annotate lispref/control.texi @ 15701:5db02009315e libc-1-93 libc-960716 libc-960717 libc-960718 libc-960719 libc-960720 libc-960721 libc-960722 libc-960723 libc-960724 libc-960725 libc-960726 libc-960727 libc-960728 libc-960729 libc-960730 libc-960731 libc-960801 libc-960802 libc-960803 libc-960804 libc-960805 libc-960806 libc-960807 libc-960808 libc-960809 libc-960810 libc-960811 libc-960812 libc-960813 libc-960814 libc-960815 libc-960816 libc-960817 libc-960818 libc-960819 libc-960820 libc-960821 libc-960822 libc-960823 libc-960824 libc-960825 libc-960826 libc-960827 libc-960828 libc-960829 libc-960830 libc-960831 libc-960901 libc-960902 libc-960903 libc-960904 libc-960905 libc-960906 libc-960907 libc-960908 libc-960909 libc-960910 libc-960911 libc-960912 release-0-0 release-0-1

Fix previous change. Use sed's y command instead.
author Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
date Tue, 16 Jul 1996 04:47:46 +0000
parents a6eb5f12b0f3
children bf32c17c153b
Ignore whitespace changes - Everywhere: Within whitespace: At end of lines:
rev   line source
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1 @c -*-texinfo-*-
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
5 @setfilename ../info/control
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
6 @node Control Structures, Variables, Evaluation, Top
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
7 @chapter Control Structures
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
8 @cindex special forms for control structures
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
9 @cindex control structures
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
10
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
11 A Lisp program consists of expressions or @dfn{forms} (@pxref{Forms}).
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
12 We control the order of execution of the forms by enclosing them in
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
13 @dfn{control structures}. Control structures are special forms which
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
14 control when, whether, or how many times to execute the forms they
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
15 contain.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
16
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
17 The simplest order of execution is sequential execution: first form
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
18 @var{a}, then form @var{b}, and so on. This is what happens when you
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
19 write several forms in succession in the body of a function, or at top
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
20 level in a file of Lisp code---the forms are executed in the order
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
21 written. We call this @dfn{textual order}. For example, if a function
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
22 body consists of two forms @var{a} and @var{b}, evaluation of the
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
23 function evaluates first @var{a} and then @var{b}, and the function's
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
24 value is the value of @var{b}.
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
25
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
26 Explicit control structures make possible an order of execution other
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
27 than sequential.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
28
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
29 Emacs Lisp provides several kinds of control structure, including
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
30 other varieties of sequencing, conditionals, iteration, and (controlled)
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
31 jumps---all discussed below. The built-in control structures are
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
32 special forms since their subforms are not necessarily evaluated or not
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
33 evaluated sequentially. You can use macros to define your own control
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
34 structure constructs (@pxref{Macros}).
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
35
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
36 @menu
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
37 * Sequencing:: Evaluation in textual order.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
38 * Conditionals:: @code{if}, @code{cond}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
39 * Combining Conditions:: @code{and}, @code{or}, @code{not}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
40 * Iteration:: @code{while} loops.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
41 * Nonlocal Exits:: Jumping out of a sequence.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
42 @end menu
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
43
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
44 @node Sequencing
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
45 @section Sequencing
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
46
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
47 Evaluating forms in the order they appear is the most common way
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
48 control passes from one form to another. In some contexts, such as in a
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
49 function body, this happens automatically. Elsewhere you must use a
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
50 control structure construct to do this: @code{progn}, the simplest
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
51 control construct of Lisp.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
52
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
53 A @code{progn} special form looks like this:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
54
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
55 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
56 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
57 (progn @var{a} @var{b} @var{c} @dots{})
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
58 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
59 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
60
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
61 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
62 and it says to execute the forms @var{a}, @var{b}, @var{c} and so on, in
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
63 that order. These forms are called the body of the @code{progn} form.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
64 The value of the last form in the body becomes the value of the entire
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
65 @code{progn}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
66
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
67 @cindex implicit @code{progn}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
68 In the early days of Lisp, @code{progn} was the only way to execute
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
69 two or more forms in succession and use the value of the last of them.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
70 But programmers found they often needed to use a @code{progn} in the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
71 body of a function, where (at that time) only one form was allowed. So
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
72 the body of a function was made into an ``implicit @code{progn}'':
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
73 several forms are allowed just as in the body of an actual @code{progn}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
74 Many other control structures likewise contain an implicit @code{progn}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
75 As a result, @code{progn} is not used as often as it used to be. It is
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
76 needed now most often inside an @code{unwind-protect}, @code{and},
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
77 @code{or}, or in the @var{then}-part of an @code{if}.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
78
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
79 @defspec progn forms@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
80 This special form evaluates all of the @var{forms}, in textual
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
81 order, returning the result of the final form.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
82
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
83 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
84 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
85 (progn (print "The first form")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
86 (print "The second form")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
87 (print "The third form"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
88 @print{} "The first form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
89 @print{} "The second form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
90 @print{} "The third form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
91 @result{} "The third form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
92 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
93 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
94 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
95
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
96 Two other control constructs likewise evaluate a series of forms but return
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
97 a different value:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
98
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
99 @defspec prog1 form1 forms@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
100 This special form evaluates @var{form1} and all of the @var{forms}, in
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
101 textual order, returning the result of @var{form1}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
102
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
103 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
104 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
105 (prog1 (print "The first form")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
106 (print "The second form")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
107 (print "The third form"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
108 @print{} "The first form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
109 @print{} "The second form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
110 @print{} "The third form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
111 @result{} "The first form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
112 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
113 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
114
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
115 Here is a way to remove the first element from a list in the variable
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
116 @code{x}, then return the value of that former element:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
117
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
118 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
119 (prog1 (car x) (setq x (cdr x)))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
120 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
121 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
122
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
123 @defspec prog2 form1 form2 forms@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
124 This special form evaluates @var{form1}, @var{form2}, and all of the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
125 following @var{forms}, in textual order, returning the result of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
126 @var{form2}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
127
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
128 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
129 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
130 (prog2 (print "The first form")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
131 (print "The second form")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
132 (print "The third form"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
133 @print{} "The first form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
134 @print{} "The second form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
135 @print{} "The third form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
136 @result{} "The second form"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
137 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
138 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
139 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
140
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
141 @node Conditionals
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
142 @section Conditionals
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
143 @cindex conditional evaluation
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
144
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
145 Conditional control structures choose among alternatives. Emacs Lisp
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
146 has two conditional forms: @code{if}, which is much the same as in other
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
147 languages, and @code{cond}, which is a generalized case statement.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
148
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
149 @defspec if condition then-form else-forms@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
150 @code{if} chooses between the @var{then-form} and the @var{else-forms}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
151 based on the value of @var{condition}. If the evaluated @var{condition} is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
152 non-@code{nil}, @var{then-form} is evaluated and the result returned.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
153 Otherwise, the @var{else-forms} are evaluated in textual order, and the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
154 value of the last one is returned. (The @var{else} part of @code{if} is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
155 an example of an implicit @code{progn}. @xref{Sequencing}.)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
156
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
157 If @var{condition} has the value @code{nil}, and no @var{else-forms} are
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
158 given, @code{if} returns @code{nil}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
159
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
160 @code{if} is a special form because the branch that is not selected is
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
161 never evaluated---it is ignored. Thus, in the example below,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
162 @code{true} is not printed because @code{print} is never called.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
163
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
164 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
165 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
166 (if nil
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
167 (print 'true)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
168 'very-false)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
169 @result{} very-false
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
170 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
171 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
172 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
173
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
174 @defspec cond clause@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
175 @code{cond} chooses among an arbitrary number of alternatives. Each
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
176 @var{clause} in the @code{cond} must be a list. The @sc{car} of this
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
177 list is the @var{condition}; the remaining elements, if any, the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
178 @var{body-forms}. Thus, a clause looks like this:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
179
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
180 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
181 (@var{condition} @var{body-forms}@dots{})
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
182 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
183
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
184 @code{cond} tries the clauses in textual order, by evaluating the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
185 @var{condition} of each clause. If the value of @var{condition} is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
186 non-@code{nil}, the clause ``succeeds''; then @code{cond} evaluates its
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
187 @var{body-forms}, and the value of the last of @var{body-forms} becomes
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
188 the value of the @code{cond}. The remaining clauses are ignored.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
189
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
190 If the value of @var{condition} is @code{nil}, the clause ``fails'', so
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
191 the @code{cond} moves on to the following clause, trying its
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
192 @var{condition}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
193
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
194 If every @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil}, so that every clause
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
195 fails, @code{cond} returns @code{nil}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
196
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
197 A clause may also look like this:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
198
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
199 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
200 (@var{condition})
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
201 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
202
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
203 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
204 Then, if @var{condition} is non-@code{nil} when tested, the value of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
205 @var{condition} becomes the value of the @code{cond} form.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
206
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
207 The following example has four clauses, which test for the cases where
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
208 the value of @code{x} is a number, string, buffer and symbol,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
209 respectively:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
210
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
211 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
212 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
213 (cond ((numberp x) x)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
214 ((stringp x) x)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
215 ((bufferp x)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
216 (setq temporary-hack x) ; @r{multiple body-forms}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
217 (buffer-name x)) ; @r{in one clause}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
218 ((symbolp x) (symbol-value x)))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
219 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
220 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
221
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
222 Often we want to execute the last clause whenever none of the previous
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
223 clauses was successful. To do this, we use @code{t} as the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
224 @var{condition} of the last clause, like this: @code{(t
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
225 @var{body-forms})}. The form @code{t} evaluates to @code{t}, which is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
226 never @code{nil}, so this clause never fails, provided the @code{cond}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
227 gets to it at all.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
228
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
229 For example,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
230
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
231 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
232 @group
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
233 (cond ((eq a 'hack) 'foo)
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
234 (t "default"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
235 @result{} "default"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
236 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
237 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
238
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
239 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
240 This expression is a @code{cond} which returns @code{foo} if the value
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
241 of @code{a} is 1, and returns the string @code{"default"} otherwise.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
242 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
243
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
244 Any conditional construct can be expressed with @code{cond} or with
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
245 @code{if}. Therefore, the choice between them is a matter of style.
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
246 For example:
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
247
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
248 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
249 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
250 (if @var{a} @var{b} @var{c})
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
251 @equiv{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
252 (cond (@var{a} @var{b}) (t @var{c}))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
253 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
254 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
255
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
256 @node Combining Conditions
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
257 @section Constructs for Combining Conditions
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
258
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
259 This section describes three constructs that are often used together
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
260 with @code{if} and @code{cond} to express complicated conditions. The
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
261 constructs @code{and} and @code{or} can also be used individually as
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
262 kinds of multiple conditional constructs.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
263
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
264 @defun not condition
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
265 This function tests for the falsehood of @var{condition}. It returns
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
266 @code{t} if @var{condition} is @code{nil}, and @code{nil} otherwise.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
267 The function @code{not} is identical to @code{null}, and we recommend
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
268 using the name @code{null} if you are testing for an empty list.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
269 @end defun
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
270
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
271 @defspec and conditions@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
272 The @code{and} special form tests whether all the @var{conditions} are
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
273 true. It works by evaluating the @var{conditions} one by one in the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
274 order written.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
275
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
276 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to @code{nil}, then the result
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
277 of the @code{and} must be @code{nil} regardless of the remaining
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
278 @var{conditions}; so @code{and} returns right away, ignoring the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
279 remaining @var{conditions}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
280
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
281 If all the @var{conditions} turn out non-@code{nil}, then the value of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
282 the last of them becomes the value of the @code{and} form.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
283
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
284 Here is an example. The first condition returns the integer 1, which is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
285 not @code{nil}. Similarly, the second condition returns the integer 2,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
286 which is not @code{nil}. The third condition is @code{nil}, so the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
287 remaining condition is never evaluated.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
288
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
289 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
290 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
291 (and (print 1) (print 2) nil (print 3))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
292 @print{} 1
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
293 @print{} 2
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
294 @result{} nil
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
295 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
296 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
297
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
298 Here is a more realistic example of using @code{and}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
299
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
300 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
301 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
302 (if (and (consp foo) (eq (car foo) 'x))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
303 (message "foo is a list starting with x"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
304 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
305 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
306
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
307 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
308 Note that @code{(car foo)} is not executed if @code{(consp foo)} returns
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
309 @code{nil}, thus avoiding an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
310
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
311 @code{and} can be expressed in terms of either @code{if} or @code{cond}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
312 For example:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
313
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
314 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
315 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
316 (and @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
317 @equiv{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
318 (if @var{arg1} (if @var{arg2} @var{arg3}))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
319 @equiv{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
320 (cond (@var{arg1} (cond (@var{arg2} @var{arg3}))))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
321 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
322 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
323 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
324
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
325 @defspec or conditions@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
326 The @code{or} special form tests whether at least one of the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
327 @var{conditions} is true. It works by evaluating all the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
328 @var{conditions} one by one in the order written.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
329
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
330 If any of the @var{conditions} evaluates to a non-@code{nil} value, then
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
331 the result of the @code{or} must be non-@code{nil}; so @code{or} returns
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
332 right away, ignoring the remaining @var{conditions}. The value it
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
333 returns is the non-@code{nil} value of the condition just evaluated.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
334
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
335 If all the @var{conditions} turn out @code{nil}, then the @code{or}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
336 expression returns @code{nil}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
337
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
338 For example, this expression tests whether @code{x} is either 0 or
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
339 @code{nil}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
340
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
341 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
342 (or (eq x nil) (eq x 0))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
343 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
344
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
345 Like the @code{and} construct, @code{or} can be written in terms of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
346 @code{cond}. For example:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
347
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
348 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
349 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
350 (or @var{arg1} @var{arg2} @var{arg3})
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
351 @equiv{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
352 (cond (@var{arg1})
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
353 (@var{arg2})
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
354 (@var{arg3}))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
355 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
356 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
357
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
358 You could almost write @code{or} in terms of @code{if}, but not quite:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
359
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
360 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
361 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
362 (if @var{arg1} @var{arg1}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
363 (if @var{arg2} @var{arg2}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
364 @var{arg3}))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
365 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
366 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
367
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
368 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
369 This is not completely equivalent because it can evaluate @var{arg1} or
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
370 @var{arg2} twice. By contrast, @code{(or @var{arg1} @var{arg2}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
371 @var{arg3})} never evaluates any argument more than once.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
372 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
373
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
374 @node Iteration
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
375 @section Iteration
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
376 @cindex iteration
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
377 @cindex recursion
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
378
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
379 Iteration means executing part of a program repetitively. For
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
380 example, you might want to repeat some computation once for each element
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
381 of a list, or once for each integer from 0 to @var{n}. You can do this
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
382 in Emacs Lisp with the special form @code{while}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
383
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
384 @defspec while condition forms@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
385 @code{while} first evaluates @var{condition}. If the result is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
386 non-@code{nil}, it evaluates @var{forms} in textual order. Then it
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
387 reevaluates @var{condition}, and if the result is non-@code{nil}, it
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
388 evaluates @var{forms} again. This process repeats until @var{condition}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
389 evaluates to @code{nil}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
390
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
391 There is no limit on the number of iterations that may occur. The loop
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
392 will continue until either @var{condition} evaluates to @code{nil} or
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
393 until an error or @code{throw} jumps out of it (@pxref{Nonlocal Exits}).
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
394
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
395 The value of a @code{while} form is always @code{nil}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
396
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
397 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
398 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
399 (setq num 0)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
400 @result{} 0
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
401 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
402 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
403 (while (< num 4)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
404 (princ (format "Iteration %d." num))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
405 (setq num (1+ num)))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
406 @print{} Iteration 0.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
407 @print{} Iteration 1.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
408 @print{} Iteration 2.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
409 @print{} Iteration 3.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
410 @result{} nil
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
411 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
412 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
413
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
414 If you would like to execute something on each iteration before the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
415 end-test, put it together with the end-test in a @code{progn} as the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
416 first argument of @code{while}, as shown here:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
417
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
418 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
419 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
420 (while (progn
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
421 (forward-line 1)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
422 (not (looking-at "^$"))))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
423 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
424 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
425
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
426 @noindent
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
427 This moves forward one line and continues moving by lines until it
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
428 reaches an empty. It is unusual in that the @code{while} has no body,
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
429 just the end test (which also does the real work of moving point).
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
430 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
431
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
432 @node Nonlocal Exits
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
433 @section Nonlocal Exits
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
434 @cindex nonlocal exits
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
435
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
436 A @dfn{nonlocal exit} is a transfer of control from one point in a
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
437 program to another remote point. Nonlocal exits can occur in Emacs Lisp
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
438 as a result of errors; you can also use them under explicit control.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
439 Nonlocal exits unbind all variable bindings made by the constructs being
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
440 exited.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
441
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
442 @menu
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
443 * Catch and Throw:: Nonlocal exits for the program's own purposes.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
444 * Examples of Catch:: Showing how such nonlocal exits can be written.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
445 * Errors:: How errors are signaled and handled.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
446 * Cleanups:: Arranging to run a cleanup form if an error happens.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
447 @end menu
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
448
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
449 @node Catch and Throw
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
450 @subsection Explicit Nonlocal Exits: @code{catch} and @code{throw}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
451
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
452 Most control constructs affect only the flow of control within the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
453 construct itself. The function @code{throw} is the exception to this
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
454 rule of normal program execution: it performs a nonlocal exit on
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
455 request. (There are other exceptions, but they are for error handling
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
456 only.) @code{throw} is used inside a @code{catch}, and jumps back to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
457 that @code{catch}. For example:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
458
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
459 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
460 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
461 (catch 'foo
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
462 (progn
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
463 @dots{}
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
464 (throw 'foo t)
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
465 @dots{}))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
466 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
467 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
468
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
469 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
470 The @code{throw} transfers control straight back to the corresponding
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
471 @code{catch}, which returns immediately. The code following the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
472 @code{throw} is not executed. The second argument of @code{throw} is used
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
473 as the return value of the @code{catch}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
474
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
475 The @code{throw} and the @code{catch} are matched through the first
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
476 argument: @code{throw} searches for a @code{catch} whose first argument
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
477 is @code{eq} to the one specified. Thus, in the above example, the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
478 @code{throw} specifies @code{foo}, and the @code{catch} specifies the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
479 same symbol, so that @code{catch} is applicable. If there is more than
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
480 one applicable @code{catch}, the innermost one takes precedence.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
481
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
482 Executing @code{throw} exits all Lisp constructs up to the matching
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
483 @code{catch}, including function calls. When binding constructs such as
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
484 @code{let} or function calls are exited in this way, the bindings are
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
485 unbound, just as they are when these constructs exit normally
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
486 (@pxref{Local Variables}). Likewise, @code{throw} restores the buffer
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
487 and position saved by @code{save-excursion} (@pxref{Excursions}), and
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
488 the narrowing status saved by @code{save-restriction} and the window
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
489 selection saved by @code{save-window-excursion} (@pxref{Window
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
490 Configurations}). It also runs any cleanups established with the
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
491 @code{unwind-protect} special form when it exits that form
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
492 (@pxref{Cleanups}).
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
493
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
494 The @code{throw} need not appear lexically within the @code{catch}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
495 that it jumps to. It can equally well be called from another function
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
496 called within the @code{catch}. As long as the @code{throw} takes place
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
497 chronologically after entry to the @code{catch}, and chronologically
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
498 before exit from it, it has access to that @code{catch}. This is why
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
499 @code{throw} can be used in commands such as @code{exit-recursive-edit}
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
500 that throw back to the editor command loop (@pxref{Recursive Editing}).
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
501
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
502 @cindex CL note---only @code{throw} in Emacs
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
503 @quotation
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
504 @b{Common Lisp note:} Most other versions of Lisp, including Common Lisp,
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
505 have several ways of transferring control nonsequentially: @code{return},
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
506 @code{return-from}, and @code{go}, for example. Emacs Lisp has only
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
507 @code{throw}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
508 @end quotation
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
509
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
510 @defspec catch tag body@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
511 @cindex tag on run time stack
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
512 @code{catch} establishes a return point for the @code{throw} function. The
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
513 return point is distinguished from other such return points by @var{tag},
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
514 which may be any Lisp object. The argument @var{tag} is evaluated normally
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
515 before the return point is established.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
516
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
517 With the return point in effect, @code{catch} evaluates the forms of the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
518 @var{body} in textual order. If the forms execute normally, without
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
519 error or nonlocal exit, the value of the last body form is returned from
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
520 the @code{catch}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
521
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
522 If a @code{throw} is done within @var{body} specifying the same value
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
523 @var{tag}, the @code{catch} exits immediately; the value it returns is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
524 whatever was specified as the second argument of @code{throw}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
525 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
526
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
527 @defun throw tag value
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
528 The purpose of @code{throw} is to return from a return point previously
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
529 established with @code{catch}. The argument @var{tag} is used to choose
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
530 among the various existing return points; it must be @code{eq} to the value
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
531 specified in the @code{catch}. If multiple return points match @var{tag},
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
532 the innermost one is used.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
533
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
534 The argument @var{value} is used as the value to return from that
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
535 @code{catch}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
536
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
537 @kindex no-catch
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
538 If no return point is in effect with tag @var{tag}, then a @code{no-catch}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
539 error is signaled with data @code{(@var{tag} @var{value})}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
540 @end defun
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
541
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
542 @node Examples of Catch
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
543 @subsection Examples of @code{catch} and @code{throw}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
544
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
545 One way to use @code{catch} and @code{throw} is to exit from a doubly
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
546 nested loop. (In most languages, this would be done with a ``go to''.)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
547 Here we compute @code{(foo @var{i} @var{j})} for @var{i} and @var{j}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
548 varying from 0 to 9:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
549
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
550 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
551 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
552 (defun search-foo ()
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
553 (catch 'loop
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
554 (let ((i 0))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
555 (while (< i 10)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
556 (let ((j 0))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
557 (while (< j 10)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
558 (if (foo i j)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
559 (throw 'loop (list i j)))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
560 (setq j (1+ j))))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
561 (setq i (1+ i))))))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
562 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
563 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
564
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
565 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
566 If @code{foo} ever returns non-@code{nil}, we stop immediately and return a
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
567 list of @var{i} and @var{j}. If @code{foo} always returns @code{nil}, the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
568 @code{catch} returns normally, and the value is @code{nil}, since that
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
569 is the result of the @code{while}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
570
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
571 Here are two tricky examples, slightly different, showing two
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
572 return points at once. First, two return points with the same tag,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
573 @code{hack}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
574
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
575 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
576 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
577 (defun catch2 (tag)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
578 (catch tag
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
579 (throw 'hack 'yes)))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
580 @result{} catch2
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
581 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
582
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
583 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
584 (catch 'hack
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
585 (print (catch2 'hack))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
586 'no)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
587 @print{} yes
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
588 @result{} no
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
589 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
590 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
591
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
592 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
593 Since both return points have tags that match the @code{throw}, it goes to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
594 the inner one, the one established in @code{catch2}. Therefore,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
595 @code{catch2} returns normally with value @code{yes}, and this value is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
596 printed. Finally the second body form in the outer @code{catch}, which is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
597 @code{'no}, is evaluated and returned from the outer @code{catch}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
598
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
599 Now let's change the argument given to @code{catch2}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
600
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
601 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
602 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
603 (defun catch2 (tag)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
604 (catch tag
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
605 (throw 'hack 'yes)))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
606 @result{} catch2
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
607 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
608
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
609 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
610 (catch 'hack
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
611 (print (catch2 'quux))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
612 'no)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
613 @result{} yes
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
614 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
615 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
616
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
617 @noindent
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
618 We still have two return points, but this time only the outer one has
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
619 the tag @code{hack}; the inner one has the tag @code{quux} instead.
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
620 Therefore, @code{throw} makes the outer @code{catch} return the value
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
621 @code{yes}. The function @code{print} is never called, and the
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
622 body-form @code{'no} is never evaluated.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
623
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
624 @node Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
625 @subsection Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
626 @cindex errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
627
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
628 When Emacs Lisp attempts to evaluate a form that, for some reason,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
629 cannot be evaluated, it @dfn{signals} an @dfn{error}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
630
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
631 When an error is signaled, Emacs's default reaction is to print an
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
632 error message and terminate execution of the current command. This is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
633 the right thing to do in most cases, such as if you type @kbd{C-f} at
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
634 the end of the buffer.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
635
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
636 In complicated programs, simple termination may not be what you want.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
637 For example, the program may have made temporary changes in data
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
638 structures, or created temporary buffers that should be deleted before
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
639 the program is finished. In such cases, you would use
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
640 @code{unwind-protect} to establish @dfn{cleanup expressions} to be
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
641 evaluated in case of error. (@xref{Cleanups}.) Occasionally, you may
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
642 wish the program to continue execution despite an error in a subroutine.
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
643 In these cases, you would use @code{condition-case} to establish
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
644 @dfn{error handlers} to recover control in case of error.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
645
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
646 Resist the temptation to use error handling to transfer control from
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
647 one part of the program to another; use @code{catch} and @code{throw}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
648 instead. @xref{Catch and Throw}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
649
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
650 @menu
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
651 * Signaling Errors:: How to report an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
652 * Processing of Errors:: What Emacs does when you report an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
653 * Handling Errors:: How you can trap errors and continue execution.
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
654 * Error Symbols:: How errors are classified for trapping them.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
655 @end menu
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
656
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
657 @node Signaling Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
658 @subsubsection How to Signal an Error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
659 @cindex signaling errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
660
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
661 Most errors are signaled ``automatically'' within Lisp primitives
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
662 which you call for other purposes, such as if you try to take the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
663 @sc{car} of an integer or move forward a character at the end of the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
664 buffer; you can also signal errors explicitly with the functions
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
665 @code{error} and @code{signal}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
666
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
667 Quitting, which happens when the user types @kbd{C-g}, is not
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
668 considered an error, but it is handled almost like an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
669 @xref{Quitting}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
670
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
671 @defun error format-string &rest args
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
672 This function signals an error with an error message constructed by
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
673 applying @code{format} (@pxref{String Conversion}) to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
674 @var{format-string} and @var{args}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
675
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
676 These examples show typical uses of @code{error}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
677
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
678 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
679 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
680 (error "You have committed an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
681 Try something else.")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
682 @error{} You have committed an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
683 Try something else.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
684 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
685
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
686 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
687 (error "You have committed %d errors." 10)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
688 @error{} You have committed 10 errors.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
689 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
690 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
691
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
692 @code{error} works by calling @code{signal} with two arguments: the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
693 error symbol @code{error}, and a list containing the string returned by
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
694 @code{format}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
695
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
696 If you want to use your own string as an error message verbatim, don't
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
697 just write @code{(error @var{string})}. If @var{string} contains
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
698 @samp{%}, it will be interpreted as a format specifier, with undesirable
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
699 results. Instead, use @code{(error "%s" @var{string})}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
700 @end defun
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
701
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
702 @defun signal error-symbol data
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
703 This function signals an error named by @var{error-symbol}. The
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
704 argument @var{data} is a list of additional Lisp objects relevant to the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
705 circumstances of the error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
706
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
707 The argument @var{error-symbol} must be an @dfn{error symbol}---a symbol
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
708 bearing a property @code{error-conditions} whose value is a list of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
709 condition names. This is how Emacs Lisp classifies different sorts of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
710 errors.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
711
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
712 The number and significance of the objects in @var{data} depends on
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
713 @var{error-symbol}. For example, with a @code{wrong-type-arg} error,
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
714 there are two objects in the list: a predicate that describes the type
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
715 that was expected, and the object that failed to fit that type.
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
716 @xref{Error Symbols}, for a description of error symbols.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
717
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
718 Both @var{error-symbol} and @var{data} are available to any error
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
719 handlers that handle the error: @code{condition-case} binds a local
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
720 variable to a list of the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} .@:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
721 @var{data})} (@pxref{Handling Errors}). If the error is not handled,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
722 these two values are used in printing the error message.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
723
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
724 The function @code{signal} never returns (though in older Emacs versions
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
725 it could sometimes return).
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
726
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
727 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
728 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
729 (signal 'wrong-number-of-arguments '(x y))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
730 @error{} Wrong number of arguments: x, y
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
731 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
732
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
733 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
734 (signal 'no-such-error '("My unknown error condition."))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
735 @error{} peculiar error: "My unknown error condition."
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
736 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
737 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
738 @end defun
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
739
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
740 @cindex CL note---no continuable errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
741 @quotation
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
742 @b{Common Lisp note:} Emacs Lisp has nothing like the Common Lisp
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
743 concept of continuable errors.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
744 @end quotation
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
745
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
746 @node Processing of Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
747 @subsubsection How Emacs Processes Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
748
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
749 When an error is signaled, @code{signal} searches for an active
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
750 @dfn{handler} for the error. A handler is a sequence of Lisp
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
751 expressions designated to be executed if an error happens in part of the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
752 Lisp program. If the error has an applicable handler, the handler is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
753 executed, and control resumes following the handler. The handler
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
754 executes in the environment of the @code{condition-case} that
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
755 established it; all functions called within that @code{condition-case}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
756 have already been exited, and the handler cannot return to them.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
757
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
758 If there is no applicable handler for the error, the current command is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
759 terminated and control returns to the editor command loop, because the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
760 command loop has an implicit handler for all kinds of errors. The
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
761 command loop's handler uses the error symbol and associated data to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
762 print an error message.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
763
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
764 @cindex @code{debug-on-error} use
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
765 An error that has no explicit handler may call the Lisp debugger. The
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
766 debugger is enabled if the variable @code{debug-on-error} (@pxref{Error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
767 Debugging}) is non-@code{nil}. Unlike error handlers, the debugger runs
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
768 in the environment of the error, so that you can examine values of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
769 variables precisely as they were at the time of the error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
770
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
771 @node Handling Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
772 @subsubsection Writing Code to Handle Errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
773 @cindex error handler
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
774 @cindex handling errors
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
775
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
776 The usual effect of signaling an error is to terminate the command
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
777 that is running and return immediately to the Emacs editor command loop.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
778 You can arrange to trap errors occurring in a part of your program by
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
779 establishing an error handler, with the special form
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
780 @code{condition-case}. A simple example looks like this:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
781
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
782 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
783 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
784 (condition-case nil
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
785 (delete-file filename)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
786 (error nil))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
787 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
788 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
789
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
790 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
791 This deletes the file named @var{filename}, catching any error and
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
792 returning @code{nil} if an error occurs.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
793
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
794 The second argument of @code{condition-case} is called the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
795 @dfn{protected form}. (In the example above, the protected form is a
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
796 call to @code{delete-file}.) The error handlers go into effect when
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
797 this form begins execution and are deactivated when this form returns.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
798 They remain in effect for all the intervening time. In particular, they
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
799 are in effect during the execution of functions called by this form, in
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
800 their subroutines, and so on. This is a good thing, since, strictly
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
801 speaking, errors can be signaled only by Lisp primitives (including
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
802 @code{signal} and @code{error}) called by the protected form, not by the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
803 protected form itself.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
804
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
805 The arguments after the protected form are handlers. Each handler
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
806 lists one or more @dfn{condition names} (which are symbols) to specify
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
807 which errors it will handle. The error symbol specified when an error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
808 is signaled also defines a list of condition names. A handler applies
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
809 to an error if they have any condition names in common. In the example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
810 above, there is one handler, and it specifies one condition name,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
811 @code{error}, which covers all errors.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
812
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
813 The search for an applicable handler checks all the established handlers
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
814 starting with the most recently established one. Thus, if two nested
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
815 @code{condition-case} forms offer to handle the same error, the inner of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
816 the two will actually handle it.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
817
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
818 When an error is handled, control returns to the handler. Before this
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
819 happens, Emacs unbinds all variable bindings made by binding constructs
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
820 that are being exited and executes the cleanups of all
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
821 @code{unwind-protect} forms that are exited. Once control arrives at
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
822 the handler, the body of the handler is executed.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
823
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
824 After execution of the handler body, execution continues by returning
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
825 from the @code{condition-case} form. Because the protected form is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
826 exited completely before execution of the handler, the handler cannot
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
827 resume execution at the point of the error, nor can it examine variable
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
828 bindings that were made within the protected form. All it can do is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
829 clean up and proceed.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
830
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
831 @code{condition-case} is often used to trap errors that are
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
832 predictable, such as failure to open a file in a call to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
833 @code{insert-file-contents}. It is also used to trap errors that are
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
834 totally unpredictable, such as when the program evaluates an expression
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
835 read from the user.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
836
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
837 Error signaling and handling have some resemblance to @code{throw} and
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
838 @code{catch}, but they are entirely separate facilities. An error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
839 cannot be caught by a @code{catch}, and a @code{throw} cannot be handled
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
840 by an error handler (though using @code{throw} when there is no suitable
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
841 @code{catch} signals an error that can be handled).
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
842
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
843 @defspec condition-case var protected-form handlers@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
844 This special form establishes the error handlers @var{handlers} around
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
845 the execution of @var{protected-form}. If @var{protected-form} executes
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
846 without error, the value it returns becomes the value of the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
847 @code{condition-case} form; in this case, the @code{condition-case} has
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
848 no effect. The @code{condition-case} form makes a difference when an
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
849 error occurs during @var{protected-form}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
850
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
851 Each of the @var{handlers} is a list of the form @code{(@var{conditions}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
852 @var{body}@dots{})}. Here @var{conditions} is an error condition name
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
853 to be handled, or a list of condition names; @var{body} is one or more
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
854 Lisp expressions to be executed when this handler handles an error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
855 Here are examples of handlers:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
856
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
857 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
858 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
859 (error nil)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
860
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
861 (arith-error (message "Division by zero"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
862
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
863 ((arith-error file-error)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
864 (message
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
865 "Either division by zero or failure to open a file"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
866 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
867 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
868
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
869 Each error that occurs has an @dfn{error symbol} that describes what
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
870 kind of error it is. The @code{error-conditions} property of this
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
871 symbol is a list of condition names (@pxref{Error Symbols}). Emacs
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
872 searches all the active @code{condition-case} forms for a handler that
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
873 specifies one or more of these condition names; the innermost matching
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
874 @code{condition-case} handles the error. Within this
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
875 @code{condition-case}, the first applicable handler handles the error.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
876
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
877 After executing the body of the handler, the @code{condition-case}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
878 returns normally, using the value of the last form in the handler body
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
879 as the overall value.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
880
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
881 The argument @var{var} is a variable. @code{condition-case} does not
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
882 bind this variable when executing the @var{protected-form}, only when it
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
883 handles an error. At that time, it binds @var{var} locally to a list of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
884 the form @code{(@var{error-symbol} . @var{data})}, giving the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
885 particulars of the error. The handler can refer to this list to decide
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
886 what to do. For example, if the error is for failure opening a file,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
887 the file name is the second element of @var{data}---the third element of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
888 @var{var}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
889
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
890 If @var{var} is @code{nil}, that means no variable is bound. Then the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
891 error symbol and associated data are not available to the handler.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
892 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
893
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
894 @cindex @code{arith-error} example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
895 Here is an example of using @code{condition-case} to handle the error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
896 that results from dividing by zero. The handler prints out a warning
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
897 message and returns a very large number.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
898
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
899 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
900 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
901 (defun safe-divide (dividend divisor)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
902 (condition-case err
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
903 ;; @r{Protected form.}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
904 (/ dividend divisor)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
905 ;; @r{The handler.}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
906 (arith-error ; @r{Condition.}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
907 (princ (format "Arithmetic error: %s" err))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
908 1000000)))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
909 @result{} safe-divide
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
910 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
911
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
912 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
913 (safe-divide 5 0)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
914 @print{} Arithmetic error: (arith-error)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
915 @result{} 1000000
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
916 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
917 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
918
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
919 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
920 The handler specifies condition name @code{arith-error} so that it will handle only division-by-zero errors. Other kinds of errors will not be handled, at least not by this @code{condition-case}. Thus,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
921
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
922 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
923 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
924 (safe-divide nil 3)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
925 @error{} Wrong type argument: integer-or-marker-p, nil
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
926 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
927 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
928
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
929 Here is a @code{condition-case} that catches all kinds of errors,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
930 including those signaled with @code{error}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
931
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
932 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
933 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
934 (setq baz 34)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
935 @result{} 34
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
936 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
937
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
938 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
939 (condition-case err
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
940 (if (eq baz 35)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
941 t
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
942 ;; @r{This is a call to the function @code{error}.}
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
943 (error "Rats! The variable %s was %s, not 35" 'baz baz))
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
944 ;; @r{This is the handler; it is not a form.}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
945 (error (princ (format "The error was: %s" err))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
946 2))
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
947 @print{} The error was: (error "Rats! The variable baz was 34, not 35")
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
948 @result{} 2
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
949 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
950 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
951
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
952 @node Error Symbols
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
953 @subsubsection Error Symbols and Condition Names
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
954 @cindex error symbol
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
955 @cindex error name
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
956 @cindex condition name
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
957 @cindex user-defined error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
958 @kindex error-conditions
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
959
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
960 When you signal an error, you specify an @dfn{error symbol} to specify
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
961 the kind of error you have in mind. Each error has one and only one
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
962 error symbol to categorize it. This is the finest classification of
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
963 errors defined by the Emacs Lisp language.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
964
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
965 These narrow classifications are grouped into a hierarchy of wider
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
966 classes called @dfn{error conditions}, identified by @dfn{condition
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
967 names}. The narrowest such classes belong to the error symbols
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
968 themselves: each error symbol is also a condition name. There are also
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
969 condition names for more extensive classes, up to the condition name
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
970 @code{error} which takes in all kinds of errors. Thus, each error has
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
971 one or more condition names: @code{error}, the error symbol if that
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
972 is distinct from @code{error}, and perhaps some intermediate
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
973 classifications.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
974
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
975 In order for a symbol to be an error symbol, it must have an
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
976 @code{error-conditions} property which gives a list of condition names.
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
977 This list defines the conditions that this kind of error belongs to.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
978 (The error symbol itself, and the symbol @code{error}, should always be
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
979 members of this list.) Thus, the hierarchy of condition names is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
980 defined by the @code{error-conditions} properties of the error symbols.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
981
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
982 In addition to the @code{error-conditions} list, the error symbol
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
983 should have an @code{error-message} property whose value is a string to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
984 be printed when that error is signaled but not handled. If the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
985 @code{error-message} property exists, but is not a string, the error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
986 message @samp{peculiar error} is used.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
987 @cindex peculiar error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
988
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
989 Here is how we define a new error symbol, @code{new-error}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
990
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
991 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
992 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
993 (put 'new-error
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
994 'error-conditions
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
995 '(error my-own-errors new-error))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
996 @result{} (error my-own-errors new-error)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
997 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
998 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
999 (put 'new-error 'error-message "A new error")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1000 @result{} "A new error"
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1001 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1002 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1003
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1004 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1005 This error has three condition names: @code{new-error}, the narrowest
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1006 classification; @code{my-own-errors}, which we imagine is a wider
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1007 classification; and @code{error}, which is the widest of all.
12098
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1008
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1009 The error string should start with a capital letter but it should
a6eb5f12b0f3 *** empty log message ***
Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org>
parents: 7734
diff changeset
1010 not end with a period. This is for consistency with the rest of Emacs.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1011
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1012 Naturally, Emacs will never signal @code{new-error} on its own; only
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
1013 an explicit call to @code{signal} (@pxref{Signaling Errors}) in your
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
1014 code can do this:
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1015
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1016 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1017 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1018 (signal 'new-error '(x y))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1019 @error{} A new error: x, y
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1020 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1021 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1022
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1023 This error can be handled through any of the three condition names.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1024 This example handles @code{new-error} and any other errors in the class
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1025 @code{my-own-errors}:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1026
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1027 @example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1028 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1029 (condition-case foo
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1030 (bar nil t)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1031 (my-own-errors nil))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1032 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1033 @end example
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1034
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1035 The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1036 names---the names used to match errors with handlers. An error symbol
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1037 serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1038 and list of condition names. It would be cumbersome to give
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1039 @code{signal} a list of condition names rather than one error symbol.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1040
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1041 By contrast, using only error symbols without condition names would
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1042 seriously decrease the power of @code{condition-case}. Condition names
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1043 make it possible to categorize errors at various levels of generality
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1044 when you write an error handler. Using error symbols alone would
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1045 eliminate all but the narrowest level of classification.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1046
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1047 @xref{Standard Errors}, for a list of all the standard error symbols
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1048 and their conditions.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1049
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1050 @node Cleanups
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1051 @subsection Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1052
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1053 The @code{unwind-protect} construct is essential whenever you
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1054 temporarily put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1055 you to ensure the data are consistent in the event of an error or throw.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1056
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1057 @defspec unwind-protect body cleanup-forms@dots{}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1058 @cindex cleanup forms
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1059 @cindex protected forms
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1060 @cindex error cleanup
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1061 @cindex unwinding
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1062 @code{unwind-protect} executes the @var{body} with a guarantee that the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1063 @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated if control leaves @var{body}, no
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1064 matter how that happens. The @var{body} may complete normally, or
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1065 execute a @code{throw} out of the @code{unwind-protect}, or cause an
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1066 error; in all cases, the @var{cleanup-forms} will be evaluated.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1067
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1068 If the @var{body} forms finish normally, @code{unwind-protect} returns
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1069 the value of the last @var{body} form, after it evaluates the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1070 @var{cleanup-forms}. If the @var{body} forms do not finish,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1071 @code{unwind-protect} does not return any value in the normal sense.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1072
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1073 Only the @var{body} is actually protected by the @code{unwind-protect}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1074 If any of the @var{cleanup-forms} themselves exits nonlocally (e.g., via
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1075 a @code{throw} or an error), @code{unwind-protect} is @emph{not}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1076 guaranteed to evaluate the rest of them. If the failure of one of the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1077 @var{cleanup-forms} has the potential to cause trouble, then protect it
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1078 with another @code{unwind-protect} around that form.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1079
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1080 The number of currently active @code{unwind-protect} forms counts,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1081 together with the number of local variable bindings, against the limit
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1082 @code{max-specpdl-size} (@pxref{Local Variables}).
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1083 @end defspec
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1084
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1085 For example, here we make an invisible buffer for temporary use, and
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1086 make sure to kill it before finishing:
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1087
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1088 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1089 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1090 (save-excursion
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1091 (let ((buffer (get-buffer-create " *temp*")))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1092 (set-buffer buffer)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1093 (unwind-protect
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1094 @var{body}
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1095 (kill-buffer buffer))))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1096 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1097 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1098
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1099 @noindent
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1100 You might think that we could just as well write @code{(kill-buffer
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1101 (current-buffer))} and dispense with the variable @code{buffer}.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1102 However, the way shown above is safer, if @var{body} happens to get an
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1103 error after switching to a different buffer! (Alternatively, you could
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1104 write another @code{save-excursion} around the body, to ensure that the
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1105 temporary buffer becomes current in time to kill it.)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1106
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1107 @findex ftp-login
7337
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
1108 Here is an actual example taken from the file @file{ftp.el}. It
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
1109 creates a process (@pxref{Processes}) to try to establish a connection
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
1110 to a remote machine. As the function @code{ftp-login} is highly
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
1111 susceptible to numerous problems that the writer of the function cannot
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
1112 anticipate, it is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
1113 process in the event of failure. Otherwise, Emacs might fill up with
cd57cd335fff *** empty log message ***
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 6453
diff changeset
1114 useless subprocesses.
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1115
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1116 @smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1117 @group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1118 (let ((win nil))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1119 (unwind-protect
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1120 (progn
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1121 (setq process (ftp-setup-buffer host file))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1122 (if (setq win (ftp-login process host user password))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1123 (message "Logged in")
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1124 (error "Ftp login failed")))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1125 (or win (and process (delete-process process)))))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1126 @end group
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1127 @end smallexample
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1128
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1129 This example actually has a small bug: if the user types @kbd{C-g} to
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1130 quit, and the quit happens immediately after the function
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1131 @code{ftp-setup-buffer} returns but before the variable @code{process} is
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1132 set, the process will not be killed. There is no easy way to fix this bug,
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1133 but at least it is very unlikely.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1134
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1135 Here is another example which uses @code{unwind-protect} to make sure
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1136 to kill a temporary buffer. In this example, the value returned by
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1137 @code{unwind-protect} is used.
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1138
7734
2d4db32cccd5 entered into RCS
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 7337
diff changeset
1139 @smallexample
6453
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1140 (defun shell-command-string (cmd)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1141 "Return the output of the shell command CMD, as a string."
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1142 (save-excursion
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1143 (set-buffer (generate-new-buffer " OS*cmd"))
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1144 (shell-command cmd t)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1145 (unwind-protect
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1146 (buffer-string)
974a37e5c414 Initial revision
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents:
diff changeset
1147 (kill-buffer (current-buffer)))))
7734
2d4db32cccd5 entered into RCS
Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
parents: 7337
diff changeset
1148 @end smallexample