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annotate doc/lispref/variables.texi @ 98383:fb8c41cd17c4
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author | Martin Rudalics <rudalics@gmx.at> |
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date | Sun, 28 Sep 2008 08:43:50 +0000 |
parents | 107ccd98fa12 |
children | 0cc86df465ef |
rev | line source |
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84109 | 1 @c -*-texinfo-*- |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000, | |
87649 | 4 @c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. |
84109 | 5 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. |
84116
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(setfilename): Go up one more level to ../../info.
Glenn Morris <rgm@gnu.org>
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6 @setfilename ../../info/variables |
84109 | 7 @node Variables, Functions, Control Structures, Top |
8 @chapter Variables | |
9 @cindex variable | |
10 | |
11 A @dfn{variable} is a name used in a program to stand for a value. | |
12 Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort. In the | |
13 text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for | |
14 symbols. | |
15 | |
16 In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented | |
17 primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text. The Lisp | |
18 objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable | |
19 name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the | |
20 symbol. The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as | |
21 a function name. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
22 | |
23 The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual | |
24 form of the program---it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp | |
25 objects. This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program | |
26 is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the | |
27 variable. | |
28 | |
29 @menu | |
30 * Global Variables:: Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere. | |
31 * Constant Variables:: Certain "variables" have values that never change. | |
32 * Local Variables:: Variable values that exist only temporarily. | |
33 * Void Variables:: Symbols that lack values. | |
34 * Defining Variables:: A definition says a symbol is used as a variable. | |
35 * Tips for Defining:: Things you should think about when you | |
36 define a variable. | |
37 * Accessing Variables:: Examining values of variables whose names | |
38 are known only at run time. | |
39 * Setting Variables:: Storing new values in variables. | |
40 * Variable Scoping:: How Lisp chooses among local and global values. | |
41 * Buffer-Local Variables:: Variable values in effect only in one buffer. | |
42 * Future Local Variables:: New kinds of local values we might add some day. | |
43 * File Local Variables:: Handling local variable lists in files. | |
44 * Variable Aliases:: Variables that are aliases for other variables. | |
45 * Variables with Restricted Values:: Non-constant variables whose value can | |
46 @emph{not} be an arbitrary Lisp object. | |
47 @end menu | |
48 | |
49 @node Global Variables | |
50 @section Global Variables | |
51 @cindex global variable | |
52 | |
53 The simplest way to use a variable is @dfn{globally}. This means that | |
54 the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect | |
55 (at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system. The value remains | |
56 in effect until you specify a new one. When a new value replaces the | |
57 old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable. | |
58 | |
59 You specify a value for a symbol with @code{setq}. For example, | |
60 | |
61 @example | |
62 (setq x '(a b)) | |
63 @end example | |
64 | |
65 @noindent | |
66 gives the variable @code{x} the value @code{(a b)}. Note that | |
67 @code{setq} does not evaluate its first argument, the name of the | |
68 variable, but it does evaluate the second argument, the new value. | |
69 | |
70 Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the symbol | |
71 by itself as an expression. Thus, | |
72 | |
73 @example | |
74 @group | |
75 x @result{} (a b) | |
76 @end group | |
77 @end example | |
78 | |
79 @noindent | |
80 assuming the @code{setq} form shown above has already been executed. | |
81 | |
82 If you do set the same variable again, the new value replaces the old | |
83 one: | |
84 | |
85 @example | |
86 @group | |
87 x | |
88 @result{} (a b) | |
89 @end group | |
90 @group | |
91 (setq x 4) | |
92 @result{} 4 | |
93 @end group | |
94 @group | |
95 x | |
96 @result{} 4 | |
97 @end group | |
98 @end example | |
99 | |
100 @node Constant Variables | |
101 @section Variables that Never Change | |
102 @kindex setting-constant | |
103 @cindex keyword symbol | |
104 @cindex variable with constant value | |
105 @cindex constant variables | |
106 @cindex symbol that evaluates to itself | |
107 @cindex symbol with constant value | |
108 | |
109 In Emacs Lisp, certain symbols normally evaluate to themselves. These | |
110 include @code{nil} and @code{t}, as well as any symbol whose name starts | |
111 with @samp{:} (these are called @dfn{keywords}). These symbols cannot | |
112 be rebound, nor can their values be changed. Any attempt to set or bind | |
113 @code{nil} or @code{t} signals a @code{setting-constant} error. The | |
114 same is true for a keyword (a symbol whose name starts with @samp{:}), | |
115 if it is interned in the standard obarray, except that setting such a | |
116 symbol to itself is not an error. | |
117 | |
118 @example | |
119 @group | |
120 nil @equiv{} 'nil | |
121 @result{} nil | |
122 @end group | |
123 @group | |
124 (setq nil 500) | |
125 @error{} Attempt to set constant symbol: nil | |
126 @end group | |
127 @end example | |
128 | |
129 @defun keywordp object | |
130 function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a symbol whose name | |
131 starts with @samp{:}, interned in the standard obarray, and returns | |
132 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
133 @end defun | |
134 | |
135 @node Local Variables | |
136 @section Local Variables | |
137 @cindex binding local variables | |
138 @cindex local variables | |
139 @cindex local binding | |
140 @cindex global binding | |
141 | |
142 Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded | |
143 with new values. Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that | |
144 exist temporarily---only until a certain part of the program finishes. | |
145 These values are called @dfn{local}, and the variables so used are | |
146 called @dfn{local variables}. | |
147 | |
148 For example, when a function is called, its argument variables receive | |
149 new local values that last until the function exits. The @code{let} | |
150 special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified | |
151 variables; these last until exit from the @code{let} form. | |
152 | |
153 @cindex shadowing of variables | |
154 Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of | |
155 one) of the variable. When the life span of the local value is over, | |
156 the previous value is restored. In the mean time, we say that the | |
157 previous value is @dfn{shadowed} and @dfn{not visible}. Both global and | |
158 local values may be shadowed (@pxref{Scope}). | |
159 | |
160 If you set a variable (such as with @code{setq}) while it is local, | |
161 this replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or | |
162 previous local values, that are shadowed. To model this behavior, we | |
163 speak of a @dfn{local binding} of the variable as well as a local value. | |
164 | |
165 The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value. | |
166 Entry to a function, or a special form such as @code{let}, creates the | |
167 local binding; exit from the function or from the @code{let} removes the | |
168 local binding. As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value | |
169 is stored within it. Use of @code{setq} or @code{set} while there is a | |
170 local binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does | |
171 not create a new binding. | |
172 | |
173 We also speak of the @dfn{global binding}, which is where | |
174 (conceptually) the global value is kept. | |
175 | |
176 @cindex current binding | |
177 A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for | |
178 example, if there are nested @code{let} forms that bind it). In such a | |
179 case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the | |
180 @dfn{current binding} of the variable. (This rule is called | |
181 @dfn{dynamic scoping}; see @ref{Variable Scoping}.) If there are no | |
182 local bindings, the variable's global binding is its current binding. | |
183 We sometimes call the current binding the @dfn{most-local existing | |
184 binding}, for emphasis. Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns | |
185 the value of its current binding. | |
186 | |
187 The special forms @code{let} and @code{let*} exist to create | |
188 local bindings. | |
189 | |
190 @defspec let (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
191 This special form binds variables according to @var{bindings} and then | |
192 evaluates all of the @var{forms} in textual order. The @code{let}-form | |
193 returns the value of the last form in @var{forms}. | |
194 | |
195 Each of the @var{bindings} is either @w{(i) a} symbol, in which case | |
196 that symbol is bound to @code{nil}; or @w{(ii) a} list of the form | |
197 @code{(@var{symbol} @var{value-form})}, in which case @var{symbol} is | |
198 bound to the result of evaluating @var{value-form}. If @var{value-form} | |
199 is omitted, @code{nil} is used. | |
200 | |
201 All of the @var{value-form}s in @var{bindings} are evaluated in the | |
202 order they appear and @emph{before} binding any of the symbols to them. | |
203 Here is an example of this: @code{z} is bound to the old value of | |
204 @code{y}, which is 2, not the new value of @code{y}, which is 1. | |
205 | |
206 @example | |
207 @group | |
208 (setq y 2) | |
209 @result{} 2 | |
210 @end group | |
211 @group | |
212 (let ((y 1) | |
213 (z y)) | |
214 (list y z)) | |
215 @result{} (1 2) | |
216 @end group | |
217 @end example | |
218 @end defspec | |
219 | |
220 @defspec let* (bindings@dots{}) forms@dots{} | |
221 This special form is like @code{let}, but it binds each variable right | |
222 after computing its local value, before computing the local value for | |
223 the next variable. Therefore, an expression in @var{bindings} can | |
224 reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this @code{let*} | |
225 form. Compare the following example with the example above for | |
226 @code{let}. | |
227 | |
228 @example | |
229 @group | |
230 (setq y 2) | |
231 @result{} 2 | |
232 @end group | |
233 @group | |
234 (let* ((y 1) | |
235 (z y)) ; @r{Use the just-established value of @code{y}.} | |
236 (list y z)) | |
237 @result{} (1 1) | |
238 @end group | |
239 @end example | |
240 @end defspec | |
241 | |
242 Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local | |
243 bindings: | |
244 | |
245 @itemize @bullet | |
246 @item | |
247 Function calls (@pxref{Functions}). | |
248 | |
249 @item | |
250 Macro calls (@pxref{Macros}). | |
251 | |
252 @item | |
253 @code{condition-case} (@pxref{Errors}). | |
254 @end itemize | |
255 | |
256 Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (@pxref{Buffer-Local | |
85688 | 257 Variables}); a few variables have terminal-local bindings |
258 (@pxref{Multiple Displays}). These kinds of bindings work somewhat | |
259 like ordinary local bindings, but they are localized depending on | |
260 ``where'' you are in Emacs, rather than localized in time. | |
84109 | 261 |
262 @defvar max-specpdl-size | |
263 @anchor{Definition of max-specpdl-size} | |
264 @cindex variable limit error | |
265 @cindex evaluation error | |
266 @cindex infinite recursion | |
267 This variable defines the limit on the total number of local variable | |
268 bindings and @code{unwind-protect} cleanups (@pxref{Cleanups,, | |
269 Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits}) that are allowed before signaling an | |
270 error (with data @code{"Variable binding depth exceeds | |
271 max-specpdl-size"}). | |
272 | |
273 This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one way | |
274 that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function. | |
275 @code{max-lisp-eval-depth} provides another limit on depth of nesting. | |
276 @xref{Definition of max-lisp-eval-depth,, Eval}. | |
277 | |
278 The default value is 1000. Entry to the Lisp debugger increases the | |
279 value, if there is little room left, to make sure the debugger itself | |
280 has room to execute. | |
281 @end defvar | |
282 | |
283 @node Void Variables | |
284 @section When a Variable is ``Void'' | |
285 @kindex void-variable | |
286 @cindex void variable | |
287 | |
288 If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we | |
289 say that that symbol's global value is @dfn{void}. In other words, the | |
290 symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to | |
291 evaluate the symbol, you get a @code{void-variable} error rather than | |
292 a value. | |
293 | |
294 Note that a value of @code{nil} is not the same as void. The symbol | |
295 @code{nil} is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any | |
296 other object can be; but it is @emph{a value}. A void variable does not | |
297 have any value. | |
298 | |
299 After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once more | |
300 using @code{makunbound}. | |
301 | |
302 @defun makunbound symbol | |
303 This function makes the current variable binding of @var{symbol} void. | |
304 Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will signal | |
305 the error @code{void-variable}, unless and until you set it again. | |
306 | |
307 @code{makunbound} returns @var{symbol}. | |
308 | |
309 @example | |
310 @group | |
311 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Make the global value of @code{x} void.} | |
312 @result{} x | |
313 @end group | |
314 @group | |
315 x | |
316 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
317 @end group | |
318 @end example | |
319 | |
320 If @var{symbol} is locally bound, @code{makunbound} affects the most | |
321 local existing binding. This is the only way a symbol can have a void | |
322 local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings | |
323 create them with values. In this case, the voidness lasts at most as | |
324 long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to exit from | |
325 the construct that made it, the previous local or global binding is | |
326 reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void unless the newly | |
327 reexposed binding was void all along. | |
328 | |
329 @smallexample | |
330 @group | |
331 (setq x 1) ; @r{Put a value in the global binding.} | |
332 @result{} 1 | |
333 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
334 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the local binding.} | |
335 x) | |
336 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
337 @end group | |
338 @group | |
339 x ; @r{The global binding is unchanged.} | |
340 @result{} 1 | |
341 | |
342 (let ((x 2)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
343 (let ((x 3)) ; @r{And again.} | |
344 (makunbound 'x) ; @r{Void the innermost-local binding.} | |
345 x)) ; @r{And refer: it's void.} | |
346 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: x | |
347 @end group | |
348 | |
349 @group | |
350 (let ((x 2)) | |
351 (let ((x 3)) | |
352 (makunbound 'x)) ; @r{Void inner binding, then remove it.} | |
353 x) ; @r{Now outer @code{let} binding is visible.} | |
354 @result{} 2 | |
355 @end group | |
356 @end smallexample | |
357 @end defun | |
358 | |
359 A variable that has been made void with @code{makunbound} is | |
360 indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has | |
361 always been void. | |
362 | |
363 You can use the function @code{boundp} to test whether a variable is | |
364 currently void. | |
365 | |
366 @defun boundp variable | |
367 @code{boundp} returns @code{t} if @var{variable} (a symbol) is not void; | |
368 more precisely, if its current binding is not void. It returns | |
369 @code{nil} otherwise. | |
370 | |
371 @smallexample | |
372 @group | |
373 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Starts out void.} | |
374 @result{} nil | |
375 @end group | |
376 @group | |
377 (let ((abracadabra 5)) ; @r{Locally bind it.} | |
378 (boundp 'abracadabra)) | |
379 @result{} t | |
380 @end group | |
381 @group | |
382 (boundp 'abracadabra) ; @r{Still globally void.} | |
383 @result{} nil | |
384 @end group | |
385 @group | |
386 (setq abracadabra 5) ; @r{Make it globally nonvoid.} | |
387 @result{} 5 | |
388 @end group | |
389 @group | |
390 (boundp 'abracadabra) | |
391 @result{} t | |
392 @end group | |
393 @end smallexample | |
394 @end defun | |
395 | |
396 @node Defining Variables | |
397 @section Defining Global Variables | |
398 @cindex variable definition | |
399 | |
400 You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable | |
401 with a @dfn{variable definition}: a special form, either @code{defconst} | |
402 or @code{defvar}. | |
403 | |
404 In Emacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes. First, they inform | |
405 people who read the code that certain symbols are @emph{intended} to be | |
406 used a certain way (as variables). Second, they inform the Lisp system | |
407 of these things, supplying a value and documentation. Third, they | |
408 provide information to utilities such as @code{etags} and | |
409 @code{make-docfile}, which create data bases of the functions and | |
410 variables in a program. | |
411 | |
412 The difference between @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} is primarily | |
413 a matter of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether the value | |
414 should ever change. Emacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a | |
415 variable can be used based on @code{defconst} or @code{defvar} | |
416 declarations. However, it does make a difference for initialization: | |
417 @code{defconst} unconditionally initializes the variable, while | |
418 @code{defvar} initializes it only if it is void. | |
419 | |
420 @ignore | |
421 One would expect user option variables to be defined with | |
422 @code{defconst}, since programs do not change them. Unfortunately, this | |
423 has bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded: | |
424 @code{defconst} would override any prior value when the library is | |
425 loaded. Users would like to be able to set user options in their init | |
426 files, and override the default values given in the definitions. For | |
427 this reason, user options must be defined with @code{defvar}. | |
428 @end ignore | |
429 | |
430 @defspec defvar symbol [value [doc-string]] | |
431 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a variable and can also | |
432 initialize and document it. The definition informs a person reading | |
433 your code that @var{symbol} is used as a variable that might be set or | |
434 changed. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the symbol to be | |
435 defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defvar}. | |
436 | |
437 If @var{symbol} is void and @var{value} is specified, @code{defvar} | |
438 evaluates it and sets @var{symbol} to the result. But if @var{symbol} | |
439 already has a value (i.e., it is not void), @var{value} is not even | |
440 evaluated, and @var{symbol}'s value remains unchanged. If @var{value} | |
441 is omitted, the value of @var{symbol} is not changed in any case. | |
442 | |
443 If @var{symbol} has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer, | |
444 @code{defvar} operates on the default value, which is buffer-independent, | |
445 not the current (buffer-local) binding. It sets the default value if | |
446 the default value is void. @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. | |
447 | |
448 When you evaluate a top-level @code{defvar} form with @kbd{C-M-x} in | |
449 Emacs Lisp mode (@code{eval-defun}), a special feature of | |
450 @code{eval-defun} arranges to set the variable unconditionally, without | |
451 testing whether its value is void. | |
452 | |
453 If the @var{doc-string} argument appears, it specifies the documentation | |
454 for the variable. (This opportunity to specify documentation is one of | |
455 the main benefits of defining the variable.) The documentation is | |
456 stored in the symbol's @code{variable-documentation} property. The | |
457 Emacs help functions (@pxref{Documentation}) look for this property. | |
458 | |
459 If the variable is a user option that users would want to set | |
460 interactively, you should use @samp{*} as the first character of | |
461 @var{doc-string}. This lets users set the variable conveniently using | |
462 the @code{set-variable} command. Note that you should nearly always | |
463 use @code{defcustom} instead of @code{defvar} to define these | |
464 variables, so that users can use @kbd{M-x customize} and related | |
465 commands to set them. @xref{Customization}. | |
466 | |
467 Here are some examples. This form defines @code{foo} but does not | |
468 initialize it: | |
469 | |
470 @example | |
471 @group | |
472 (defvar foo) | |
473 @result{} foo | |
474 @end group | |
475 @end example | |
476 | |
477 This example initializes the value of @code{bar} to @code{23}, and gives | |
478 it a documentation string: | |
479 | |
480 @example | |
481 @group | |
482 (defvar bar 23 | |
483 "The normal weight of a bar.") | |
484 @result{} bar | |
485 @end group | |
486 @end example | |
487 | |
488 The following form changes the documentation string for @code{bar}, | |
489 making it a user option, but does not change the value, since @code{bar} | |
490 already has a value. (The addition @code{(1+ nil)} would get an error | |
491 if it were evaluated, but since it is not evaluated, there is no error.) | |
492 | |
493 @example | |
494 @group | |
495 (defvar bar (1+ nil) | |
496 "*The normal weight of a bar.") | |
497 @result{} bar | |
498 @end group | |
499 @group | |
500 bar | |
501 @result{} 23 | |
502 @end group | |
503 @end example | |
504 | |
505 Here is an equivalent expression for the @code{defvar} special form: | |
506 | |
507 @example | |
508 @group | |
509 (defvar @var{symbol} @var{value} @var{doc-string}) | |
510 @equiv{} | |
511 (progn | |
512 (if (not (boundp '@var{symbol})) | |
513 (setq @var{symbol} @var{value})) | |
514 (if '@var{doc-string} | |
515 (put '@var{symbol} 'variable-documentation '@var{doc-string})) | |
516 '@var{symbol}) | |
517 @end group | |
518 @end example | |
519 | |
520 The @code{defvar} form returns @var{symbol}, but it is normally used | |
521 at top level in a file where its value does not matter. | |
522 @end defspec | |
523 | |
524 @defspec defconst symbol value [doc-string] | |
525 This special form defines @var{symbol} as a value and initializes it. | |
526 It informs a person reading your code that @var{symbol} has a standard | |
527 global value, established here, that should not be changed by the user | |
528 or by other programs. Note that @var{symbol} is not evaluated; the | |
529 symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the @code{defconst}. | |
530 | |
531 @code{defconst} always evaluates @var{value}, and sets the value of | |
532 @var{symbol} to the result. If @var{symbol} does have a buffer-local | |
533 binding in the current buffer, @code{defconst} sets the default value, | |
534 not the buffer-local value. (But you should not be making | |
535 buffer-local bindings for a symbol that is defined with | |
536 @code{defconst}.) | |
537 | |
538 Here, @code{pi} is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed | |
539 by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature notwithstanding). | |
540 As the second form illustrates, however, this is only advisory. | |
541 | |
542 @example | |
543 @group | |
544 (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.") | |
545 @result{} pi | |
546 @end group | |
547 @group | |
548 (setq pi 3) | |
549 @result{} pi | |
550 @end group | |
551 @group | |
552 pi | |
553 @result{} 3 | |
554 @end group | |
555 @end example | |
556 @end defspec | |
557 | |
558 @defun user-variable-p variable | |
559 @cindex user option | |
560 This function returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is a user option---a | |
561 variable intended to be set by the user for customization---and | |
562 @code{nil} otherwise. (Variables other than user options exist for the | |
563 internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about them.) | |
564 | |
565 User option variables are distinguished from other variables either | |
566 though being declared using @code{defcustom}@footnote{They may also be | |
567 declared equivalently in @file{cus-start.el}.} or by the first character | |
568 of their @code{variable-documentation} property. If the property exists | |
569 and is a string, and its first character is @samp{*}, then the variable | |
570 is a user option. Aliases of user options are also user options. | |
571 @end defun | |
572 | |
573 @kindex variable-interactive | |
574 If a user option variable has a @code{variable-interactive} property, | |
575 the @code{set-variable} command uses that value to control reading the | |
576 new value for the variable. The property's value is used as if it were | |
577 specified in @code{interactive} (@pxref{Using Interactive}). However, | |
578 this feature is largely obsoleted by @code{defcustom} | |
579 (@pxref{Customization}). | |
580 | |
581 @strong{Warning:} If the @code{defconst} and @code{defvar} special | |
582 forms are used while the variable has a local binding (made with | |
583 @code{let}, or a function argument), they set the local-binding's | |
584 value; the top-level binding is not changed. This is not what you | |
585 usually want. To prevent it, use these special forms at top level in | |
586 a file, where normally no local binding is in effect, and make sure to | |
587 load the file before making a local binding for the variable. | |
588 | |
589 @node Tips for Defining | |
590 @section Tips for Defining Variables Robustly | |
591 | |
592 When you define a variable whose value is a function, or a list of | |
593 functions, use a name that ends in @samp{-function} or | |
594 @samp{-functions}, respectively. | |
595 | |
596 There are several other variable name conventions; | |
597 here is a complete list: | |
598 | |
599 @table @samp | |
600 @item @dots{}-hook | |
601 The variable is a normal hook (@pxref{Hooks}). | |
602 | |
603 @item @dots{}-function | |
604 The value is a function. | |
605 | |
606 @item @dots{}-functions | |
607 The value is a list of functions. | |
608 | |
609 @item @dots{}-form | |
610 The value is a form (an expression). | |
611 | |
612 @item @dots{}-forms | |
613 The value is a list of forms (expressions). | |
614 | |
615 @item @dots{}-predicate | |
616 The value is a predicate---a function of one argument that returns | |
617 non-@code{nil} for ``good'' arguments and @code{nil} for ``bad'' | |
618 arguments. | |
619 | |
620 @item @dots{}-flag | |
621 The value is significant only as to whether it is @code{nil} or not. | |
622 | |
623 @item @dots{}-program | |
624 The value is a program name. | |
625 | |
626 @item @dots{}-command | |
627 The value is a whole shell command. | |
628 | |
629 @item @dots{}-switches | |
630 The value specifies options for a command. | |
631 @end table | |
632 | |
633 When you define a variable, always consider whether you should mark | |
634 it as ``risky''; see @ref{File Local Variables}. | |
635 | |
636 When defining and initializing a variable that holds a complicated | |
637 value (such as a keymap with bindings in it), it's best to put the | |
638 entire computation of the value into the @code{defvar}, like this: | |
639 | |
640 @example | |
641 (defvar my-mode-map | |
642 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) | |
643 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) | |
644 @dots{} | |
645 map) | |
646 @var{docstring}) | |
647 @end example | |
648 | |
649 @noindent | |
650 This method has several benefits. First, if the user quits while | |
651 loading the file, the variable is either still uninitialized or | |
652 initialized properly, never in-between. If it is still uninitialized, | |
653 reloading the file will initialize it properly. Second, reloading the | |
654 file once the variable is initialized will not alter it; that is | |
655 important if the user has run hooks to alter part of the contents (such | |
656 as, to rebind keys). Third, evaluating the @code{defvar} form with | |
657 @kbd{C-M-x} @emph{will} reinitialize the map completely. | |
658 | |
659 Putting so much code in the @code{defvar} form has one disadvantage: | |
660 it puts the documentation string far away from the line which names the | |
661 variable. Here's a safe way to avoid that: | |
662 | |
663 @example | |
664 (defvar my-mode-map nil | |
665 @var{docstring}) | |
666 (unless my-mode-map | |
667 (let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) | |
668 (define-key map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) | |
669 @dots{} | |
670 (setq my-mode-map map))) | |
671 @end example | |
672 | |
673 @noindent | |
674 This has all the same advantages as putting the initialization inside | |
675 the @code{defvar}, except that you must type @kbd{C-M-x} twice, once on | |
676 each form, if you do want to reinitialize the variable. | |
677 | |
678 But be careful not to write the code like this: | |
679 | |
680 @example | |
681 (defvar my-mode-map nil | |
682 @var{docstring}) | |
683 (unless my-mode-map | |
684 (setq my-mode-map (make-sparse-keymap)) | |
685 (define-key my-mode-map "\C-c\C-a" 'my-command) | |
686 @dots{}) | |
687 @end example | |
688 | |
689 @noindent | |
690 This code sets the variable, then alters it, but it does so in more than | |
691 one step. If the user quits just after the @code{setq}, that leaves the | |
692 variable neither correctly initialized nor void nor @code{nil}. Once | |
693 that happens, reloading the file will not initialize the variable; it | |
694 will remain incomplete. | |
695 | |
696 @node Accessing Variables | |
697 @section Accessing Variable Values | |
698 | |
699 The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which | |
700 names it (@pxref{Symbol Forms}). This requires you to specify the | |
701 variable name when you write the program. Usually that is exactly what | |
702 you want to do. Occasionally you need to choose at run time which | |
703 variable to reference; then you can use @code{symbol-value}. | |
704 | |
705 @defun symbol-value symbol | |
706 This function returns the value of @var{symbol}. This is the value in | |
707 the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if it | |
708 has no local bindings. | |
709 | |
710 @example | |
711 @group | |
712 (setq abracadabra 5) | |
713 @result{} 5 | |
714 @end group | |
715 @group | |
716 (setq foo 9) | |
717 @result{} 9 | |
718 @end group | |
719 | |
720 @group | |
721 ;; @r{Here the symbol @code{abracadabra}} | |
722 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
723 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
724 (symbol-value 'abracadabra)) | |
725 @result{} foo | |
726 @end group | |
727 | |
728 @group | |
729 ;; @r{Here, the value of @code{abracadabra},} | |
730 ;; @r{which is @code{foo},} | |
731 ;; @r{is the symbol whose value is examined.} | |
732 (let ((abracadabra 'foo)) | |
733 (symbol-value abracadabra)) | |
734 @result{} 9 | |
735 @end group | |
736 | |
737 @group | |
738 (symbol-value 'abracadabra) | |
739 @result{} 5 | |
740 @end group | |
741 @end example | |
742 | |
743 A @code{void-variable} error is signaled if the current binding of | |
744 @var{symbol} is void. | |
745 @end defun | |
746 | |
747 @node Setting Variables | |
748 @section How to Alter a Variable Value | |
749 | |
750 The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special | |
751 form @code{setq}. When you need to compute the choice of variable at | |
752 run time, use the function @code{set}. | |
753 | |
754 @defspec setq [symbol form]@dots{} | |
755 This special form is the most common method of changing a variable's | |
756 value. Each @var{symbol} is given a new value, which is the result of | |
757 evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. The most-local existing | |
758 binding of the symbol is changed. | |
759 | |
760 @code{setq} does not evaluate @var{symbol}; it sets the symbol that you | |
761 write. We say that this argument is @dfn{automatically quoted}. The | |
762 @samp{q} in @code{setq} stands for ``quoted.'' | |
763 | |
764 The value of the @code{setq} form is the value of the last @var{form}. | |
765 | |
766 @example | |
767 @group | |
768 (setq x (1+ 2)) | |
769 @result{} 3 | |
770 @end group | |
771 x ; @r{@code{x} now has a global value.} | |
772 @result{} 3 | |
773 @group | |
774 (let ((x 5)) | |
775 (setq x 6) ; @r{The local binding of @code{x} is set.} | |
776 x) | |
777 @result{} 6 | |
778 @end group | |
779 x ; @r{The global value is unchanged.} | |
780 @result{} 3 | |
781 @end example | |
782 | |
783 Note that the first @var{form} is evaluated, then the first | |
784 @var{symbol} is set, then the second @var{form} is evaluated, then the | |
785 second @var{symbol} is set, and so on: | |
786 | |
787 @example | |
788 @group | |
789 (setq x 10 ; @r{Notice that @code{x} is set before} | |
790 y (1+ x)) ; @r{the value of @code{y} is computed.} | |
791 @result{} 11 | |
792 @end group | |
793 @end example | |
794 @end defspec | |
795 | |
796 @defun set symbol value | |
797 This function sets @var{symbol}'s value to @var{value}, then returns | |
798 @var{value}. Since @code{set} is a function, the expression written for | |
799 @var{symbol} is evaluated to obtain the symbol to set. | |
800 | |
801 The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding that is | |
802 set; shadowed bindings are not affected. | |
803 | |
804 @example | |
805 @group | |
806 (set one 1) | |
807 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: one | |
808 @end group | |
809 @group | |
810 (set 'one 1) | |
811 @result{} 1 | |
812 @end group | |
813 @group | |
814 (set 'two 'one) | |
815 @result{} one | |
816 @end group | |
817 @group | |
818 (set two 2) ; @r{@code{two} evaluates to symbol @code{one}.} | |
819 @result{} 2 | |
820 @end group | |
821 @group | |
822 one ; @r{So it is @code{one} that was set.} | |
823 @result{} 2 | |
824 (let ((one 1)) ; @r{This binding of @code{one} is set,} | |
825 (set 'one 3) ; @r{not the global value.} | |
826 one) | |
827 @result{} 3 | |
828 @end group | |
829 @group | |
830 one | |
831 @result{} 2 | |
832 @end group | |
833 @end example | |
834 | |
835 If @var{symbol} is not actually a symbol, a @code{wrong-type-argument} | |
836 error is signaled. | |
837 | |
838 @example | |
839 (set '(x y) 'z) | |
840 @error{} Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y) | |
841 @end example | |
842 | |
843 Logically speaking, @code{set} is a more fundamental primitive than | |
844 @code{setq}. Any use of @code{setq} can be trivially rewritten to use | |
845 @code{set}; @code{setq} could even be defined as a macro, given the | |
846 availability of @code{set}. However, @code{set} itself is rarely used; | |
847 beginners hardly need to know about it. It is useful only for choosing | |
848 at run time which variable to set. For example, the command | |
849 @code{set-variable}, which reads a variable name from the user and then | |
850 sets the variable, needs to use @code{set}. | |
851 | |
852 @cindex CL note---@code{set} local | |
853 @quotation | |
854 @b{Common Lisp note:} In Common Lisp, @code{set} always changes the | |
855 symbol's ``special'' or dynamic value, ignoring any lexical bindings. | |
856 In Emacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are dynamic, so @code{set} | |
857 always affects the most local existing binding. | |
858 @end quotation | |
859 @end defun | |
860 | |
861 @node Variable Scoping | |
862 @section Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings | |
863 | |
864 A given symbol @code{foo} can have several local variable bindings, | |
865 established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global | |
866 binding. The most recently established binding takes precedence over | |
867 the others. | |
868 | |
869 @cindex scope | |
870 @cindex extent | |
871 @cindex dynamic scoping | |
872 @cindex lexical scoping | |
873 Local bindings in Emacs Lisp have @dfn{indefinite scope} and | |
874 @dfn{dynamic extent}. @dfn{Scope} refers to @emph{where} textually in | |
875 the source code the binding can be accessed. ``Indefinite scope'' means | |
876 that any part of the program can potentially access the variable | |
877 binding. @dfn{Extent} refers to @emph{when}, as the program is | |
878 executing, the binding exists. ``Dynamic extent'' means that the binding | |
879 lasts as long as the activation of the construct that established it. | |
880 | |
881 The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called | |
882 @dfn{dynamic scoping}. By contrast, most programming languages use | |
883 @dfn{lexical scoping}, in which references to a local variable must be | |
884 located textually within the function or block that binds the variable. | |
885 | |
886 @cindex CL note---special variables | |
887 @quotation | |
888 @b{Common Lisp note:} Variables declared ``special'' in Common Lisp are | |
889 dynamically scoped, like all variables in Emacs Lisp. | |
890 @end quotation | |
891 | |
892 @menu | |
893 * Scope:: Scope means where in the program a value is visible. | |
894 Comparison with other languages. | |
895 * Extent:: Extent means how long in time a value exists. | |
896 * Impl of Scope:: Two ways to implement dynamic scoping. | |
897 * Using Scoping:: How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems. | |
898 @end menu | |
899 | |
900 @node Scope | |
901 @subsection Scope | |
902 | |
903 Emacs Lisp uses @dfn{indefinite scope} for local variable bindings. | |
904 This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a | |
905 given binding of a variable. Consider the following function | |
906 definitions: | |
907 | |
908 @example | |
909 @group | |
910 (defun binder (x) ; @r{@code{x} is bound in @code{binder}.} | |
911 (foo 5)) ; @r{@code{foo} is some other function.} | |
912 @end group | |
913 | |
914 @group | |
915 (defun user () ; @r{@code{x} is used ``free'' in @code{user}.} | |
916 (list x)) | |
917 @end group | |
918 @end example | |
919 | |
920 In a lexically scoped language, the binding of @code{x} in | |
921 @code{binder} would never be accessible in @code{user}, because | |
922 @code{user} is not textually contained within the function | |
923 @code{binder}. However, in dynamically-scoped Emacs Lisp, @code{user} | |
924 may or may not refer to the binding of @code{x} established in | |
925 @code{binder}, depending on the circumstances: | |
926 | |
927 @itemize @bullet | |
928 @item | |
929 If we call @code{user} directly without calling @code{binder} at all, | |
930 then whatever binding of @code{x} is found, it cannot come from | |
931 @code{binder}. | |
932 | |
933 @item | |
934 If we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, then the | |
935 binding made in @code{binder} will be seen in @code{user}: | |
936 | |
937 @example | |
938 @group | |
939 (defun foo (lose) | |
940 (user)) | |
941 @end group | |
942 @end example | |
943 | |
944 @item | |
945 However, if we define @code{foo} as follows and then call @code{binder}, | |
946 then the binding made in @code{binder} @emph{will not} be seen in | |
947 @code{user}: | |
948 | |
949 @example | |
950 (defun foo (x) | |
951 (user)) | |
952 @end example | |
953 | |
954 @noindent | |
955 Here, when @code{foo} is called by @code{binder}, it binds @code{x}. | |
956 (The binding in @code{foo} is said to @dfn{shadow} the one made in | |
957 @code{binder}.) Therefore, @code{user} will access the @code{x} bound | |
958 by @code{foo} instead of the one bound by @code{binder}. | |
959 @end itemize | |
960 | |
961 Emacs Lisp uses dynamic scoping because simple implementations of | |
962 lexical scoping are slow. In addition, every Lisp system needs to offer | |
963 dynamic scoping at least as an option; if lexical scoping is the norm, | |
964 there must be a way to specify dynamic scoping instead for a particular | |
965 variable. It might not be a bad thing for Emacs to offer both, but | |
966 implementing it with dynamic scoping only was much easier. | |
967 | |
968 @node Extent | |
969 @subsection Extent | |
970 | |
971 @dfn{Extent} refers to the time during program execution that a | |
972 variable name is valid. In Emacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while | |
973 the form that bound it is executing. This is called @dfn{dynamic | |
974 extent}. ``Local'' or ``automatic'' variables in most languages, | |
975 including C and Pascal, have dynamic extent. | |
976 | |
977 One alternative to dynamic extent is @dfn{indefinite extent}. This | |
978 means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form | |
979 that made the binding. Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support | |
980 this, but Emacs Lisp does not. | |
981 | |
982 To illustrate this, the function below, @code{make-add}, returns a | |
983 function that purports to add @var{n} to its own argument @var{m}. This | |
984 would work in Common Lisp, but it does not do the job in Emacs Lisp, | |
985 because after the call to @code{make-add} exits, the variable @code{n} | |
986 is no longer bound to the actual argument 2. | |
987 | |
988 @example | |
989 (defun make-add (n) | |
990 (function (lambda (m) (+ n m)))) ; @r{Return a function.} | |
991 @result{} make-add | |
992 (fset 'add2 (make-add 2)) ; @r{Define function @code{add2}} | |
993 ; @r{with @code{(make-add 2)}.} | |
994 @result{} (lambda (m) (+ n m)) | |
995 (add2 4) ; @r{Try to add 2 to 4.} | |
996 @error{} Symbol's value as variable is void: n | |
997 @end example | |
998 | |
999 @cindex closures not available | |
1000 Some Lisp dialects have ``closures,'' objects that are like functions | |
1001 but record additional variable bindings. Emacs Lisp does not have | |
1002 closures. | |
1003 | |
1004 @node Impl of Scope | |
1005 @subsection Implementation of Dynamic Scoping | |
1006 @cindex deep binding | |
1007 | |
1008 A simple sample implementation (which is not how Emacs Lisp actually | |
1009 works) may help you understand dynamic binding. This technique is | |
1010 called @dfn{deep binding} and was used in early Lisp systems. | |
1011 | |
1012 Suppose there is a stack of bindings, which are variable-value pairs. | |
1013 At entry to a function or to a @code{let} form, we can push bindings | |
1014 onto the stack for the arguments or local variables created there. We | |
1015 can pop those bindings from the stack at exit from the binding | |
1016 construct. | |
1017 | |
1018 We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top to | |
1019 bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding is | |
1020 the value of the variable. To set the variable, we search for the | |
1021 current binding, then store the new value into that binding. | |
1022 | |
1023 As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it | |
1024 continues execution, even during its calls to other functions. That is | |
1025 why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic. And any other function | |
1026 can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the | |
1027 bindings are in effect. That is why we say the scope is indefinite. | |
1028 | |
1029 @cindex shallow binding | |
1030 The actual implementation of variable scoping in GNU Emacs Lisp uses a | |
1031 technique called @dfn{shallow binding}. Each variable has a standard | |
1032 place in which its current value is always found---the value cell of the | |
1033 symbol. | |
1034 | |
1035 In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in | |
1036 the value cell. Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value | |
1037 (belonging to a previous binding) onto a stack, and storing the new | |
1038 local value in the value cell. Eliminating a binding works by popping | |
1039 the old value off the stack, into the value cell. | |
1040 | |
1041 We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep | |
1042 binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a | |
1043 binding. | |
1044 | |
1045 @node Using Scoping | |
1046 @subsection Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping | |
1047 | |
1048 Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a | |
1049 powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs | |
1050 hard to understand. There are two clean ways to use this technique: | |
1051 | |
1052 @itemize @bullet | |
1053 @item | |
1054 Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written close | |
1055 together in one file. Such a variable is used for communication within | |
1056 one program. | |
1057 | |
1058 You should write comments to inform other programmers that they can see | |
1059 all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them not to add uses | |
1060 elsewhere. | |
1061 | |
1062 @item | |
1063 Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all | |
1064 appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it) wherever | |
1065 that meaning is relevant. For example, the variable | |
1066 @code{case-fold-search} is defined as ``non-@code{nil} means ignore case | |
1067 when searching''; various search and replace functions refer to it | |
1068 directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it. | |
1069 | |
1070 Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably what | |
1071 the effect will be. | |
1072 @end itemize | |
1073 | |
1074 In either case, you should define the variable with @code{defvar}. | |
1075 This helps other people understand your program by telling them to look | |
1076 for inter-function usage. It also avoids a warning from the byte | |
1077 compiler. Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts---don't | |
1078 use short names like @code{x}. | |
1079 | |
1080 @node Buffer-Local Variables | |
1081 @section Buffer-Local Variables | |
1082 @cindex variable, buffer-local | |
1083 @cindex buffer-local variables | |
1084 | |
1085 Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming | |
85688 | 1086 languages in one form or another. Emacs, however, also supports |
1087 additional, unusual kinds of variable binding, such as | |
1088 @dfn{buffer-local} bindings, which apply only in one buffer. Having | |
1089 different values for a variable in different buffers is an important | |
1090 customization method. (A few variables have bindings that are local | |
1091 to each terminal; see @ref{Multiple Displays}.) | |
84109 | 1092 |
1093 @menu | |
1094 * Intro to Buffer-Local:: Introduction and concepts. | |
1095 * Creating Buffer-Local:: Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings. | |
1096 * Default Value:: The default value is seen in buffers | |
1097 that don't have their own buffer-local values. | |
1098 @end menu | |
1099 | |
1100 @node Intro to Buffer-Local | |
1101 @subsection Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables | |
1102 | |
1103 A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a | |
1104 particular buffer. The binding is in effect when that buffer is | |
1105 current; otherwise, it is not in effect. If you set the variable while | |
1106 a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding, | |
1107 so its other bindings are unchanged. This means that the change is | |
1108 visible only in the buffer where you made it. | |
1109 | |
1110 The variable's ordinary binding, which is not associated with any | |
1111 specific buffer, is called the @dfn{default binding}. In most cases, | |
1112 this is the global binding. | |
1113 | |
1114 A variable can have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in | |
1115 other buffers. The default binding is shared by all the buffers that | |
1116 don't have their own bindings for the variable. (This includes all | |
1117 newly-created buffers.) If you set the variable in a buffer that does | |
85688 | 1118 not have a buffer-local binding for it, this sets the default binding, |
84109 | 1119 so the new value is visible in all the buffers that see the default |
1120 binding. | |
1121 | |
1122 The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to change | |
1123 variables that control the behavior of commands. For example, C mode and | |
1124 Lisp mode both set the variable @code{paragraph-start} to specify that only | |
1125 blank lines separate paragraphs. They do this by making the variable | |
1126 buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or Lisp mode, and | |
1127 then setting it to the new value for that mode. @xref{Major Modes}. | |
1128 | |
1129 The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with | |
1130 @code{make-local-variable}, which is what major mode commands typically | |
1131 use. This affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including | |
1132 those yet to be created) will continue to share the default value unless | |
1133 they are explicitly given their own buffer-local bindings. | |
1134 | |
1135 @cindex automatically buffer-local | |
1136 A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as | |
1137 @dfn{automatically buffer-local} by calling | |
1138 @code{make-variable-buffer-local}. You can think of this as making the | |
1139 variable local in all buffers, even those yet to be created. More | |
1140 precisely, the effect is that setting the variable automatically makes | |
1141 the variable local to the current buffer if it is not already so. All | |
1142 buffers start out by sharing the default value of the variable as usual, | |
1143 but setting the variable creates a buffer-local binding for the current | |
1144 buffer. The new value is stored in the buffer-local binding, leaving | |
1145 the default binding untouched. This means that the default value cannot | |
1146 be changed with @code{setq} in any buffer; the only way to change it is | |
1147 with @code{setq-default}. | |
1148 | |
85688 | 1149 @strong{Warning:} When a variable has buffer-local |
84109 | 1150 bindings in one or more buffers, @code{let} rebinds the binding that's |
1151 currently in effect. For instance, if the current buffer has a | |
1152 buffer-local value, @code{let} temporarily rebinds that. If no | |
85688 | 1153 buffer-local bindings are in effect, @code{let} rebinds |
84109 | 1154 the default value. If inside the @code{let} you then change to a |
1155 different current buffer in which a different binding is in effect, | |
1156 you won't see the @code{let} binding any more. And if you exit the | |
1157 @code{let} while still in the other buffer, you won't see the | |
1158 unbinding occur (though it will occur properly). Here is an example | |
1159 to illustrate: | |
1160 | |
1161 @example | |
1162 @group | |
1163 (setq foo 'g) | |
1164 (set-buffer "a") | |
1165 (make-local-variable 'foo) | |
1166 @end group | |
1167 (setq foo 'a) | |
1168 (let ((foo 'temp)) | |
1169 ;; foo @result{} 'temp ; @r{let binding in buffer @samp{a}} | |
1170 (set-buffer "b") | |
1171 ;; foo @result{} 'g ; @r{the global value since foo is not local in @samp{b}} | |
1172 @var{body}@dots{}) | |
1173 @group | |
1174 foo @result{} 'g ; @r{exiting restored the local value in buffer @samp{a},} | |
1175 ; @r{but we don't see that in buffer @samp{b}} | |
1176 @end group | |
1177 @group | |
1178 (set-buffer "a") ; @r{verify the local value was restored} | |
1179 foo @result{} 'a | |
1180 @end group | |
1181 @end example | |
1182 | |
1183 Note that references to @code{foo} in @var{body} access the | |
1184 buffer-local binding of buffer @samp{b}. | |
1185 | |
1186 When a file specifies local variable values, these become buffer-local | |
1187 values when you visit the file. @xref{File Variables,,, emacs, The | |
1188 GNU Emacs Manual}. | |
1189 | |
1190 @node Creating Buffer-Local | |
1191 @subsection Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings | |
1192 | |
1193 @deffn Command make-local-variable variable | |
1194 This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer for | |
1195 @var{variable} (a symbol). Other buffers are not affected. The value | |
1196 returned is @var{variable}. | |
1197 | |
1198 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1199 The buffer-local value of @var{variable} starts out as the same value | |
1200 @var{variable} previously had. If @var{variable} was void, it remains | |
1201 void. | |
1202 | |
1203 @example | |
1204 @group | |
1205 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b1}:} | |
1206 (setq foo 5) ; @r{Affects all buffers.} | |
1207 @result{} 5 | |
1208 @end group | |
1209 @group | |
1210 (make-local-variable 'foo) ; @r{Now it is local in @samp{b1}.} | |
1211 @result{} foo | |
1212 @end group | |
1213 @group | |
1214 foo ; @r{That did not change} | |
1215 @result{} 5 ; @r{the value.} | |
1216 @end group | |
1217 @group | |
1218 (setq foo 6) ; @r{Change the value} | |
1219 @result{} 6 ; @r{in @samp{b1}.} | |
1220 @end group | |
1221 @group | |
1222 foo | |
1223 @result{} 6 | |
1224 @end group | |
1225 | |
1226 @group | |
1227 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{b2}, the value hasn't changed.} | |
1228 (save-excursion | |
1229 (set-buffer "b2") | |
1230 foo) | |
1231 @result{} 5 | |
1232 @end group | |
1233 @end example | |
1234 | |
1235 Making a variable buffer-local within a @code{let}-binding for that | |
1236 variable does not work reliably, unless the buffer in which you do this | |
1237 is not current either on entry to or exit from the @code{let}. This is | |
1238 because @code{let} does not distinguish between different kinds of | |
1239 bindings; it knows only which variable the binding was made for. | |
1240 | |
1241 If the variable is terminal-local, this function signals an error. Such | |
1242 variables cannot have buffer-local bindings as well. @xref{Multiple | |
1243 Displays}. | |
1244 | |
1245 @strong{Warning:} do not use @code{make-local-variable} for a hook | |
1246 variable. The hook variables are automatically made buffer-local as | |
1247 needed if you use the @var{local} argument to @code{add-hook} or | |
1248 @code{remove-hook}. | |
1249 @end deffn | |
1250 | |
1251 @deffn Command make-variable-buffer-local variable | |
1252 This function marks @var{variable} (a symbol) automatically | |
1253 buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it | |
1254 local to the current buffer at the time. | |
1255 | |
1256 A peculiar wrinkle of this feature is that binding the variable (with | |
1257 @code{let} or other binding constructs) does not create a buffer-local | |
1258 binding for it. Only setting the variable (with @code{set} or | |
1259 @code{setq}), while the variable does not have a @code{let}-style | |
1260 binding that was made in the current buffer, does so. | |
1261 | |
1262 If @var{variable} does not have a default value, then calling this | |
1263 command will give it a default value of @code{nil}. If @var{variable} | |
1264 already has a default value, that value remains unchanged. | |
1265 Subsequently calling @code{makunbound} on @var{variable} will result | |
1266 in a void buffer-local value and leave the default value unaffected. | |
1267 | |
1268 The value returned is @var{variable}. | |
1269 | |
1270 @strong{Warning:} Don't assume that you should use | |
1271 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} for user-option variables, simply | |
1272 because users @emph{might} want to customize them differently in | |
1273 different buffers. Users can make any variable local, when they wish | |
1274 to. It is better to leave the choice to them. | |
1275 | |
1276 The time to use @code{make-variable-buffer-local} is when it is crucial | |
1277 that no two buffers ever share the same binding. For example, when a | |
1278 variable is used for internal purposes in a Lisp program which depends | |
1279 on having separate values in separate buffers, then using | |
1280 @code{make-variable-buffer-local} can be the best solution. | |
1281 @end deffn | |
1282 | |
1283 @defun local-variable-p variable &optional buffer | |
1284 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} is buffer-local in buffer | |
1285 @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise, | |
1286 @code{nil}. | |
1287 @end defun | |
1288 | |
1289 @defun local-variable-if-set-p variable &optional buffer | |
1290 This returns @code{t} if @var{variable} will become buffer-local in | |
1291 buffer @var{buffer} (which defaults to the current buffer) if it is | |
1292 set there. | |
1293 @end defun | |
1294 | |
1295 @defun buffer-local-value variable buffer | |
1296 This function returns the buffer-local binding of @var{variable} (a | |
1297 symbol) in buffer @var{buffer}. If @var{variable} does not have a | |
1298 buffer-local binding in buffer @var{buffer}, it returns the default | |
1299 value (@pxref{Default Value}) of @var{variable} instead. | |
1300 @end defun | |
1301 | |
1302 @defun buffer-local-variables &optional buffer | |
1303 This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables in | |
1304 buffer @var{buffer}. (If @var{buffer} is omitted, the current buffer is | |
1305 used.) It returns an association list (@pxref{Association Lists}) in | |
1306 which each element contains one buffer-local variable and its value. | |
1307 However, when a variable's buffer-local binding in @var{buffer} is void, | |
1308 then the variable appears directly in the resulting list. | |
1309 | |
1310 @example | |
1311 @group | |
1312 (make-local-variable 'foobar) | |
1313 (makunbound 'foobar) | |
1314 (make-local-variable 'bind-me) | |
1315 (setq bind-me 69) | |
1316 @end group | |
1317 (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables)) | |
1318 ;; @r{First, built-in variables local in all buffers:} | |
1319 @result{} ((mark-active . nil) | |
1320 (buffer-undo-list . nil) | |
1321 (mode-name . "Fundamental") | |
1322 @dots{} | |
1323 @group | |
1324 ;; @r{Next, non-built-in buffer-local variables.} | |
1325 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and void:} | |
1326 foobar | |
1327 ;; @r{This one is buffer-local and nonvoid:} | |
1328 (bind-me . 69)) | |
1329 @end group | |
1330 @end example | |
1331 | |
1332 Note that storing new values into the @sc{cdr}s of cons cells in this | |
1333 list does @emph{not} change the buffer-local values of the variables. | |
1334 @end defun | |
1335 | |
1336 @deffn Command kill-local-variable variable | |
1337 This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for | |
1338 @var{variable} (a symbol) in the current buffer. As a result, the | |
1339 default binding of @var{variable} becomes visible in this buffer. This | |
1340 typically results in a change in the value of @var{variable}, since the | |
1341 default value is usually different from the buffer-local value just | |
1342 eliminated. | |
1343 | |
1344 If you kill the buffer-local binding of a variable that automatically | |
1345 becomes buffer-local when set, this makes the default value visible in | |
1346 the current buffer. However, if you set the variable again, that will | |
1347 once again create a buffer-local binding for it. | |
1348 | |
1349 @code{kill-local-variable} returns @var{variable}. | |
1350 | |
1351 This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill one | |
1352 buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to create | |
1353 buffer-local variables interactively. | |
1354 @end deffn | |
1355 | |
1356 @defun kill-all-local-variables | |
1357 This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of the | |
1358 current buffer except for variables marked as ``permanent.'' As a | |
1359 result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables. | |
1360 | |
1361 This function also resets certain other information pertaining to the | |
1362 buffer: it sets the local keymap to @code{nil}, the syntax table to the | |
1363 value of @code{(standard-syntax-table)}, the case table to | |
1364 @code{(standard-case-table)}, and the abbrev table to the value of | |
1365 @code{fundamental-mode-abbrev-table}. | |
1366 | |
1367 The very first thing this function does is run the normal hook | |
1368 @code{change-major-mode-hook} (see below). | |
1369 | |
1370 Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which has the | |
1371 effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most of the effects | |
1372 of the previous major mode. To ensure that this does its job, the | |
1373 variables that major modes set should not be marked permanent. | |
1374 | |
1375 @code{kill-all-local-variables} returns @code{nil}. | |
1376 @end defun | |
1377 | |
1378 @defvar change-major-mode-hook | |
1379 The function @code{kill-all-local-variables} runs this normal hook | |
1380 before it does anything else. This gives major modes a way to arrange | |
1381 for something special to be done if the user switches to a different | |
1382 major mode. It is also useful for buffer-specific minor modes | |
1383 that should be forgotten if the user changes the major mode. | |
1384 | |
1385 For best results, make this variable buffer-local, so that it will | |
1386 disappear after doing its job and will not interfere with the | |
1387 subsequent major mode. @xref{Hooks}. | |
1388 @end defvar | |
1389 | |
1390 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1391 @cindex permanent local variable | |
1392 A buffer-local variable is @dfn{permanent} if the variable name (a | |
1393 symbol) has a @code{permanent-local} property that is non-@code{nil}. | |
1394 Permanent locals are appropriate for data pertaining to where the file | |
1395 came from or how to save it, rather than with how to edit the contents. | |
1396 | |
1397 @node Default Value | |
1398 @subsection The Default Value of a Buffer-Local Variable | |
1399 @cindex default value | |
1400 | |
1401 The global value of a variable with buffer-local bindings is also | |
1402 called the @dfn{default} value, because it is the value that is in | |
1403 effect whenever neither the current buffer nor the selected frame has | |
1404 its own binding for the variable. | |
1405 | |
1406 The functions @code{default-value} and @code{setq-default} access and | |
1407 change a variable's default value regardless of whether the current | |
1408 buffer has a buffer-local binding. For example, you could use | |
1409 @code{setq-default} to change the default setting of | |
1410 @code{paragraph-start} for most buffers; and this would work even when | |
1411 you are in a C or Lisp mode buffer that has a buffer-local value for | |
1412 this variable. | |
1413 | |
1414 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1415 The special forms @code{defvar} and @code{defconst} also set the | |
1416 default value (if they set the variable at all), rather than any | |
85688 | 1417 buffer-local value. |
84109 | 1418 |
1419 @defun default-value symbol | |
1420 This function returns @var{symbol}'s default value. This is the value | |
1421 that is seen in buffers and frames that do not have their own values for | |
1422 this variable. If @var{symbol} is not buffer-local, this is equivalent | |
1423 to @code{symbol-value} (@pxref{Accessing Variables}). | |
1424 @end defun | |
1425 | |
1426 @c Emacs 19 feature | |
1427 @defun default-boundp symbol | |
1428 The function @code{default-boundp} tells you whether @var{symbol}'s | |
1429 default value is nonvoid. If @code{(default-boundp 'foo)} returns | |
1430 @code{nil}, then @code{(default-value 'foo)} would get an error. | |
1431 | |
1432 @code{default-boundp} is to @code{default-value} as @code{boundp} is to | |
1433 @code{symbol-value}. | |
1434 @end defun | |
1435 | |
1436 @defspec setq-default [symbol form]@dots{} | |
1437 This special form gives each @var{symbol} a new default value, which is | |
1438 the result of evaluating the corresponding @var{form}. It does not | |
1439 evaluate @var{symbol}, but does evaluate @var{form}. The value of the | |
1440 @code{setq-default} form is the value of the last @var{form}. | |
1441 | |
1442 If a @var{symbol} is not buffer-local for the current buffer, and is not | |
1443 marked automatically buffer-local, @code{setq-default} has the same | |
1444 effect as @code{setq}. If @var{symbol} is buffer-local for the current | |
1445 buffer, then this changes the value that other buffers will see (as long | |
1446 as they don't have a buffer-local value), but not the value that the | |
1447 current buffer sees. | |
1448 | |
1449 @example | |
1450 @group | |
1451 ;; @r{In buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
1452 (make-local-variable 'buffer-local) | |
1453 @result{} buffer-local | |
1454 @end group | |
1455 @group | |
1456 (setq buffer-local 'value-in-foo) | |
1457 @result{} value-in-foo | |
1458 @end group | |
1459 @group | |
1460 (setq-default buffer-local 'new-default) | |
1461 @result{} new-default | |
1462 @end group | |
1463 @group | |
1464 buffer-local | |
1465 @result{} value-in-foo | |
1466 @end group | |
1467 @group | |
1468 (default-value 'buffer-local) | |
1469 @result{} new-default | |
1470 @end group | |
1471 | |
1472 @group | |
1473 ;; @r{In (the new) buffer @samp{bar}:} | |
1474 buffer-local | |
1475 @result{} new-default | |
1476 @end group | |
1477 @group | |
1478 (default-value 'buffer-local) | |
1479 @result{} new-default | |
1480 @end group | |
1481 @group | |
1482 (setq buffer-local 'another-default) | |
1483 @result{} another-default | |
1484 @end group | |
1485 @group | |
1486 (default-value 'buffer-local) | |
1487 @result{} another-default | |
1488 @end group | |
1489 | |
1490 @group | |
1491 ;; @r{Back in buffer @samp{foo}:} | |
1492 buffer-local | |
1493 @result{} value-in-foo | |
1494 (default-value 'buffer-local) | |
1495 @result{} another-default | |
1496 @end group | |
1497 @end example | |
1498 @end defspec | |
1499 | |
1500 @defun set-default symbol value | |
1501 This function is like @code{setq-default}, except that @var{symbol} is | |
1502 an ordinary evaluated argument. | |
1503 | |
1504 @example | |
1505 @group | |
1506 (set-default (car '(a b c)) 23) | |
1507 @result{} 23 | |
1508 @end group | |
1509 @group | |
1510 (default-value 'a) | |
1511 @result{} 23 | |
1512 @end group | |
1513 @end example | |
1514 @end defun | |
1515 | |
1516 @node Future Local Variables | |
1517 @section Possible Future Local Variables | |
1518 | |
1519 We have considered the idea of bindings that are local to a category | |
1520 of frames---for example, all color frames, or all frames with dark | |
1521 backgrounds. We have not implemented them because it is not clear that | |
1522 this feature is really useful. You can get more or less the same | |
1523 results by adding a function to @code{after-make-frame-functions}, set up to | |
1524 define a particular frame parameter according to the appropriate | |
1525 conditions for each frame. | |
1526 | |
1527 It would also be possible to implement window-local bindings. We | |
1528 don't know of many situations where they would be useful, and it seems | |
1529 that indirect buffers (@pxref{Indirect Buffers}) with buffer-local | |
1530 bindings offer a way to handle these situations more robustly. | |
1531 | |
1532 If sufficient application is found for either of these two kinds of | |
1533 local bindings, we will provide it in a subsequent Emacs version. | |
1534 | |
1535 @node File Local Variables | |
1536 @section File Local Variables | |
1537 @cindex file local variables | |
1538 | |
1539 A file can specify local variable values; Emacs uses these to create | |
1540 buffer-local bindings for those variables in the buffer visiting that | |
1541 file. @xref{File variables, , Local Variables in Files, emacs, The | |
1542 GNU Emacs Manual}, for basic information about file local variables. | |
1543 This section describes the functions and variables that affect | |
1544 processing of file local variables. | |
1545 | |
1546 @defopt enable-local-variables | |
1547 This variable controls whether to process file local variables. | |
1548 The possible values are: | |
1549 | |
1550 @table @asis | |
1551 @item @code{t} (the default) | |
1552 Set the safe variables, and query (once) about any unsafe variables. | |
1553 @item @code{:safe} | |
1554 Set only the safe variables and do not query. | |
1555 @item @code{:all} | |
1556 Set all the variables and do not query. | |
1557 @item @code{nil} | |
1558 Don't set any variables. | |
1559 @item anything else | |
1560 Query (once) about all the variables. | |
1561 @end table | |
1562 @end defopt | |
1563 | |
1564 @defun hack-local-variables &optional mode-only | |
1565 This function parses, and binds or evaluates as appropriate, any local | |
1566 variables specified by the contents of the current buffer. The variable | |
1567 @code{enable-local-variables} has its effect here. However, this | |
1568 function does not look for the @samp{mode:} local variable in the | |
1569 @w{@samp{-*-}} line. @code{set-auto-mode} does that, also taking | |
1570 @code{enable-local-variables} into account (@pxref{Auto Major Mode}). | |
1571 | |
1572 If the optional argument @var{mode-only} is non-@code{nil}, then all | |
1573 this function does is return @code{t} if the @w{@samp{-*-}} line or | |
1574 the local variables list specifies a mode and @code{nil} otherwise. | |
1575 It does not set the mode nor any other file local variable. | |
1576 @end defun | |
1577 | |
1578 If a file local variable could specify a function that would | |
1579 be called later, or an expression that would be executed later, simply | |
1580 visiting a file could take over your Emacs. Emacs takes several | |
1581 measures to prevent this. | |
1582 | |
1583 @cindex safe local variable | |
1584 You can specify safe values for a variable with a | |
1585 @code{safe-local-variable} property. The property has to be | |
1586 a function of one argument; any value is safe if the function | |
1587 returns non-@code{nil} given that value. Many commonly encountered | |
1588 file variables standardly have @code{safe-local-variable} properties, | |
1589 including @code{fill-column}, @code{fill-prefix}, and | |
1590 @code{indent-tabs-mode}. For boolean-valued variables that are safe, | |
1591 use @code{booleanp} as the property value. Lambda expressions should | |
1592 be quoted so that @code{describe-variable} can display the predicate. | |
1593 | |
1594 @defopt safe-local-variable-values | |
1595 This variable provides another way to mark some variable values as | |
1596 safe. It is a list of cons cells @code{(@var{var} . @var{val})}, | |
1597 where @var{var} is a variable name and @var{val} is a value which is | |
1598 safe for that variable. | |
1599 | |
1600 When Emacs asks the user whether or not to obey a set of file local | |
1601 variable specifications, the user can choose to mark them as safe. | |
1602 Doing so adds those variable/value pairs to | |
1603 @code{safe-local-variable-values}, and saves it to the user's custom | |
1604 file. | |
1605 @end defopt | |
1606 | |
1607 @defun safe-local-variable-p sym val | |
1608 This function returns non-@code{nil} if it is safe to give @var{sym} | |
1609 the value @var{val}, based on the above criteria. | |
1610 @end defun | |
1611 | |
1612 @c @cindex risky local variable Duplicates risky-local-variable | |
1613 Some variables are considered @dfn{risky}. A variable whose name | |
1614 ends in any of @samp{-command}, @samp{-frame-alist}, @samp{-function}, | |
1615 @samp{-functions}, @samp{-hook}, @samp{-hooks}, @samp{-form}, | |
1616 @samp{-forms}, @samp{-map}, @samp{-map-alist}, @samp{-mode-alist}, | |
1617 @samp{-program}, or @samp{-predicate} is considered risky. The | |
1618 variables @samp{font-lock-keywords}, @samp{font-lock-keywords} | |
1619 followed by a digit, and @samp{font-lock-syntactic-keywords} are also | |
1620 considered risky. Finally, any variable whose name has a | |
1621 non-@code{nil} @code{risky-local-variable} property is considered | |
1622 risky. | |
1623 | |
1624 @defun risky-local-variable-p sym | |
1625 This function returns non-@code{nil} if @var{sym} is a risky variable, | |
1626 based on the above criteria. | |
1627 @end defun | |
1628 | |
1629 If a variable is risky, it will not be entered automatically into | |
1630 @code{safe-local-variable-values} as described above. Therefore, | |
1631 Emacs will always query before setting a risky variable, unless the | |
1632 user explicitly allows the setting by customizing | |
1633 @code{safe-local-variable-values} directly. | |
1634 | |
1635 @defvar ignored-local-variables | |
1636 This variable holds a list of variables that should not be given local | |
1637 values by files. Any value specified for one of these variables is | |
1638 completely ignored. | |
1639 @end defvar | |
1640 | |
1641 The @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' is also a potential loophole, so Emacs | |
1642 normally asks for confirmation before handling it. | |
1643 | |
1644 @defopt enable-local-eval | |
1645 This variable controls processing of @samp{Eval:} in @samp{-*-} lines | |
1646 or local variables | |
1647 lists in files being visited. A value of @code{t} means process them | |
1648 unconditionally; @code{nil} means ignore them; anything else means ask | |
1649 the user what to do for each file. The default value is @code{maybe}. | |
1650 @end defopt | |
1651 | |
1652 @defopt safe-local-eval-forms | |
1653 This variable holds a list of expressions that are safe to | |
1654 evaluate when found in the @samp{Eval:} ``variable'' in a file | |
1655 local variables list. | |
1656 @end defopt | |
1657 | |
1658 If the expression is a function call and the function has a | |
1659 @code{safe-local-eval-function} property, the property value | |
1660 determines whether the expression is safe to evaluate. The property | |
1661 value can be a predicate to call to test the expression, a list of | |
1662 such predicates (it's safe if any predicate succeeds), or @code{t} | |
1663 (always safe provided the arguments are constant). | |
1664 | |
1665 Text properties are also potential loopholes, since their values | |
1666 could include functions to call. So Emacs discards all text | |
1667 properties from string values specified for file local variables. | |
1668 | |
1669 @node Variable Aliases | |
1670 @section Variable Aliases | |
1671 @cindex variable aliases | |
1672 | |
1673 It is sometimes useful to make two variables synonyms, so that both | |
1674 variables always have the same value, and changing either one also | |
1675 changes the other. Whenever you change the name of a | |
1676 variable---either because you realize its old name was not well | |
1677 chosen, or because its meaning has partly changed---it can be useful | |
1678 to keep the old name as an @emph{alias} of the new one for | |
1679 compatibility. You can do this with @code{defvaralias}. | |
1680 | |
1681 @defun defvaralias new-alias base-variable &optional docstring | |
1682 This function defines the symbol @var{new-alias} as a variable alias | |
1683 for symbol @var{base-variable}. This means that retrieving the value | |
1684 of @var{new-alias} returns the value of @var{base-variable}, and | |
1685 changing the value of @var{new-alias} changes the value of | |
1686 @var{base-variable}. The two aliased variable names always share the | |
1687 same value and the same bindings. | |
1688 | |
1689 If the @var{docstring} argument is non-@code{nil}, it specifies the | |
1690 documentation for @var{new-alias}; otherwise, the alias gets the same | |
1691 documentation as @var{base-variable} has, if any, unless | |
1692 @var{base-variable} is itself an alias, in which case @var{new-alias} gets | |
1693 the documentation of the variable at the end of the chain of aliases. | |
1694 | |
1695 This function returns @var{base-variable}. | |
1696 @end defun | |
1697 | |
1698 Variable aliases are convenient for replacing an old name for a | |
1699 variable with a new name. @code{make-obsolete-variable} declares that | |
1700 the old name is obsolete and therefore that it may be removed at some | |
1701 stage in the future. | |
1702 | |
1703 @defun make-obsolete-variable obsolete-name current-name &optional when | |
86434
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(Variable Aliases): Minor cleanup.
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
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changeset
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1704 This function makes the byte compiler warn that the variable |
84109 | 1705 @var{obsolete-name} is obsolete. If @var{current-name} is a symbol, it is |
1706 the variable's new name; then the warning message says to use | |
1707 @var{current-name} instead of @var{obsolete-name}. If @var{current-name} | |
1708 is a string, this is the message and there is no replacement variable. | |
1709 | |
1710 If provided, @var{when} should be a string indicating when the | |
1711 variable was first made obsolete---for example, a date or a release | |
1712 number. | |
1713 @end defun | |
1714 | |
1715 You can make two variables synonyms and declare one obsolete at the | |
1716 same time using the macro @code{define-obsolete-variable-alias}. | |
1717 | |
1718 @defmac define-obsolete-variable-alias obsolete-name current-name &optional when docstring | |
1719 This macro marks the variable @var{obsolete-name} as obsolete and also | |
1720 makes it an alias for the variable @var{current-name}. It is | |
1721 equivalent to the following: | |
1722 | |
1723 @example | |
1724 (defvaralias @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{docstring}) | |
1725 (make-obsolete-variable @var{obsolete-name} @var{current-name} @var{when}) | |
1726 @end example | |
1727 @end defmac | |
1728 | |
1729 @defun indirect-variable variable | |
1730 This function returns the variable at the end of the chain of aliases | |
1731 of @var{variable}. If @var{variable} is not a symbol, or if @var{variable} is | |
1732 not defined as an alias, the function returns @var{variable}. | |
1733 | |
1734 This function signals a @code{cyclic-variable-indirection} error if | |
1735 there is a loop in the chain of symbols. | |
1736 @end defun | |
1737 | |
1738 @example | |
1739 (defvaralias 'foo 'bar) | |
1740 (indirect-variable 'foo) | |
1741 @result{} bar | |
1742 (indirect-variable 'bar) | |
1743 @result{} bar | |
1744 (setq bar 2) | |
1745 bar | |
1746 @result{} 2 | |
1747 @group | |
1748 foo | |
1749 @result{} 2 | |
1750 @end group | |
1751 (setq foo 0) | |
1752 bar | |
1753 @result{} 0 | |
1754 foo | |
1755 @result{} 0 | |
1756 @end example | |
1757 | |
1758 @node Variables with Restricted Values | |
1759 @section Variables with Restricted Values | |
1760 | |
1761 Ordinary Lisp variables can be assigned any value that is a valid | |
1762 Lisp object. However, certain Lisp variables are not defined in Lisp, | |
1763 but in C. Most of these variables are defined in the C code using | |
1764 @code{DEFVAR_LISP}. Like variables defined in Lisp, these can take on | |
1765 any value. However, some variables are defined using | |
1766 @code{DEFVAR_INT} or @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. @xref{Defining Lisp | |
1767 variables in C,, Writing Emacs Primitives}, in particular the | |
1768 description of functions of the type @code{syms_of_@var{filename}}, | |
1769 for a brief discussion of the C implementation. | |
1770 | |
1771 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} can only take on the values | |
1772 @code{nil} or @code{t}. Attempting to assign them any other value | |
1773 will set them to @code{t}: | |
1774 | |
1775 @example | |
1776 (let ((display-hourglass 5)) | |
1777 display-hourglass) | |
1778 @result{} t | |
1779 @end example | |
1780 | |
1781 @defvar byte-boolean-vars | |
1782 This variable holds a list of all variables of type @code{DEFVAR_BOOL}. | |
1783 @end defvar | |
1784 | |
1785 Variables of type @code{DEFVAR_INT} can only take on integer values. | |
1786 Attempting to assign them any other value will result in an error: | |
1787 | |
1788 @example | |
1789 (setq window-min-height 5.0) | |
1790 @error{} Wrong type argument: integerp, 5.0 | |
1791 @end example | |
1792 | |
1793 @ignore | |
1794 arch-tag: 5ff62c44-2b51-47bb-99d4-fea5aeec5d3e | |
1795 @end ignore |