annotate lispref/streams.texi @ 15619:f698fc246195 libc-960708 libc-960709 libc-960710 libc-960711 libc-960712 libc-960713 libc-960714

Recognize rtems as an o/s.
author Doug Evans <dje@gnu.org>
date Sun, 07 Jul 1996 17:26:50 +0000
parents a6eb5f12b0f3
children 4263612ea038
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
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2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
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5 @setfilename ../info/streams
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6 @node Read and Print, Minibuffers, Debugging, Top
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7 @comment node-name, next, previous, up
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8 @chapter Reading and Printing Lisp Objects
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9
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10 @dfn{Printing} and @dfn{reading} are the operations of converting Lisp
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11 objects to textual form and vice versa. They use the printed
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12 representations and read syntax described in @ref{Lisp Data Types}.
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13
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14 This chapter describes the Lisp functions for reading and printing.
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15 It also describes @dfn{streams}, which specify where to get the text (if
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16 reading) or where to put it (if printing).
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17
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18 @menu
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19 * Streams Intro:: Overview of streams, reading and printing.
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20 * Input Streams:: Various data types that can be used as input streams.
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21 * Input Functions:: Functions to read Lisp objects from text.
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22 * Output Streams:: Various data types that can be used as output streams.
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23 * Output Functions:: Functions to print Lisp objects as text.
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24 * Output Variables:: Variables that control what the printing functions do.
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25 @end menu
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26
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27 @node Streams Intro
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28 @section Introduction to Reading and Printing
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29 @cindex Lisp reader
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30 @cindex printing
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31 @cindex reading
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32
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33 @dfn{Reading} a Lisp object means parsing a Lisp expression in textual
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34 form and producing a corresponding Lisp object. This is how Lisp
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35 programs get into Lisp from files of Lisp code. We call the text the
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36 @dfn{read syntax} of the object. For example, the text @samp{(a .@: 5)}
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37 is the read syntax for a cons cell whose @sc{car} is @code{a} and whose
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38 @sc{cdr} is the number 5.
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39
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40 @dfn{Printing} a Lisp object means producing text that represents that
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41 object---converting the object to its printed representation. Printing
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42 the cons cell described above produces the text @samp{(a .@: 5)}.
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43
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44 Reading and printing are more or less inverse operations: printing the
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45 object that results from reading a given piece of text often produces
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46 the same text, and reading the text that results from printing an object
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47 usually produces a similar-looking object. For example, printing the
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48 symbol @code{foo} produces the text @samp{foo}, and reading that text
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49 returns the symbol @code{foo}. Printing a list whose elements are
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50 @code{a} and @code{b} produces the text @samp{(a b)}, and reading that
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51 text produces a list (but not the same list) with elements @code{a}
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52 and @code{b}.
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53
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54 However, these two operations are not precisely inverses. There are
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55 three kinds of exceptions:
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56
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57 @itemize @bullet
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58 @item
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59 Printing can produce text that cannot be read. For example, buffers,
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60 windows, frames, subprocesses and markers print into text that starts
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61 with @samp{#}; if you try to read this text, you get an error. There is
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62 no way to read those data types.
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63
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64 @item
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65 One object can have multiple textual representations. For example,
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66 @samp{1} and @samp{01} represent the same integer, and @samp{(a b)} and
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67 @samp{(a .@: (b))} represent the same list. Reading will accept any of
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68 the alternatives, but printing must choose one of them.
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69
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70 @item
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71 Comments can appear at certain points in the middle of an object's
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72 read sequence without affecting the result of reading it.
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73 @end itemize
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74
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75 @node Input Streams
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76 @section Input Streams
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77 @cindex stream (for reading)
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78 @cindex input stream
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79
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80 Most of the Lisp functions for reading text take an @dfn{input stream}
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81 as an argument. The input stream specifies where or how to get the
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82 characters of the text to be read. Here are the possible types of input
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83 stream:
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84
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85 @table @asis
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86 @item @var{buffer}
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87 @cindex buffer input stream
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88 The input characters are read from @var{buffer}, starting with the
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89 character directly after point. Point advances as characters are read.
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90
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91 @item @var{marker}
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92 @cindex marker input stream
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93 The input characters are read from the buffer that @var{marker} is in,
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94 starting with the character directly after the marker. The marker
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95 position advances as characters are read. The value of point in the
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96 buffer has no effect when the stream is a marker.
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97
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98 @item @var{string}
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99 @cindex string input stream
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100 The input characters are taken from @var{string}, starting at the first
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101 character in the string and using as many characters as required.
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102
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103 @item @var{function}
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104 @cindex function input stream
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105 The input characters are generated by @var{function}, one character per
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106 call. Normally @var{function} is called with no arguments, and should
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107 return a character.
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108
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109 @cindex unreading
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110 Occasionally @var{function} is called with one argument (always a
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111 character). When that happens, @var{function} should save the argument
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112 and arrange to return it on the next call. This is called
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113 @dfn{unreading} the character; it happens when the Lisp reader reads one
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114 character too many and wants to ``put it back where it came from''.
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115
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116 @item @code{t}
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117 @cindex @code{t} input stream
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118 @code{t} used as a stream means that the input is read from the
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119 minibuffer. In fact, the minibuffer is invoked once and the text
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120 given by the user is made into a string that is then used as the
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121 input stream.
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122
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123 @item @code{nil}
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124 @cindex @code{nil} input stream
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125 @code{nil} supplied as an input stream means to use the value of
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126 @code{standard-input} instead; that value is the @dfn{default input
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127 stream}, and must be a non-@code{nil} input stream.
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128
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129 @item @var{symbol}
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130 A symbol as input stream is equivalent to the symbol's function
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131 definition (if any).
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132 @end table
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133
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134 Here is an example of reading from a stream that is a buffer, showing
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135 where point is located before and after:
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136
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137 @example
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138 @group
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139 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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140 This@point{} is the contents of foo.
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141 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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142 @end group
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143
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144 @group
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145 (read (get-buffer "foo"))
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146 @result{} is
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147 @end group
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148 @group
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149 (read (get-buffer "foo"))
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150 @result{} the
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151 @end group
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152
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153 @group
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154 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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155 This is the@point{} contents of foo.
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156 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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157 @end group
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158 @end example
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159
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160 @noindent
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161 Note that the first read skips a space. Reading skips any amount of
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162 whitespace preceding the significant text.
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163
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164 In Emacs 18, reading a symbol discarded the delimiter terminating the
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165 symbol. Thus, point would end up at the beginning of @samp{contents}
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166 rather than after @samp{the}. The Emacs 19 behavior is superior because
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167 it correctly handles input such as @samp{bar(foo)}, where the
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168 open-parenthesis that ends one object is needed as the beginning of
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169 another object.
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170
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171 Here is an example of reading from a stream that is a marker,
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172 initially positioned at the beginning of the buffer shown. The value
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173 read is the symbol @code{This}.
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174
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175 @example
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176 @group
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177
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178 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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179 This is the contents of foo.
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180 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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181 @end group
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182
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183 @group
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184 (setq m (set-marker (make-marker) 1 (get-buffer "foo")))
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185 @result{} #<marker at 1 in foo>
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186 @end group
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187 @group
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188 (read m)
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189 @result{} This
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190 @end group
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191 @group
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192 m
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193 @result{} #<marker at 5 in foo> ;; @r{Before the first space.}
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194 @end group
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195 @end example
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196
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197 Here we read from the contents of a string:
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198
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199 @example
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200 @group
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201 (read "(When in) the course")
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202 @result{} (When in)
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203 @end group
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204 @end example
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205
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206 The following example reads from the minibuffer. The
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207 prompt is: @w{@samp{Lisp expression: }}. (That is always the prompt
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208 used when you read from the stream @code{t}.) The user's input is shown
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209 following the prompt.
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210
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211 @example
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212 @group
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213 (read t)
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214 @result{} 23
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215 ---------- Buffer: Minibuffer ----------
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216 Lisp expression: @kbd{23 @key{RET}}
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217 ---------- Buffer: Minibuffer ----------
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218 @end group
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219 @end example
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220
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221 Finally, here is an example of a stream that is a function, named
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222 @code{useless-stream}. Before we use the stream, we initialize the
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223 variable @code{useless-list} to a list of characters. Then each call to
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224 the function @code{useless-stream} obtains the next character in the list
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225 or unreads a character by adding it to the front of the list.
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226
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227 @example
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228 @group
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229 (setq useless-list (append "XY()" nil))
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230 @result{} (88 89 40 41)
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231 @end group
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232
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233 @group
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234 (defun useless-stream (&optional unread)
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235 (if unread
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236 (setq useless-list (cons unread useless-list))
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237 (prog1 (car useless-list)
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238 (setq useless-list (cdr useless-list)))))
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239 @result{} useless-stream
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240 @end group
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241 @end example
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242
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243 @noindent
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244 Now we read using the stream thus constructed:
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245
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246 @example
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247 @group
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248 (read 'useless-stream)
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249 @result{} XY
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250 @end group
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251
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252 @group
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253 useless-list
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254 @result{} (40 41)
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255 @end group
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256 @end example
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257
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258 @noindent
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259 Note that the open and close parentheses remains in the list. The Lisp
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260 reader encountered the open parenthesis, decided that it ended the
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261 input, and unread it. Another attempt to read from the stream at this
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262 point would read @samp{()} and return @code{nil}.
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263
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264 @defun get-file-char
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265 This function is used internally as an input stream to read from the
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266 input file opened by the function @code{load}. Don't use this function
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267 yourself.
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268 @end defun
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269
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270 @node Input Functions
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271 @section Input Functions
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272
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273 This section describes the Lisp functions and variables that pertain
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274 to reading.
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275
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276 In the functions below, @var{stream} stands for an input stream (see
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277 the previous section). If @var{stream} is @code{nil} or omitted, it
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278 defaults to the value of @code{standard-input}.
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279
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280 @kindex end-of-file
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281 An @code{end-of-file} error is signaled if reading encounters an
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282 unterminated list, vector, or string.
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283
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284 @defun read &optional stream
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285 This function reads one textual Lisp expression from @var{stream},
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286 returning it as a Lisp object. This is the basic Lisp input function.
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287 @end defun
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288
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289 @defun read-from-string string &optional start end
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290 @cindex string to object
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291 This function reads the first textual Lisp expression from the text in
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292 @var{string}. It returns a cons cell whose @sc{car} is that expression,
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293 and whose @sc{cdr} is an integer giving the position of the next
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294 remaining character in the string (i.e., the first one not read).
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295
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296 If @var{start} is supplied, then reading begins at index @var{start} in
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297 the string (where the first character is at index 0). If @var{end} is
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298 also supplied, then reading stops just before that index, as if the rest
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299 of the string were not there.
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300
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301 For example:
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302
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303 @example
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304 @group
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305 (read-from-string "(setq x 55) (setq y 5)")
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306 @result{} ((setq x 55) . 11)
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307 @end group
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308 @group
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309 (read-from-string "\"A short string\"")
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310 @result{} ("A short string" . 16)
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311 @end group
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312
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313 @group
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314 ;; @r{Read starting at the first character.}
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315 (read-from-string "(list 112)" 0)
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316 @result{} ((list 112) . 10)
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317 @end group
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318 @group
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319 ;; @r{Read starting at the second character.}
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320 (read-from-string "(list 112)" 1)
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321 @result{} (list . 5)
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322 @end group
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323 @group
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324 ;; @r{Read starting at the seventh character,}
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325 ;; @r{and stopping at the ninth.}
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326 (read-from-string "(list 112)" 6 8)
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327 @result{} (11 . 8)
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328 @end group
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329 @end example
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330 @end defun
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331
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332 @defvar standard-input
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333 This variable holds the default input stream---the stream that
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334 @code{read} uses when the @var{stream} argument is @code{nil}.
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335 @end defvar
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336
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337 @node Output Streams
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338 @section Output Streams
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339 @cindex stream (for printing)
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340 @cindex output stream
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341
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342 An output stream specifies what to do with the characters produced
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343 by printing. Most print functions accept an output stream as an
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344 optional argument. Here are the possible types of output stream:
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345
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346 @table @asis
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347 @item @var{buffer}
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348 @cindex buffer output stream
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349 The output characters are inserted into @var{buffer} at point.
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350 Point advances as characters are inserted.
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351
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352 @item @var{marker}
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353 @cindex marker output stream
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354 The output characters are inserted into the buffer that @var{marker}
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355 points into, at the marker position. The marker position advances as
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356 characters are inserted. The value of point in the buffer has no effect
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357 on printing when the stream is a marker.
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358
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359 @item @var{function}
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360 @cindex function output stream
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361 The output characters are passed to @var{function}, which is responsible
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362 for storing them away. It is called with a single character as
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363 argument, as many times as there are characters to be output, and is
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364 free to do anything at all with the characters it receives.
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365
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366 @item @code{t}
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367 @cindex @code{t} output stream
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368 The output characters are displayed in the echo area.
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369
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370 @item @code{nil}
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371 @cindex @code{nil} output stream
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372 @code{nil} specified as an output stream means to the value of
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373 @code{standard-output} instead; that value is the @dfn{default output
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374 stream}, and must be a non-@code{nil} output stream.
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375
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376 @item @var{symbol}
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377 A symbol as output stream is equivalent to the symbol's function
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378 definition (if any).
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379 @end table
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380
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381 Many of the valid output streams are also valid as input streams. The
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382 difference between input and output streams is therefore mostly one of
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383 how you use a Lisp object, not a distinction of types of object.
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384
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385 Here is an example of a buffer used as an output stream. Point is
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386 initially located as shown immediately before the @samp{h} in
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387 @samp{the}. At the end, point is located directly before that same
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388 @samp{h}.
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389
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390 @cindex print example
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391 @example
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392 @group
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393 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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394 This is t@point{}he contents of foo.
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395 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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396 @end group
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397
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398 (print "This is the output" (get-buffer "foo"))
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399 @result{} "This is the output"
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400
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401 @group
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402 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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403 This is t
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404 "This is the output"
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405 @point{}he contents of foo.
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406 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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407 @end group
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408 @end example
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409
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410 Now we show a use of a marker as an output stream. Initially, the
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411 marker is in buffer @code{foo}, between the @samp{t} and the @samp{h} in
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412 the word @samp{the}. At the end, the marker has advanced over the
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413 inserted text so that it remains positioned before the same @samp{h}.
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414 Note that the location of point, shown in the usual fashion, has no
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415 effect.
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416
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417 @example
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418 @group
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419 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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420 "This is the @point{}output"
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421 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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422 @end group
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423
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424 @group
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425 m
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426 @result{} #<marker at 11 in foo>
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427 @end group
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428
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429 @group
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430 (print "More output for foo." m)
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431 @result{} "More output for foo."
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432 @end group
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433
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434 @group
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435 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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436 "This is t
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437 "More output for foo."
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438 he @point{}output"
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439 ---------- Buffer: foo ----------
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440 @end group
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441
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442 @group
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443 m
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444 @result{} #<marker at 35 in foo>
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445 @end group
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446 @end example
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447
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448 The following example shows output to the echo area:
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449
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450 @example
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451 @group
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452 (print "Echo Area output" t)
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453 @result{} "Echo Area output"
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454 ---------- Echo Area ----------
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455 "Echo Area output"
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456 ---------- Echo Area ----------
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457 @end group
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458 @end example
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459
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460 Finally, we show the use of a function as an output stream. The
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461 function @code{eat-output} takes each character that it is given and
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462 conses it onto the front of the list @code{last-output} (@pxref{Building
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463 Lists}). At the end, the list contains all the characters output, but
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464 in reverse order.
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465
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466 @example
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467 @group
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468 (setq last-output nil)
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469 @result{} nil
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470 @end group
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471
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472 @group
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473 (defun eat-output (c)
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474 (setq last-output (cons c last-output)))
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475 @result{} eat-output
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476 @end group
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477
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478 @group
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479 (print "This is the output" 'eat-output)
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480 @result{} "This is the output"
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481 @end group
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482
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483 @group
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484 last-output
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485 @result{} (10 34 116 117 112 116 117 111 32 101 104
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486 116 32 115 105 32 115 105 104 84 34 10)
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487 @end group
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488 @end example
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489
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490 @noindent
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491 Now we can put the output in the proper order by reversing the list:
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492
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493 @example
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494 @group
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495 (concat (nreverse last-output))
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496 @result{} "
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497 \"This is the output\"
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498 "
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499 @end group
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500 @end example
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501
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502 @noindent
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503 Calling @code{concat} converts the list to a string so you can see its
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504 contents more clearly.
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505
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506 @node Output Functions
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507 @section Output Functions
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508
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509 This section describes the Lisp functions for printing Lisp objects.
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510
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511 @cindex @samp{"} in printing
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512 @cindex @samp{\} in printing
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513 @cindex quoting characters in printing
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514 @cindex escape characters in printing
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515 Some of the Emacs printing functions add quoting characters to the
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516 output when necessary so that it can be read properly. The quoting
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517 characters used are @samp{"} and @samp{\}; they distinguish strings from
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518 symbols, and prevent punctuation characters in strings and symbols from
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519 being taken as delimiters when reading. @xref{Printed Representation},
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520 for full details. You specify quoting or no quoting by the choice of
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521 printing function.
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522
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523 If the text is to be read back into Lisp, then it is best to print
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524 with quoting characters to avoid ambiguity. Likewise, if the purpose is
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525 to describe a Lisp object clearly for a Lisp programmer. However, if
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526 the purpose of the output is to look nice for humans, then it is better
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527 to print without quoting.
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528
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529 Printing a self-referent Lisp object requires an infinite amount of
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530 text. In certain cases, trying to produce this text leads to a stack
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531 overflow. Emacs detects such recursion and prints @samp{#@var{level}}
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532 instead of recursively printing an object already being printed. For
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533 example, here @samp{#0} indicates a recursive reference to the object at
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534 level 0 of the current print operation:
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535
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536 @example
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537 (setq foo (list nil))
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538 @result{} (nil)
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539 (setcar foo foo)
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540 @result{} (#0)
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541 @end example
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542
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543 In the functions below, @var{stream} stands for an output stream.
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544 (See the previous section for a description of output streams.) If
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545 @var{stream} is @code{nil} or omitted, it defaults to the value of
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546 @code{standard-output}.
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547
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548 @defun print object &optional stream
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549 @cindex Lisp printer
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550 The @code{print} function is a convenient way of printing. It outputs
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551 the printed representation of @var{object} to @var{stream}, printing in
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552 addition one newline before @var{object} and another after it. Quoting
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553 characters are used. @code{print} returns @var{object}. For example:
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554
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555 @example
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556 @group
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557 (progn (print 'The\ cat\ in)
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558 (print "the hat")
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559 (print " came back"))
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560 @print{}
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561 @print{} The\ cat\ in
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562 @print{}
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563 @print{} "the hat"
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564 @print{}
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565 @print{} " came back"
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566 @print{}
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567 @result{} " came back"
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568 @end group
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569 @end example
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570 @end defun
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571
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572 @defun prin1 object &optional stream
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573 This function outputs the printed representation of @var{object} to
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574 @var{stream}. It does not print newlines to separate output as
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575 @code{print} does, but it does use quoting characters just like
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576 @code{print}. It returns @var{object}.
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577
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578 @example
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579 @group
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580 (progn (prin1 'The\ cat\ in)
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581 (prin1 "the hat")
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582 (prin1 " came back"))
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583 @print{} The\ cat\ in"the hat"" came back"
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584 @result{} " came back"
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585 @end group
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586 @end example
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587 @end defun
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588
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589 @defun princ object &optional stream
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590 This function outputs the printed representation of @var{object} to
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591 @var{stream}. It returns @var{object}.
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592
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593 This function is intended to produce output that is readable by people,
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594 not by @code{read}, so it doesn't insert quoting characters and doesn't
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595 put double-quotes around the contents of strings. It does not add any
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596 spacing between calls.
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597
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598 @example
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599 @group
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600 (progn
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601 (princ 'The\ cat)
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602 (princ " in the \"hat\""))
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603 @print{} The cat in the "hat"
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604 @result{} " in the \"hat\""
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605 @end group
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606 @end example
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607 @end defun
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608
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609 @defun terpri &optional stream
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610 @cindex newline in print
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611 This function outputs a newline to @var{stream}. The name stands
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612 for ``terminate print''.
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613 @end defun
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614
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615 @defun write-char character &optional stream
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616 This function outputs @var{character} to @var{stream}. It returns
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617 @var{character}.
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618 @end defun
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619
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620 @defun prin1-to-string object &optional noescape
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621 @cindex object to string
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622 This function returns a string containing the text that @code{prin1}
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623 would have printed for the same argument.
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624
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625 @example
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626 @group
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627 (prin1-to-string 'foo)
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628 @result{} "foo"
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629 @end group
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630 @group
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631 (prin1-to-string (mark-marker))
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632 @result{} "#<marker at 2773 in strings.texi>"
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633 @end group
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634 @end example
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635
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636 If @var{noescape} is non-@code{nil}, that inhibits use of quoting
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637 characters in the output. (This argument is supported in Emacs versions
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638 19 and later.)
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639
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640 @example
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641 @group
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642 (prin1-to-string "foo")
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643 @result{} "\"foo\""
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644 @end group
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645 @group
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646 (prin1-to-string "foo" t)
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647 @result{} "foo"
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648 @end group
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649 @end example
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650
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651 See @code{format}, in @ref{String Conversion}, for other ways to obtain
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652 the printed representation of a Lisp object as a string.
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653 @end defun
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654
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655 @node Output Variables
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656 @section Variables Affecting Output
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657
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658 @defvar standard-output
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659 The value of this variable is the default output stream---the stream
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660 that print functions use when the @var{stream} argument is @code{nil}.
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661 @end defvar
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662
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663 @defvar print-escape-newlines
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664 @cindex @samp{\n} in print
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665 @cindex escape characters
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666 If this variable is non-@code{nil}, then newline characters in strings
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667 are printed as @samp{\n} and formfeeds are printed as @samp{\f}.
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668 Normally these characters are printed as actual newlines and formfeeds.
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669
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670 This variable affects the print functions @code{prin1} and @code{print},
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671 as well as everything that uses them. It does not affect @code{princ}.
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672 Here is an example using @code{prin1}:
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673
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674 @example
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675 @group
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676 (prin1 "a\nb")
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677 @print{} "a
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678 @print{} b"
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679 @result{} "a
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680 b"
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681 @end group
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682
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683 @group
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684 (let ((print-escape-newlines t))
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685 (prin1 "a\nb"))
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686 @print{} "a\nb"
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687 @result{} "a
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688 b"
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689 @end group
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690 @end example
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691
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692 @noindent
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693 In the second expression, the local binding of
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694 @code{print-escape-newlines} is in effect during the call to
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695 @code{prin1}, but not during the printing of the result.
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696 @end defvar
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697
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698 @defvar print-length
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699 @cindex printing limits
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700 The value of this variable is the maximum number of elements of a list
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701 that will be printed. If a list being printed has more than this many
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702 elements, it is abbreviated with an ellipsis.
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703
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704 If the value is @code{nil} (the default), then there is no limit.
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705
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706 @example
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707 @group
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708 (setq print-length 2)
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709 @result{} 2
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710 @end group
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711 @group
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712 (print '(1 2 3 4 5))
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713 @print{} (1 2 ...)
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714 @result{} (1 2 ...)
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715 @end group
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716 @end example
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717 @end defvar
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718
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719 @defvar print-level
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720 The value of this variable is the maximum depth of nesting of
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721 parentheses and brackets when printed. Any list or vector at a depth
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722 exceeding this limit is abbreviated with an ellipsis. A value of
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723 @code{nil} (which is the default) means no limit.
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724
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725 This variable exists in version 19 and later versions.
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726 @end defvar