
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606 |
37583 | 607 @item @dots{}-forms |
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608 The value is a list of forms (expressions). |
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609 |
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610 @item @dots{}-predicate |
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611 The value is a predicate---a function of one argument that returns |
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612 non-@code{nil} for ``good'' arguments and @code{nil} for ``bad'' |
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613 arguments. |
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614 |
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615 @item @dots{}-flag |
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616 The value is significant only as to whether it is @code{nil} or not. |
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617 |
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618 @item @dots{}-program |
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619 The value is a program name. |
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620 |
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621 @item @dots{}-command |
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622 The value is a whole shell command. |
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623 |
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624 @item @samp{}-switches |
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625 The value specifies options for a command. |
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626 @end table |
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627 |
37583 | 628 When you define a variable, always consider whether you should mark |
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629 it as ``risky''; see @ref{File Local Variables}. |
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630 |
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631 When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicated |
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632 value (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put the |
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633 entire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this: |
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634 |
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635 @example |
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636 (defvar my-mode-map |
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637 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) |
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638 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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639 @dots{} |
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640 map) |
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641 @var{docstring}) |
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642 @end example |
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643 |
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644 @noindent |
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645 This method has several benefits. First, if the user quits while |
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646 loading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized or |
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647 initialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized, |
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648 reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading the |
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649 file once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that is |
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650 important if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (such |
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651 as, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with |
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652 @kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely. |
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653 |
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654 Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage: |
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655 it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names the |
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656 variable. Here's a safe way to avoid that: |
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657 |
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658 @example |
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659 (defvar my-mode-map nil |
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660 @var{docstring}) |
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661 (unless my-mode-map |
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662 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) |
30502 | 663 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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664 @dots{} |
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665 (setq my-mode-map map))) |
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666 @end example |
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667 |
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668 @noindent |
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669 This has all the same advantages as putting the initialization inside |
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670 the @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once on |
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671 each form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable. |
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672 |
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673 But be careful not to write the code like this: |
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674 |
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675 @example |
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676 (defvar my-mode-map nil |
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677 @var{docstring}) |
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678 (unless my-mode-map |
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679 (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap)) |
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680 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) |
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681 @dots{}) |
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682 @end example |
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683 |
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684 @noindent |
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685 This code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more than |
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686 one step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves the |
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687 variable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Once |
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688 that happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; it |
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689 will remain incomplete. |
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690 |
6510 | 691 @node Accessing Variables |
692 @section Accessing Variable Values | |
693 | |
694 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which | |
695 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the | |
696 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what | |
697 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which | |
698 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}. | |
699 | |
700 @defun symbol-value symbol | |
701 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in | |
702 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it | |
703 has no local bindings. | |
704 | |
705 @example | |
706 @group | |
707 (setq abracadabra 5) | |
708 @result{} 5 | |
709 @end group | |
710 @group | |
711 (setq foo 9) | |
712 @result{} 9 | |
713 @end group | |
714 | |
715 @group | |
716 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}} | |
717 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
718 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
719 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)) | |
720 @result{} foo | |
721 @end group | |
722 | |
723 @group | |
724 ;; @r{Here the value of @code{abracadabra},} | |
725 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},} | |
726 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
727 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
728 (symbol-value abracadabra)) | |
729 @result{} 9 | |
730 @end group | |
731 | |
732 @group | |
733 (symbol-value 'abracadabra) | |
734 @result{} 5 | |
735 @end group | |
736 @end example | |
737 | |
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738 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of |
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739 @var{symbol} is void. |
6510 | 740 @end defun |
741 | |
742 @node Setting Variables | |
743 @section How to Alter a Variable Value | |
744 | |
745 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special | |
746 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at | |
747 run time, use the function @code{set}. | |
748 | |
749 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{} | |
750 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's | |
751 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of | |
752 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing | |
753 binding of the symbol is changed. | |
754 | |
755 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you | |
756 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The | |
757 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.'' | |
758 | |
759 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}. | |
760 | |
761 @example | |
762 @group | |
763 (setq x (1+ 2)) | |
764 @result{} 3 | |
765 @end group | |
766 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.} | |
767 @result{} 3 | |
768 @group | |
769 (let ((x 5)) | |
770 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.} | |
771 x) | |
772 @result{} 6 | |
773 @end group | |
774 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.} | |
775 @result{} 3 | |
776 @end example | |
777 | |
778 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first | |
779 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the | |
780 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on: | |
781 | |
782 @example | |
783 @group | |
784 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before} | |
785 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.} | |
786 @result{} 11 | |
787 @end group | |
788 @end example | |
789 @end defspec | |
790 | |
791 @defun set symbol value | |
792 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns | |
793 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for | |
794 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set. | |
795 | |
796 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is | |
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797 set; shadowed bindings are not affected. |
6510 | 798 |
799 @example | |
800 @group | |
801 (set one 1) | |
802 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one | |
803 @end group | |
804 @group | |
805 (set 'one 1) | |
806 @result{} 1 | |
807 @end group | |
808 @group | |
809 (set 'two 'one) | |
810 @result{} one | |
811 @end group | |
812 @group | |
813 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.} | |
814 @result{} 2 | |
815 @end group | |
816 @group | |
817 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.} | |
818 @result{} 2 | |
819 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,} | |
820 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.} | |
821 one) | |
822 @result{} 3 | |
823 @end group | |
824 @group | |
825 one | |
826 @result{} 2 | |
827 @end group | |
828 @end example | |
829 | |
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830 If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument} |
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831 error is signaled. |
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832 |
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833 @example |
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834 (set '(x y) 'z) |
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835 @error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y) |
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836 @end example |
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837 |
6510 | 838 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than |
839 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use | |
840 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the | |
841 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used; | |
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842 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing |
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843 at run time which variable to set. For example, the command |
6510 | 844 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then |
845 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}. | |
846 | |
847 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local | |
848 @quotation | |
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849 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the |
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850 symbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings. |
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851 In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set} |
6510 | 852 always affects the most local existing binding. |
853 @end quotation | |
854 @end defun | |
855 | |
12067 | 856 One other function for setting a variable is designed to add |
857 an element to a list if it is not already present in the list. | |
858 | |
859 @defun add-to-list symbol element | |
860 This function sets the variable @var{symbol} by consing @var{element} | |
861 onto the old value, if @var{element} is not already a member of that | |
12098 | 862 value. It returns the resulting list, whether updated or not. The |
863 value of @var{symbol} had better be a list already before the call. | |
864 | |
865 The argument @var{symbol} is not implicitly quoted; @code{add-to-list} | |
866 is an ordinary function, like @code{set} and unlike @code{setq}. Quote | |
867 the argument yourself if that is what you want. | |
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868 @end defun |
12067 | 869 |
870 Here's a scenario showing how to use @code{add-to-list}: | |
871 | |
872 @example | |
873 (setq foo '(a b)) | |
874 @result{} (a b) | |
875 | |
876 (add-to-list 'foo 'c) ;; @r{Add @code{c}.} | |
877 @result{} (c a b) | |
878 | |
879 (add-to-list 'foo 'b) ;; @r{No effect.} | |
880 @result{} (c a b) | |
881 | |
882 foo ;; @r{@code{foo} was changed.} | |
883 @result{} (c a b) | |
884 @end example | |
885 | |
886 An equivalent expression for @code{(add-to-list '@var{var} | |
887 @var{value})} is this: | |
888 | |
889 @example | |
890 (or (member @var{value} @var{var}) | |
891 (setq @var{var} (cons @var{value} @var{var}))) | |
892 @end example | |
893 | |
6510 | 894 @node Variable Scoping |
895 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings | |
896 | |
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897 A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings, |
6510 | 898 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global |
899 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over | |
900 the others. | |
901 | |
902 @cindex scope | |
903 @cindex extent | |
904 @cindex dynamic scoping | |
905 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and | |
906 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in | |
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907 the source code the binding can be accessed. ``Indefinite scope'' means |
6510 | 908 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable |
909 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is | |
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910 executing, the binding exists. ``Dynamic extent'' means that the binding |
6510 | 911 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it. |
912 | |
913 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called | |
914 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use | |
915 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be | |
916 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable. | |
917 | |
918 @cindex CL note---special variables | |
919 @quotation | |
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920 @b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp are |
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921 dynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp. |
6510 | 922 @end quotation |
923 | |
924 @menu | |
925 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible. | |
926 Comparison with other languages. | |
927 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists. | |
928 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping. | |
929 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems. | |
930 @end menu | |
931 | |
932 @node Scope | |
933 @subsection Scope | |
934 | |
935 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings. | |
936 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a | |
937 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function | |
938 definitions: | |
939 | |
940 @example | |
941 @group | |
942 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.} | |
943 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.} | |
944 @end group | |
945 | |
946 @group | |
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947 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.} |
6510 | 948 (list x)) |
949 @end group | |
950 @end example | |
951 | |
952 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in | |
953 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because | |
954 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function | |
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955 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically-scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user} |
6510 | 956 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in |
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957 @code{binder}, depending on the circumstances: |
6510 | 958 |
959 @itemize @bullet | |
960 @item | |
961 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all, | |
962 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from | |
963 @code{binder}. | |
964 | |
965 @item | |
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966 If we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then the |
6510 | 967 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}: |
968 | |
969 @example | |
970 @group | |
971 (defun foo (lose) | |
972 (user)) | |
973 @end group | |
974 @end example | |
975 | |
976 @item | |
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977 However, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, |
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978 then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in |
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979 @code{user}: |
6510 | 980 |
981 @example | |
982 (defun foo (x) | |
983 (user)) | |
984 @end example | |
985 | |
986 @noindent | |
987 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}. | |
988 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in | |
989 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound | |
990 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}. | |
991 @end itemize | |
992 | |
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993 Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of |
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994 lexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offer |
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995 dynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm, |
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996 there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particular |
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997 variable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, but |
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998 implementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier. |
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999 |
6510 | 1000 @node Extent |
1001 @subsection Extent | |
1002 | |
1003 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a | |
1004 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while | |
1005 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic | |
1006 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages, | |
1007 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent. | |
1008 | |
1009 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This | |
1010 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form | |
1011 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support | |
1012 this, but Emacs Lisp does not. | |
1013 | |
1014 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a | |
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1015 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. This |
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1016 would work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp, |
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1017 because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n} |
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1018 is no longer bound to the actual argument 2. |
6510 | 1019 |
1020 @example | |
1021 (defun make-add (n) | |
1022 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.} | |
1023 @result{} make-add | |
1024 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}} | |
1025 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.} | |
1026 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m)) | |
1027 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.} | |
1028 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n | |
1029 @end example | |
1030 | |
1031 @cindex closures not available | |
1032 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures'', objects that are like functions | |
1033 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have | |
1034 closures. | |
1035 | |
1036 @node Impl of Scope | |
1037 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping | |
1038 @cindex deep binding | |
1039 | |
1040 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually | |
1041 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is | |
1042 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems. | |
1043 | |
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1044 Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs. |
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1045 At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings |
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1046 onto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. We |
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1047 can pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the binding |
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1048 construct. |
6510 | 1049 |
1050 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to | |
1051 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is | |
1052 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the | |
1053 current binding, then store the new value into that binding. | |
1054 | |
1055 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it | |
1056 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is | |
1057 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function | |
1058 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the | |
1059 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite. | |
1060 | |
1061 @cindex shallow binding | |
1062 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a | |
1063 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard | |
1064 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the | |
1065 symbol. | |
1066 | |
1067 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in | |
1068 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value | |
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1069 (belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the new |
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1070 local value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping |
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1071 the old value off the stack, into the value cell. |
6510 | 1072 |
1073 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep | |
1074 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a | |
1075 binding. | |
1076 | |
1077 @node Using Scoping | |
1078 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping | |
1079 | |
1080 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a | |
1081 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs | |
1082 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique: | |
1083 | |
1084 @itemize @bullet | |
1085 @item | |
1086 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close | |
1087 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within | |
1088 one program. | |
1089 | |
1090 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see | |
1091 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses | |
1092 elsewhere. | |
1093 | |
1094 @item | |
1095 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all | |
1096 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever | |
1097 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable | |
1098 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case | |
1099 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it | |
1100 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it. | |
1101 | |
1102 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what | |
1103 the effect will be. | |
1104 @end itemize | |
1105 | |
12098 | 1106 In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}. |
1107 This helps other people understand your program by telling them to look | |
1108 for inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the byte | |
1109 compiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don't | |
1110 use short names like @code{x}. | |
1111 | |
6510 | 1112 @node Buffer-Local Variables |
1113 @section Buffer-Local Variables | |
1114 @cindex variables, buffer-local | |
1115 @cindex buffer-local variables | |
1116 | |
1117 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming | |
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1118 languages in one form or another. Emacs, however, also supports additional, |
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1119 unusual kinds of variable binding: @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which |
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1120 apply only in one buffer, and @dfn{frame-local} bindings, which apply only in |
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1121 one frame. Having different values for a variable in different buffers |
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1122 and/or frames is an important customization method. |
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1123 |
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1124 This section describes buffer-local bindings; for frame-local |
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1125 bindings, see the following section, @ref{Frame-Local Variables}. (A few |
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1126 variables have bindings that are local to each terminal; see |
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1127 @ref{Multiple Displays}.) |
6510 | 1128 |
1129 @menu | |
1130 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts. | |
1131 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings. | |
1132 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers | |
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1133 that don't have their own buffer-local values. |
6510 | 1134 @end menu |
1135 | |
1136 @node Intro to Buffer-Local | |
1137 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables | |
1138 | |
1139 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a | |
1140 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is | |
1141 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while | |
1142 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding, | |
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1143 so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change is |
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1144 visible only in the buffer where you made it. |
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1145 |
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1146 The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with any |
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1147 specific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases, |
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1148 this is the global binding. |
6510 | 1149 |
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1150 A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in |
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1151 other buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers that |
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1152 don't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes all |
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1153 newly-created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that does |
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1154 not have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding |
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1155 (assuming there are no frame-local bindings to complicate the matter), |
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1156 so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the default |
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1157 binding. |
6510 | 1158 |
1159 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change | |
1160 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and | |
1161 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only | |
1162 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable | |
1163 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and | |
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1164 then setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}. |
6510 | 1165 |
1166 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with | |
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1167 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typically |
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1168 use. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including |
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1169 those yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unless |
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1170 they are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings. |
6510 | 1171 |
1172 @cindex automatically buffer-local | |
1173 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as | |
1174 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling | |
1175 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the | |
1176 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More | |
1177 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes | |
1178 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All | |
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1179 buffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual, |
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1180 but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the current |
6510 | 1181 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving |
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1182 the default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannot |
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1183 be changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it is |
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1184 with @code{setq-default}. |
6510 | 1185 |
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1186 @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local values in one or |
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1187 more buffers, you can get Emacs very confused by binding the variable |
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1188 with @code{let}, changing to a different current buffer in which a |
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1189 different binding is in effect, and then exiting the @code{let}. This |
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1190 can scramble the values of the buffer-local and default bindings. |
6510 | 1191 |
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1192 To preserve your sanity, avoid using a variable in that way. If you |
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1193 use @code{save-excursion} around each piece of code that changes to a |
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1194 different current buffer, you will not have this problem |
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1195 (@pxref{Excursions}). Here is an example of what to avoid: |
6510 | 1196 |
1197 @example | |
1198 @group | |
1199 (setq foo 'b) | |
1200 (set-buffer "a") | |
1201 (make-local-variable 'foo) | |
1202 @end group | |
1203 (setq foo 'a) | |
1204 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
1205 (set-buffer "b") | |
12098 | 1206 @var{body}@dots{}) |
6510 | 1207 @group |
1208 foo @result{} 'a ; @r{The old buffer-local value from buffer @samp{a}} | |
1209 ; @r{is now the default value.} | |
1210 @end group | |
1211 @group | |
1212 (set-buffer "a") | |
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1213 foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{The local @code{let} value that should be gone} |
6510 | 1214 ; @r{is now the buffer-local value in buffer @samp{a}.} |
1215 @end group | |
1216 @end example | |
1217 | |
1218 @noindent | |
1219 But @code{save-excursion} as shown here avoids the problem: | |
1220 | |
1221 @example | |
1222 @group | |
1223 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
1224 (save-excursion | |
1225 (set-buffer "b") | |
1226 @var{body}@dots{})) | |
1227 @end group | |
1228 @end example | |
1229 | |
1230 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the | |
1231 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}. | |
1232 | |
1233 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local | |
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1234 values when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, The |
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1235 GNU Emacs Manual}. |
6510 | 1236 |
1237 @node Creating Buffer-Local | |
1238 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings | |
1239 | |
1240 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable | |
1241 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for | |
1242 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value | |
1243 returned is @var{variable}. | |
1244 | |
1245 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1246 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value | |
1247 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains | |
1248 void. | |
1249 | |
1250 @example | |
1251 @group | |
1252 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:} | |
1253 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.} | |
1254 @result{} 5 | |
1255 @end group | |
1256 @group | |
1257 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.} | |
1258 @result{} foo | |
1259 @end group | |
1260 @group | |
1261 foo ; @r{That did not change} | |
1262 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.} | |
1263 @end group | |
1264 @group | |
1265 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value} | |
1266 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.} | |
1267 @end group | |
1268 @group | |
1269 foo | |
1270 @result{} 6 | |
1271 @end group | |
1272 | |
1273 @group | |
1274 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.} | |
1275 (save-excursion | |
1276 (set-buffer "b2") | |
1277 foo) | |
1278 @result{} 5 | |
1279 @end group | |
1280 @end example | |
8214 | 1281 |
1282 Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that | |
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1283 variable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do this |
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1284 is not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This is |
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1285 because @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds of |
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1286 bindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for. |
12067 | 1287 |
12098 | 1288 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error. Such |
1289 variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. @xref{Multiple | |
1290 Displays}. | |
1291 | |
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1292 @strong{Note:} Do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hook |
12067 | 1293 variable. Instead, use @code{make-local-hook}. @xref{Hooks}. |
6510 | 1294 @end deffn |
1295 | |
1296 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable | |
1297 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically | |
1298 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it | |
1299 local to the current buffer at the time. | |
1300 | |
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1301 A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with |
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1302 @code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-local |
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1303 binding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or |
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1304 @code{setq}) does so. |
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1305 |
6510 | 1306 The value returned is @var{variable}. |
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1307 |
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1308 @strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use |
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1309 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simply |
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1310 because users @emph{might} want to customize them differently in |
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1311 different buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wish |
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1312 to. It is better to leave the choice to them. |
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1313 |
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1314 The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucial |
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1315 that no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when a |
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1316 variable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which depends |
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1317 on having separate values in separate buffers, then using |
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1318 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution. |
6510 | 1319 @end deffn |
1320 | |
12098 | 1321 @defun local-variable-p variable &optional buffer |
1322 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer | |
1323 @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise, | |
1324 @code{nil}. | |
1325 @end defun | |
1326 | |
6510 | 1327 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer |
1328 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in | |
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1329 buffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer is |
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1330 used.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) in |
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1331 which each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value. |
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1332 However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void, |
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1333 then the variable appears directly in the resulting list. |
6510 | 1334 |
1335 @example | |
1336 @group | |
1337 (make-local-variable 'foobar) | |
1338 (makunbound 'foobar) | |
1339 (make-local-variable 'bind-me) | |
1340 (setq bind-me 69) | |
1341 @end group | |
1342 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables)) | |
1343 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:} | |
1344 @result{} ((mark-active . nil) | |
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1345 (buffer-undo-list . nil) |
6510 | 1346 (mode-name . "Fundamental") |
1347 @dots{} | |
1348 @group | |
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1349 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.} |
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1350 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:} |
6510 | 1351 foobar |
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1352 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:} |
6510 | 1353 (bind-me . 69)) |
1354 @end group | |
1355 @end example | |
1356 | |
1357 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this | |
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1358 list does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables. |
6510 | 1359 @end defun |
1360 | |
1361 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable | |
1362 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for | |
1363 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the | |
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1364 default binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. This |
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1365 typically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since the |
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1366 default value is usually different from the buffer-local value just |
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1367 eliminated. |
6510 | 1368 |
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1369 If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automatically |
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1370 becomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible in |
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1371 the current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will |
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1372 once again create a buffer-local binding for it. |
6510 | 1373 |
1374 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}. | |
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1375 |
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1376 This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one |
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1377 buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create |
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1378 buffer-local variables interactively. |
6510 | 1379 @end deffn |
1380 | |
1381 @defun kill-all-local-variables | |
1382 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the | |
1383 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent''. As a | |
1384 result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables. | |
1385 | |
1386 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the | |
1387 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the | |
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1388 value of @code{(standard-syntax-table)}, the case table to |
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1389 @code{(standard-case-table)}, and the abbrev table to the value of |
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1390 @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}. |
6510 | 1391 |
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1392 The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook |
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1393 @code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below). |
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1394 |
6510 | 1395 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the |
1396 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects | |
1397 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the | |
1398 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent. | |
1399 | |
1400 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}. | |
1401 @end defun | |
1402 | |
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1403 @defvar change-major-mode-hook |
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1404 The function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hook |
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1405 before it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrange |
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1406 for something special to be done if the user switches to a different |
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1407 major mode. For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that |
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1408 it will disappear after doing its job and will not interfere with the |
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1409 subsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}. |
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1410 @end defvar |
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1411 |
6510 | 1412 @c Emacs 19 feature |
1413 @cindex permanent local variable | |
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1414 A buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a |
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1415 symbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}. |
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1416 Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file |
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1417 came from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents. |
6510 | 1418 |
1419 @node Default Value | |
1420 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable | |
1421 @cindex default value | |
1422 | |
1423 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also | |
1424 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in | |
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1425 effect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame has |
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1426 its own binding for the variable. |
6510 | 1427 |
1428 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and | |
1429 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current | |
1430 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use | |
1431 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of | |
1432 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when | |
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1433 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for |
6510 | 1434 this variable. |
1435 | |
1436 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1437 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the | |
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1438 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any |
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1439 buffer-local or frame-local value. |
6510 | 1440 |
1441 @defun default-value symbol | |
1442 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value | |
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1443 that is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values for |
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1444 this variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent |
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1445 to @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}). |
6510 | 1446 @end defun |
1447 | |
1448 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
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1449 @defun default-boundp symbol |
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1450 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s |
6510 | 1451 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns |
1452 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error. | |
1453 | |
1454 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to | |
1455 @code{symbol-value}. | |
1456 @end defun | |
1457 | |
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1458 @defspec setq-default [symbol form]@dots{} |
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1459 This special form gives each @var{symbol} a new default value, which is |
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1460 the result of evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. It does not |
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1461 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{form}. The value of the |
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1462 @code{setq-default} form is the value of the last @var{form}. |
6510 | 1463 |
1464 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not | |
1465 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same | |
1466 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current | |
1467 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long | |
1468 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the | |
1469 current buffer sees. | |
1470 | |
1471 @example | |
1472 @group | |
1473 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
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1474 (make-local-variable 'buffer-local) |
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1475 @result{} buffer-local |
6510 | 1476 @end group |
1477 @group | |
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1478 (setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo) |
6510 | 1479 @result{} value-in-foo |
1480 @end group | |
1481 @group | |
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1482 (setq-default buffer-local 'new-default) |
6510 | 1483 @result{} new-default |
1484 @end group | |
1485 @group | |
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1486 buffer-local |
6510 | 1487 @result{} value-in-foo |
1488 @end group | |
1489 @group | |
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1490 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1491 @result{} new-default |
1492 @end group | |
1493 | |
1494 @group | |
1495 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:} | |
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1496 buffer-local |
6510 | 1497 @result{} new-default |
1498 @end group | |
1499 @group | |
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1500 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1501 @result{} new-default |
1502 @end group | |
1503 @group | |
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1504 (setq buffer-local 'another-default) |
6510 | 1505 @result{} another-default |
1506 @end group | |
1507 @group | |
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1508 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1509 @result{} another-default |
1510 @end group | |
1511 | |
1512 @group | |
1513 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
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1514 buffer-local |
6510 | 1515 @result{} value-in-foo |
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1516 (default-value 'buffer-local) |
6510 | 1517 @result{} another-default |
1518 @end group | |
1519 @end example | |
1520 @end defspec | |
1521 | |
1522 @defun set-default symbol value | |
1523 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is | |
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1524 an ordinary evaluated argument. |
6510 | 1525 |
1526 @example | |
1527 @group | |
1528 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23) | |
1529 @result{} 23 | |
1530 @end group | |
1531 @group | |
1532 (default-value 'a) | |
1533 @result{} 23 | |
1534 @end group | |
1535 @end example | |
1536 @end defun | |
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1537 |
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1538 @node Frame-Local Variables |
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1539 @section Frame-Local Variables |
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1540 |
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1541 Just as variables can have buffer-local bindings, they can also have |
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1542 frame-local bindings. These bindings belong to one frame, and are in |
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1543 effect when that frame is selected. Frame-local bindings are actually |
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1544 frame parameters: you create a frame-local binding in a specific frame |
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1545 by calling @code{modify-frame-parameters} and specifying the variable |
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1546 name as the parameter name. |
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1547 |
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1548 To enable frame-local bindings for a certain variable, call the function |
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1549 @code{make-variable-frame-local}. |
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1550 |
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1551 @deffn Command make-variable-frame-local variable |
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1552 Enable the use of frame-local bindings for @var{variable}. This does |
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1553 not in itself create any frame-local bindings for the variable; however, |
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1554 if some frame already has a value for @var{variable} as a frame |
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1555 parameter, that value automatically becomes a frame-local binding. |
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1556 |
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1557 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error, |
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1558 because such variables cannot have frame-local bindings as well. |
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1559 @xref{Multiple Displays}. A few variables that are implemented |
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1560 specially in Emacs can be (and usually are) buffer-local, but can never |
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1561 be frame-local. |
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1562 @end deffn |
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1563 |
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1564 Buffer-local bindings take precedence over frame-local bindings. Thus, |
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1565 consider a variable @code{foo}: if the current buffer has a buffer-local |
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1566 binding for @code{foo}, that binding is active; otherwise, if the |
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1567 selected frame has a frame-local binding for @code{foo}, that binding is |
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1568 active; otherwise, the default binding of @code{foo} is active. |
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1569 |
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1570 Here is an example. First we prepare a few bindings for @code{foo}: |
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1571 |
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1572 @example |
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1573 (setq f1 (selected-frame)) |
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1574 (make-variable-frame-local 'foo) |
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1575 |
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1576 ;; @r{Make a buffer-local binding for @code{foo} in @samp{b1}.} |
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1577 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1578 (make-local-variable 'foo) |
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1579 (setq foo '(b 1)) |
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1580 |
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1581 ;; @r{Make a frame-local binding for @code{foo} in a new frame.} |
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1582 ;; @r{Store that frame in @code{f2}.} |
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1583 (setq f2 (make-frame)) |
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1584 (modify-frame-parameters f2 '((foo . (f 2)))) |
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1585 @end example |
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1586 |
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1587 Now we examine @code{foo} in various contexts. Whenever the |
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1588 buffer @samp{b1} is current, its buffer-local binding is in effect, |
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1589 regardless of the selected frame: |
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1590 |
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1591 @example |
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1592 (select-frame f1) |
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1593 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1594 foo |
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1595 @result{} (b 1) |
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1596 |
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1597 (select-frame f2) |
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1598 (set-buffer (get-buffer-create "b1")) |
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1599 foo |
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1600 @result{} (b 1) |
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1601 @end example |
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1602 |
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1603 @noindent |
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1604 Otherwise, the frame gets a chance to provide the binding; when frame |
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1605 @code{f2} is selected, its frame-local binding is in effect: |
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1606 |
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1607 @example |
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1608 (select-frame f2) |
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1609 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1610 foo |
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1611 @result{} (f 2) |
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1612 @end example |
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1613 |
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1614 @noindent |
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1615 When neither the current buffer nor the selected frame provides |
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1616 a binding, the default binding is used: |
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1617 |
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1618 @example |
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1619 (select-frame f1) |
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1620 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1621 foo |
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1622 @result{} nil |
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1623 @end example |
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1624 |
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1625 @noindent |
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1626 When the active binding of a variable is a frame-local binding, setting |
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1627 the variable changes that binding. You can observe the result with |
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1628 @code{frame-parameters}: |
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1629 |
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1630 @example |
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1631 (select-frame f2) |
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1632 (set-buffer (get-buffer "*scratch*")) |
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1633 (setq foo 'nobody) |
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1634 (assq 'foo (frame-parameters f2)) |
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1635 @result{} (foo . nobody) |
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1636 @end example |
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1637 |
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1638 @node Future Local Variables |
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1639 @section Possible Future Local Variables |
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1640 |
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1641 We have considered the idea of bindings that are local to a category |
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1642 of frames---for example, all color frames, or all frames with dark |
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1643 backgrounds. We have not implemented them because it is not clear that |
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1644 this feature is really useful. You can get more or less the same |
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1645 results by adding a function to @code{after-make-frame-functions}, set up to |
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1646 define a particular frame parameter according to the appropriate |
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1647 conditions for each frame. |
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1648 |
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1649 It would also be possible to implement window-local bindings. We |
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1650 don't know of many situations where they would be useful, and it seems |
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1651 that indirect buffers (@pxref{Indirect Buffers}) with buffer-local |
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1652 bindings offer a way to handle these situations more robustly. |
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1653 |
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1654 If sufficient application is found for either of these two kinds of |
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1655 local bindings, we will provide it in a subsequent Emacs version. |
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1656 |
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1657 @node File Local Variables |
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1658 @section File Local Variables |
21682
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1659 |
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1660 This section describes the functions and variables that affect |
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1661 processing of local variables lists in files. |
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1662 |
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1663 @defopt enable-local-variables |
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1664 This variable controls whether to process file local variables lists. A |
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1665 value of @code{t} means process the local variables lists |
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1666 unconditionally; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else means ask |
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1667 the user what to do for each file. The default value is @code{t}. |
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1668 @end defopt |
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1669 |
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1670 @defun hack-local-variables &optional force |
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1671 This function parses, and binds or evaluates as appropriate, any local |
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1672 variables specified by the contents of the current buffer. The variable |
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1673 @code{enable-local-variables} has its effect here. |
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1674 |
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1675 The argument @var{force} usually comes from the argument @var{find-file} |
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1676 given to @code{normal-mode}. |
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1677 @end defun |
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1678 |
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1679 If a file local variable list could specify the a function that will |
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1680 be called later, or an expression that will be executed later, simply |
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1681 visiting a file could take over your Emacs. To prevent this, Emacs |
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1682 takes care not to allow local variable lists to set such variables. |
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1683 |
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1684 For one thing, any variable whose name ends in @samp{-function}, |
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1685 @samp{-functions}, @samp{-hook}, @samp{-hooks}, @samp{-form}, |
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1686 @samp{-forms}, @samp{-program}, @samp{-command} or @samp{-predicate} |
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1687 cannot be set in a local variable list. In general, you should use such |
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1688 a name whenever it is appropriate for the variable's meaning. |
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1689 |
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1690 In addition, any variable whose name has a non-@code{nil} |
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1691 @code{risky-local-variable} property is also ignored. So are |
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1692 all variables listed in @code{ignored-local-variables}: |
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1693 |
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1694 @defvar ignored-local-variables |
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1695 This variable holds a list of variables that should not be |
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1696 set by a file's local variables list. Any value specified |
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1697 for one of these variables is ignored. |
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1698 @end defvar |
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1699 |
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1700 The @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' is also a potential loophole, so Emacs |
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1701 normally asks for confirmation before handling it. |
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1702 |
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1703 @defopt enable-local-eval |
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1704 This variable controls processing of @samp{Eval:} in local variables |
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1705 lists in files being visited. A value of @code{t} means process them |
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1706 unconditionally; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else means ask |
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1707 the user what to do for each file. The default value is @code{maybe}. |
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1708 @end defopt |