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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/streams
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6 @node Read and Print, Minibuffers, Debugging, Top
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7 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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8 @chapter Reading and Printing Lisp Objects
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9
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10 @dfn{Printing} and @dfn{reading} are the operations of converting Lisp
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11 objects to textual form and vice versa. They use the printed
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12 representations and read syntax described in @ref{Lisp Data Types}.
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13
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14 This chapter describes the Lisp functions for reading and printing.
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15 It also describes @dfn{streams}, which specify where to get the text (if
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16 reading) or where to put it (if printing).
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17
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18 @menu
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19 * Streams Intro:: Overview of streams, reading and printing.
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20 * Input Streams:: Various data types that can be used as input streams.
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21 * Input Functions:: Functions to read Lisp objects from text.
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22 * Output Streams:: Various data types that can be used as output streams.
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23 * Output Functions:: Functions to print Lisp objects as text.
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24 * Output Variables:: Variables that control what the printing functions do.
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25 @end menu
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26
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27 @node Streams Intro
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28 @section Introduction to Reading and Printing
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29 @cindex Lisp reader
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30 @cindex printing
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31 @cindex reading
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32
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33 @dfn{Reading} a Lisp object means parsing a Lisp expression in textual
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34 form and producing a corresponding Lisp object. This is how Lisp
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35 programs get into Lisp from files of Lisp code. We call the text the
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36 @dfn{read syntax} of the object. For example, the text @samp{(a .@: 5)}
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37 is the read syntax for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is @code{a} and whose
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38 @sc{cdr} is the number 5.
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39
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40 @dfn{Printing} a Lisp object means producing text that represents that
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41 object---converting the object to its printed representation. Printing
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42 the cons cell described above produces the text @samp{(a .@: 5)}.
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43
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44 Reading and printing are more or less inverse operations: printing the
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45 object that results from reading a given piece of text often produces
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46 the same text, and reading the text that results from printing an object
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47 usually produces a similar-looking object. For example, printing the
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48 symbol @code{foo} produces the text @samp{foo}, and reading that text
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49 returns the symbol @code{foo}. Printing a list whose elements are
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50 @code{a} and @code{b} produces the text @samp{(a b)}, and reading that
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51 text produces a list (but not the same list) with elements @code{a}
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52 and @code{b}.
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53
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54 However, these two operations are not precisely inverses. There are
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55 three kinds of exceptions:
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56
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57 @itemize @bullet
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58 @item
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59 Printing can produce text that cannot be read. For example, buffers,
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60 windows, frames, subprocesses and markers print into text that starts
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61 with @samp{#}; if you try to read this text, you get an error. There is
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62 no way to read those data types.
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63
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64 @item
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65 One object can have multiple textual representations. For example,
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66 @samp{1} and @samp{01} represent the same integer, and @samp{(a b)} and
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67 @samp{(a .@: (b))} represent the same list. Reading will accept any of
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68 the alternatives, but printing must choose one of them.
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69
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70 @item
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71 Comments can appear at certain points in the middle of an object's
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72 read sequence without affecting the result of reading it.
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73 @end itemize
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74
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75 @node Input Streams
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76 @section Input Streams
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77 @cindex stream (for reading)
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78 @cindex input stream
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79
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80 Most of the Lisp functions for reading text take an @dfn{input stream}
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81 as an argument. The input stream specifies where or how to get the
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82 characters of the text to be read. Here are the possible types of input
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83 stream:
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84
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85 @table @asis
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86 @item @var{buffer}
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87 @cindex buffer input stream
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88 The input characters are read from @var{buffer}, starting with the
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89 character directly after point. Point advances as characters are read.
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90
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91 @item @var{marker}
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92 @cindex marker input stream
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93 The input characters are read from the buffer that @var{marker} is in,
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94 starting with the character directly after the marker. The marker
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95 position advances as characters are read. The value of point in the
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96 buffer has no effect when the stream is a marker.
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97
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98 @item @var{string}
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99 @cindex string input stream
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100 The input characters are taken from @var{string}, starting at the first
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101 character in the string and using as many characters as required.
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102
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103 @item @var{function}
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104 @cindex function input stream
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105 The input characters are generated by @var{function}, one character per
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106 call. Normally @var{function} is called with no arguments, and should
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107 return a character.
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108
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109 @cindex unreading
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110 Occasionally @var{function} is called with one argument (always a
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111 character). When that happens, @var{function} should save the argument
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112 and arrange to return it on the next call. This is called
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113 @dfn{unreading} the character; it happens when the Lisp reader reads one
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114 character too many and wants to ``put it back where it came from''.
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115
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116 @item @code{t}
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117 @cindex @code{t} input stream
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118 @code{t} used as a stream means that the input is read from the
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119 minibuffer. In fact, the minibuffer is invoked once and the text
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120 given by the user is made into a string that is then used as the
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121 input stream.
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122
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123 @item @code{nil}
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124 @cindex @code{nil} input stream
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125 @code{nil} supplied as an input stream means to use the value of
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126 @code{standard-input} instead; that value is the @dfn{default input
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127 stream}, and must be a non-@code{nil} input stream.
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128
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129 @item @var{symbol}
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130 A symbol as input stream is equivalent to the symbol's function
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131 definition (if any).
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132 @end table
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133
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134 Here is an example of reading from a stream that is a buffer, showing
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135 where point is located before and after:
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136
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137 @example
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138 @group
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139 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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140 This@point{} is the contents of foo.
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141 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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142 @end group
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143
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144 @group
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145 (read (get-buffer "foo"))
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146 @result{} is
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147 @end group
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148 @group
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149 (read (get-buffer "foo"))
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150 @result{} the
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151 @end group
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152
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153 @group
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154 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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155 This is the@point{} contents of foo.
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156 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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157 @end group
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158 @end example
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159
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160 @noindent
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161 Note that the first read skips a space. Reading skips any amount of
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162 whitespace preceding the significant text.
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163
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164 In Emacs 18, reading a symbol discarded the delimiter terminating the
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165 symbol. Thus, point would end up at the beginning of @samp{contents}
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166 rather than after @samp{the}. The Emacs 19 behavior is superior because
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167 it correctly handles input such as @samp{bar(foo)}, where the
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168 open-parenthesis that ends one object is needed as the beginning of
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169 another object.
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170
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171 Here is an example of reading from a stream that is a marker,
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172 initially positioned at the beginning of the buffer shown. The value
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173 read is the symbol @code{This}.
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174
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175 @example
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176 @group
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177
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178 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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179 This is the contents of foo.
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180 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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181 @end group
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182
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183 @group
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184 (setq m (set-marker (make-marker) 1 (get-buffer "foo")))
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185 @result{} #<marker at 1 in foo>
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186 @end group
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187 @group
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188 (read m)
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189 @result{} This
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190 @end group
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191 @group
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192 m
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193 @result{} #<marker at 5 in foo> ;; @r{Before the first space.}
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194 @end group
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195 @end example
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196
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197 Here we read from the contents of a string:
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198
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199 @example
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200 @group
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201 (read "(When in) the course")
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202 @result{} (When in)
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203 @end group
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204 @end example
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205
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206 The following example reads from the minibuffer. The
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207 prompt is: @w{@samp{Lisp expression: }}. (That is always the prompt
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208 used when you read from the stream @code{t}.) The user's input is shown
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209 following the prompt.
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210
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211 @example
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212 @group
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213 (read t)
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214 @result{} 23
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215 ---------- Buffer: Minibuffer ----------
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216 Lisp expression: @kbd{23 @key{RET}}
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217 ---------- Buffer: Minibuffer ----------
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218 @end group
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219 @end example
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220
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221 Finally, here is an example of a stream that is a function, named
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222 @code{useless-stream}. Before we use the stream, we initialize the
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223 variable @code{useless-list} to a list of characters. Then each call to
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224 the function @code{useless-stream} obtains the next character in the list
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225 or unreads a character by adding it to the front of the list.
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226
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227 @example
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228 @group
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229 (setq useless-list (append "XY()" nil))
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230 @result{} (88 89 40 41)
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231 @end group
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232
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233 @group
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234 (defun useless-stream (&optional unread)
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235 (if unread
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236 (setq useless-list (cons unread useless-list))
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237 (prog1 (car useless-list)
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238 (setq useless-list (cdr useless-list)))))
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239 @result{} useless-stream
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240 @end group
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241 @end example
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242
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243 @noindent
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244 Now we read using the stream thus constructed:
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245
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246 @example
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247 @group
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248 (read 'useless-stream)
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249 @result{} XY
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250 @end group
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251
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252 @group
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253 useless-list
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254 @result{} (40 41)
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255 @end group
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256 @end example
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257
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258 @noindent
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259 Note that the open and close parentheses remains in the list. The Lisp
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260 reader encountered the open parenthesis, decided that it ended the
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261 input, and unread it. Another attempt to read from the stream at this
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262 point would read @samp{()} and return @code{nil}.
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263
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264 @defun get-file-char
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265 This function is used internally as an input stream to read from the
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266 input file opened by the function @code{load}. Don't use this function
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267 yourself.
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268 @end defun
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269
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270 @node Input Functions
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271 @section Input Functions
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272
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273 This section describes the Lisp functions and variables that pertain
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274 to reading.
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275
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276 In the functions below, @var{stream} stands for an input stream (see
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277 the previous section). If @var{stream} is @code{nil} or omitted, it
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278 defaults to the value of @code{standard-input}.
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279
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280 @kindex end-of-file
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281 An @code{end-of-file} error is signaled if reading encounters an
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282 unterminated list, vector, or string.
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283
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284 @defun read &optional stream
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285 This function reads one textual Lisp expression from @var{stream},
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286 returning it as a Lisp object. This is the basic Lisp input function.
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287 @end defun
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288
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289 @defun read-from-string string &optional start end
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290 @cindex string to object
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291 This function reads the first textual Lisp expression from the text in
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292 @var{string}. It returns a cons cell whose @sc{car} is that expression,
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293 and whose @sc{cdr} is an integer giving the position of the next
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294 remaining character in the string (i.e., the first one not read).
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295
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296 If @var{start} is supplied, then reading begins at index @var{start} in
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297 the string (where the first character is at index 0). If @var{end} is
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298 also supplied, then reading stops just before that index, as if the rest
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299 of the string were not there.
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300
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301 For example:
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302
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303 @example
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304 @group
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305 (read-from-string "(setq x 55) (setq y 5)")
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306 @result{} ((setq x 55) . 11)
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307 @end group
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308 @group
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309 (read-from-string "\"A short string\"")
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310 @result{} ("A short string" . 16)
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311 @end group
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312
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313 @group
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314 ;; @r{Read starting at the first character.}
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315 (read-from-string "(list 112)" 0)
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316 @result{} ((list 112) . 10)
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317 @end group
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318 @group
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319 ;; @r{Read starting at the second character.}
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320 (read-from-string "(list 112)" 1)
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321 @result{} (list . 5)
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322 @end group
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323 @group
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324 ;; @r{Read starting at the seventh character,}
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325 ;; @r{and stopping at the ninth.}
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326 (read-from-string "(list 112)" 6 8)
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327 @result{} (11 . 8)
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328 @end group
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329 @end example
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330 @end defun
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331
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332 @defvar standard-input
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333 This variable holds the default input stream---the stream that
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334 @code{read} uses when the @var{stream} argument is @code{nil}.
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335 @end defvar
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336
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337 @node Output Streams
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338 @section Output Streams
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339 @cindex stream (for printing)
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340 @cindex output stream
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341
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342 An output stream specifies what to do with the characters produced
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343 by printing. Most print functions accept an output stream as an
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344 optional argument. Here are the possible types of output stream:
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345
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346 @table @asis
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347 @item @var{buffer}
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348 @cindex buffer output stream
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349 The output characters are inserted into @var{buffer} at point.
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350 Point advances as characters are inserted.
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351
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352 @item @var{marker}
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353 @cindex marker output stream
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354 The output characters are inserted into the buffer that @var{marker}
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355 points into, at the marker position. The marker position advances as
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356 characters are inserted. The value of point in the buffer has no effect
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357 on printing when the stream is a marker.
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358
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359 @item @var{function}
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360 @cindex function output stream
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361 The output characters are passed to @var{function}, which is responsible
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362 for storing them away. It is called with a single character as
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363 argument, as many times as there are characters to be output, and is
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364 free to do anything at all with the characters it receives.
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365
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366 @item @code{t}
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367 @cindex @code{t} output stream
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368 The output characters are displayed in the echo area.
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369
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370 @item @code{nil}
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371 @cindex @code{nil} output stream
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372 @code{nil} specified as an output stream means to the value of
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373 @code{standard-output} instead; that value is the @dfn{default output
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374 stream}, and must be a non-@code{nil} output stream.
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375
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376 @item @var{symbol}
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377 A symbol as output stream is equivalent to the symbol's function
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378 definition (if any).
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379 @end table
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380
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381 Many of the valid output streams are also valid as input streams. The
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382 difference between input and output streams is therefore mostly one of
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383 how you use a Lisp object, not a distinction of types of object.
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384
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385 Here is an example of a buffer used as an output stream. Point is
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386 initially located as shown immediately before the @samp{h} in
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387 @samp{the}. At the end, point is located directly before that same
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388 @samp{h}.
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389
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390 @cindex print example
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391 @example
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392 @group
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393 (setq m (set-marker (make-marker) 10 (get-buffer "foo")))
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394 @result{} #<marker at 10 in foo>
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395 @end group
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396
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397 @group
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398 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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399 This is t@point{}he contents of foo.
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400 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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401 @end group
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402
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403 (print "This is the output" (get-buffer "foo"))
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404 @result{} "This is the output"
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405
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406 @group
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407 m
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408 @result{} #<marker at 32 in foo>
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409 @end group
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410 @group
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411 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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412 This is t
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413 "This is the output"
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414 @point{}he contents of foo.
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415 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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416 @end group
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417 @end example
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418
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419 Now we show a use of a marker as an output stream. Initially, the
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420 marker is in buffer @code{foo}, between the @samp{t} and the @samp{h} in
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421 the word @samp{the}. At the end, the marker has advanced over the
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422 inserted text so that it remains positioned before the same @samp{h}.
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423 Note that the location of point, shown in the usual fashion, has no
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424 effect.
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425
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426 @example
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427 @group
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428 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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429 "This is the @point{}output"
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430 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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431 @end group
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432
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433 @group
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434 m
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435 @result{} #<marker at 11 in foo>
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436 @end group
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437
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438 @group
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439 (print "More output for foo." m)
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440 @result{} "More output for foo."
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441 @end group
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442
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443 @group
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444 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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445 "This is t
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446 "More output for foo."
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447 he @point{}output"
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448 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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449 @end group
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450
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451 @group
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452 m
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453 @result{} #<marker at 35 in foo>
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454 @end group
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455 @end example
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456
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457 The following example shows output to the echo area:
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458
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459 @example
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460 @group
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461 (print "Echo Area output" t)
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462 @result{} "Echo Area output"
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463 ---------- Echo Area ----------
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464 "Echo Area output"
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465 ---------- Echo Area ----------
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466 @end group
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467 @end example
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468
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469 Finally, we show the use of a function as an output stream. The
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470 function @code{eat-output} takes each character that it is given and
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471 conses it onto the front of the list @code{last-output} (@pxref{Building
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472 Lists}). At the end, the list contains all the characters output, but
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473 in reverse order.
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474
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475 @example
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476 @group
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477 (setq last-output nil)
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478 @result{} nil
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479 @end group
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480
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481 @group
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482 (defun eat-output (c)
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483 (setq last-output (cons c last-output)))
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484 @result{} eat-output
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485 @end group
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486
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487 @group
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488 (print "This is the output" 'eat-output)
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489 @result{} "This is the output"
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490 @end group
|
|
491
|
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492 @group
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493 last-output
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494 @result{} (10 34 116 117 112 116 117 111 32 101 104
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495 116 32 115 105 32 115 105 104 84 34 10)
|
|
496 @end group
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497 @end example
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498
|
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499 @noindent
|
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500 Now we can put the output in the proper order by reversing the list:
|
|
501
|
|
502 @example
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503 @group
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504 (concat (nreverse last-output))
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505 @result{} "
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506 \"This is the output\"
|
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507 "
|
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508 @end group
|
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509 @end example
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510
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511 @noindent
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512 Calling @code{concat} converts the list to a string so you can see its
|
|
513 contents more clearly.
|
|
514
|
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515 @node Output Functions
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516 @section Output Functions
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517
|
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518 This section describes the Lisp functions for printing Lisp objects.
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|
519
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520 @cindex @samp{"} in printing
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521 @cindex @samp{\} in printing
|
|
522 @cindex quoting characters in printing
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|
523 @cindex escape characters in printing
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524 Some of the Emacs printing functions add quoting characters to the
|
|
525 output when necessary so that it can be read properly. The quoting
|
|
526 characters used are @samp{"} and @samp{\}; they distinguish strings from
|
|
527 symbols, and prevent punctuation characters in strings and symbols from
|
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528 being taken as delimiters when reading. @xref{Printed Representation},
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529 for full details. You specify quoting or no quoting by the choice of
|
|
530 printing function.
|
6381
|
531
|
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532 If the text is to be read back into Lisp, then it is best to print
|
|
533 with quoting characters to avoid ambiguity. Likewise, if the purpose is
|
|
534 to describe a Lisp object clearly for a Lisp programmer. However, if
|
|
535 the purpose of the output is to look nice for humans, then it is better
|
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536 to print without quoting.
|
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537
|
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538 Printing a self-referent Lisp object requires an infinite amount of
|
|
539 text. In certain cases, trying to produce this text leads to a stack
|
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540 overflow. Emacs detects such recursion and prints @samp{#@var{level}}
|
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541 instead of recursively printing an object already being printed. For
|
|
542 example, here @samp{#0} indicates a recursive reference to the object at
|
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543 level 0 of the current print operation:
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|
544
|
|
545 @example
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|
546 (setq foo (list nil))
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547 @result{} (nil)
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548 (setcar foo foo)
|
|
549 @result{} (#0)
|
|
550 @end example
|
|
551
|
|
552 In the functions below, @var{stream} stands for an output stream.
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|
553 (See the previous section for a description of output streams.) If
|
|
554 @var{stream} is @code{nil} or omitted, it defaults to the value of
|
|
555 @code{standard-output}.
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|
556
|
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557 @defun print object &optional stream
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558 @cindex Lisp printer
|
|
559 The @code{print} function is a convenient way of printing. It outputs
|
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560 the printed representation of @var{object} to @var{stream}, printing in
|
|
561 addition one newline before @var{object} and another after it. Quoting
|
|
562 characters are used. @code{print} returns @var{object}. For example:
|
|
563
|
|
564 @example
|
|
565 @group
|
|
566 (progn (print 'The\ cat\ in)
|
|
567 (print "the hat")
|
|
568 (print " came back"))
|
|
569 @print{}
|
|
570 @print{} The\ cat\ in
|
|
571 @print{}
|
|
572 @print{} "the hat"
|
|
573 @print{}
|
|
574 @print{} " came back"
|
|
575 @print{}
|
|
576 @result{} " came back"
|
|
577 @end group
|
|
578 @end example
|
|
579 @end defun
|
|
580
|
|
581 @defun prin1 object &optional stream
|
|
582 This function outputs the printed representation of @var{object} to
|
7219
|
583 @var{stream}. It does not print newlines to separate output as
|
|
584 @code{print} does, but it does use quoting characters just like
|
|
585 @code{print}. It returns @var{object}.
|
6381
|
586
|
|
587 @example
|
|
588 @group
|
|
589 (progn (prin1 'The\ cat\ in)
|
|
590 (prin1 "the hat")
|
|
591 (prin1 " came back"))
|
|
592 @print{} The\ cat\ in"the hat"" came back"
|
|
593 @result{} " came back"
|
|
594 @end group
|
|
595 @end example
|
|
596 @end defun
|
|
597
|
|
598 @defun princ object &optional stream
|
|
599 This function outputs the printed representation of @var{object} to
|
|
600 @var{stream}. It returns @var{object}.
|
|
601
|
|
602 This function is intended to produce output that is readable by people,
|
|
603 not by @code{read}, so it doesn't insert quoting characters and doesn't
|
|
604 put double-quotes around the contents of strings. It does not add any
|
|
605 spacing between calls.
|
|
606
|
|
607 @example
|
|
608 @group
|
|
609 (progn
|
|
610 (princ 'The\ cat)
|
|
611 (princ " in the \"hat\""))
|
|
612 @print{} The cat in the "hat"
|
|
613 @result{} " in the \"hat\""
|
|
614 @end group
|
|
615 @end example
|
|
616 @end defun
|
|
617
|
|
618 @defun terpri &optional stream
|
|
619 @cindex newline in print
|
|
620 This function outputs a newline to @var{stream}. The name stands
|
|
621 for ``terminate print''.
|
|
622 @end defun
|
|
623
|
|
624 @defun write-char character &optional stream
|
|
625 This function outputs @var{character} to @var{stream}. It returns
|
|
626 @var{character}.
|
|
627 @end defun
|
|
628
|
|
629 @defun prin1-to-string object &optional noescape
|
|
630 @cindex object to string
|
|
631 This function returns a string containing the text that @code{prin1}
|
|
632 would have printed for the same argument.
|
|
633
|
|
634 @example
|
|
635 @group
|
|
636 (prin1-to-string 'foo)
|
|
637 @result{} "foo"
|
|
638 @end group
|
|
639 @group
|
|
640 (prin1-to-string (mark-marker))
|
|
641 @result{} "#<marker at 2773 in strings.texi>"
|
|
642 @end group
|
|
643 @end example
|
|
644
|
|
645 If @var{noescape} is non-@code{nil}, that inhibits use of quoting
|
|
646 characters in the output. (This argument is supported in Emacs versions
|
|
647 19 and later.)
|
|
648
|
|
649 @example
|
|
650 @group
|
|
651 (prin1-to-string "foo")
|
|
652 @result{} "\"foo\""
|
|
653 @end group
|
|
654 @group
|
|
655 (prin1-to-string "foo" t)
|
|
656 @result{} "foo"
|
|
657 @end group
|
|
658 @end example
|
|
659
|
|
660 See @code{format}, in @ref{String Conversion}, for other ways to obtain
|
|
661 the printed representation of a Lisp object as a string.
|
|
662 @end defun
|
|
663
|
|
664 @node Output Variables
|
|
665 @section Variables Affecting Output
|
|
666
|
|
667 @defvar standard-output
|
|
668 The value of this variable is the default output stream---the stream
|
|
669 that print functions use when the @var{stream} argument is @code{nil}.
|
|
670 @end defvar
|
|
671
|
|
672 @defvar print-escape-newlines
|
|
673 @cindex @samp{\n} in print
|
|
674 @cindex escape characters
|
|
675 If this variable is non-@code{nil}, then newline characters in strings
|
|
676 are printed as @samp{\n} and formfeeds are printed as @samp{\f}.
|
|
677 Normally these characters are printed as actual newlines and formfeeds.
|
|
678
|
|
679 This variable affects the print functions @code{prin1} and @code{print},
|
|
680 as well as everything that uses them. It does not affect @code{princ}.
|
|
681 Here is an example using @code{prin1}:
|
|
682
|
|
683 @example
|
|
684 @group
|
|
685 (prin1 "a\nb")
|
|
686 @print{} "a
|
|
687 @print{} b"
|
|
688 @result{} "a
|
|
689 b"
|
|
690 @end group
|
|
691
|
|
692 @group
|
|
693 (let ((print-escape-newlines t))
|
|
694 (prin1 "a\nb"))
|
|
695 @print{} "a\nb"
|
|
696 @result{} "a
|
|
697 b"
|
|
698 @end group
|
|
699 @end example
|
|
700
|
|
701 @noindent
|
|
702 In the second expression, the local binding of
|
|
703 @code{print-escape-newlines} is in effect during the call to
|
|
704 @code{prin1}, but not during the printing of the result.
|
|
705 @end defvar
|
|
706
|
|
707 @defvar print-length
|
|
708 @cindex printing limits
|
15763
|
709 The value of this variable is the maximum number of elements of a list,
|
|
710 vector or bitvector that will be printed. If an object being printed has
|
|
711 more than this many elements, it is abbreviated with an ellipsis.
|
6381
|
712
|
|
713 If the value is @code{nil} (the default), then there is no limit.
|
|
714
|
|
715 @example
|
|
716 @group
|
|
717 (setq print-length 2)
|
|
718 @result{} 2
|
|
719 @end group
|
|
720 @group
|
|
721 (print '(1 2 3 4 5))
|
|
722 @print{} (1 2 ...)
|
|
723 @result{} (1 2 ...)
|
|
724 @end group
|
|
725 @end example
|
|
726 @end defvar
|
|
727
|
|
728 @defvar print-level
|
|
729 The value of this variable is the maximum depth of nesting of
|
7219
|
730 parentheses and brackets when printed. Any list or vector at a depth
|
6381
|
731 exceeding this limit is abbreviated with an ellipsis. A value of
|
|
732 @code{nil} (which is the default) means no limit.
|
|
733
|
|
734 This variable exists in version 19 and later versions.
|
|
735 @end defvar
|