comparison lispref/internals.texi @ 7086:075343a6b32b

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author Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org>
date Sun, 24 Apr 1994 21:47:17 +0000
parents 8240c0b1d695
children c5927c75b2b5
comparison
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7085:5e56975be72a 7086:075343a6b32b
56 The argument @samp{dump} tells @file{loadup.el} to dump a new executable 56 The argument @samp{dump} tells @file{loadup.el} to dump a new executable
57 named @file{emacs}. 57 named @file{emacs}.
58 58
59 Some operating systems don't support dumping. On those systems, you 59 Some operating systems don't support dumping. On those systems, you
60 must start Emacs with the @samp{temacs -l loadup} command each time you 60 must start Emacs with the @samp{temacs -l loadup} command each time you
61 use it. This takes a long time, but since you need to start Emacs once 61 use it. This takes a substantial time, but since you need to start
62 a day at most---or once a week if you never log out---the extra time is 62 Emacs once a day at most---or once a week if you never log out---the
63 not too severe a problem. 63 extra time is not too severe a problem.
64 64
65 @cindex @file{site-load.el} 65 @cindex @file{site-load.el}
66 You can specify additional files to preload by writing a library named 66 You can specify additional files to preload by writing a library named
67 @file{site-load.el} which loads them. You may need to increase the 67 @file{site-load.el} which loads them. You may need to increase the
68 value of @code{PURESIZE}, in @file{src/puresize.h}, to make room for the 68 value of @code{PURESIZE}, in @file{src/puresize.h}, to make room for the
70 enough.) However, the advantage of preloading additional files 70 enough.) However, the advantage of preloading additional files
71 decreases as machines get faster. On modern machines, it is usually not 71 decreases as machines get faster. On modern machines, it is usually not
72 advisable. 72 advisable.
73 73
74 @cindex @file{site-init.el} 74 @cindex @file{site-init.el}
75 You can specify other things to be done in Lisp just before dumping by 75 You can specify other Lisp expressions to execute just before dumping
76 putting them in a library named @file{site-init.el}. However, if these 76 by putting them in a library named @file{site-init.el}. However, if
77 things might alter the behavior that users expect from an ordinary 77 they might alter the behavior that users expect from an ordinary
78 unmodified Emacs, it is better to do them in @file{default.el}, so that 78 unmodified Emacs, it is better to put them in @file{default.el}, so that
79 users can override them if they wish. @xref{Start-up Summary}. 79 users can override them if they wish. @xref{Start-up Summary}.
80 80
81 Before @file{emacs} is dumped, the documentation strings for primitive 81 Before @file{loadup.el} dumps the new executable, it finds the
82 and preloaded functions (and variables) need to be found in the file 82 documentation strings for primitive and preloaded functions (and
83 where they are stored. This is done by calling 83 variables) in the file where they are stored, by calling
84 @code{Snarf-documentation} (@pxref{Accessing Documentation}). These 84 @code{Snarf-documentation} (@pxref{Accessing Documentation}). These
85 strings were moved out of @file{emacs} to make it smaller. 85 strings were moved out of the @file{emacs} executable to make it
86 @xref{Documentation Basics}. 86 smaller. @xref{Documentation Basics}.
87 87
88 @defun dump-emacs to-file from-file 88 @defun dump-emacs to-file from-file
89 @cindex unexec 89 @cindex unexec
90 This function dumps the current state of Emacs into an executable file 90 This function dumps the current state of Emacs into an executable file
91 @var{to-file}. It takes symbols from @var{from-file} (this is normally 91 @var{to-file}. It takes symbols from @var{from-file} (this is normally
127 @defvar emacs-version 127 @defvar emacs-version
128 The value of this variable is the version of Emacs being run. It is a 128 The value of this variable is the version of Emacs being run. It is a
129 string such as @code{"19.22.1"}. 129 string such as @code{"19.22.1"}.
130 @end defvar 130 @end defvar
131 131
132 The following two variables did not exist before Emacs version 19.23,
133 which reduces their usefulness at present, but we hope they will be
134 convenient in the future.
135
136 @defvar emacs-major-version
137 The major version number of Emacs, as an integer.
138 @end defvar
139
140 @defvar emacs-minor-version
141 The minor version number of Emacs, as an integer. For Emacs version
142 19.23, the value is 23.
143 @end defvar
144
132 @node Pure Storage, Garbage Collection, Building Emacs, GNU Emacs Internals 145 @node Pure Storage, Garbage Collection, Building Emacs, GNU Emacs Internals
133 @appendixsec Pure Storage 146 @appendixsec Pure Storage
134 @cindex pure storage 147 @cindex pure storage
135 148
136 There are two types of storage in GNU Emacs Lisp for user-created Lisp 149 Emacs Lisp uses two kinds of storage for user-created Lisp objects:
137 objects: @dfn{normal storage} and @dfn{pure storage}. Normal storage is 150 @dfn{normal storage} and @dfn{pure storage}. Normal storage is where
138 where all the new data which is created during an Emacs session is kept; 151 all the new data which is created during an Emacs session is kept; see
139 see the following section for information on normal storage. Pure 152 the following section for information on normal storage. Pure storage
140 storage is used for certain data in the preloaded standard Lisp files: 153 is used for certain data in the preloaded standard Lisp files---data
141 data that should never change during actual use of Emacs. 154 that should never change during actual use of Emacs.
142 155
143 Pure storage is allocated only while @file{temacs} is loading the 156 Pure storage is allocated only while @file{temacs} is loading the
144 standard preloaded Lisp libraries. In the file @file{emacs}, it is 157 standard preloaded Lisp libraries. In the file @file{emacs}, it is
145 marked as read-only (on operating systems which permit this), so that 158 marked as read-only (on operating systems which permit this), so that
146 the memory space can be shared by all the Emacs jobs running on the 159 the memory space can be shared by all the Emacs jobs running on the
147 machine at once. Pure storage is not expandable; a fixed amount is 160 machine at once. Pure storage is not expandable; a fixed amount is
148 allocated when Emacs is compiled, and if that is not sufficient for the 161 allocated when Emacs is compiled, and if that is not sufficient for the
149 preloaded libraries, @file{temacs} crashes. If that happens, you will 162 preloaded libraries, @file{temacs} crashes. If that happens, you must
150 have to increase the compilation parameter @code{PURESIZE} in the file 163 increase the compilation parameter @code{PURESIZE} in the file
151 @file{src/puresize.h}. This normally won't happen unless you try to 164 @file{src/puresize.h}. This normally won't happen unless you try to
152 preload additional libraries or add features to the standard ones. 165 preload additional libraries or add features to the standard ones.
153 166
154 @defun purecopy object 167 @defun purecopy object
155 This function makes a copy of @var{object} in pure storage and returns 168 This function makes a copy of @var{object} in pure storage and returns
156 it. It copies strings by simply making a new string with the same 169 it. It copies strings by simply making a new string with the same
157 characters in pure storage. It recursively copies the contents of 170 characters in pure storage. It recursively copies the contents of
158 vectors and cons cells. It does not make copies of symbols, or any 171 vectors and cons cells. It does not make copies of other objects such
159 other objects, but just returns them unchanged. It signals an error if 172 as symbols, but just returns them unchanged. It signals an error if
160 asked to copy markers. 173 asked to copy markers.
161 174
162 This function is used only while Emacs is being built and dumped; it is 175 This function is used only while Emacs is being built and dumped; it is
163 called only in the file @file{emacs/lisp/loaddefs.el}. 176 called only in the file @file{emacs/lisp/loaddefs.el}.
164 @end defun 177 @end defun
165 178
166 @defvar pure-bytes-used 179 @defvar pure-bytes-used
167 The value of this variable is the number of bytes of pure storage 180 The value of this variable is the number of bytes of pure storage
168 allocated so far. Typically, in a dumped Emacs, this number is very 181 allocated so far. Typically, in a dumped Emacs, this number is very
169 close to the total amount of pure storage available---if it were not, 182 close to the total amount of pure storage available---if it were not,
170 we would preallocate less. 183 we would preallocate less.
171 @end defvar 184 @end defvar
172 185
173 @defvar purify-flag 186 @defvar purify-flag
174 This variable determines whether @code{defun} should make a copy of the 187 This variable determines whether @code{defun} should make a copy of the
175 function definition in pure storage. If it is non-@code{nil}, then the 188 function definition in pure storage. If it is non-@code{nil}, then the
176 function definition is copied into pure storage. 189 function definition is copied into pure storage.
177 190
178 This flag is @code{t} while loading all of the basic functions for 191 This flag is @code{t} while loading all of the basic functions for
179 building Emacs initially (allowing those functions to be sharable and 192 building Emacs initially (allowing those functions to be sharable and
180 non-collectible). It is set to @code{nil} when Emacs is saved out 193 non-collectible). Dumping Emacs as an executable always writes
181 as @file{emacs}. The flag is set and reset in the C sources. 194 @code{nil} in this variable, regardless of the value it actually has
182 195 before and after dumping.
183 You should not change this flag in a running Emacs. 196
197 You should not change this flag in a running Emacs.
184 @end defvar 198 @end defvar
185 199
186 @node Garbage Collection, Writing Emacs Primitives, Pure Storage, GNU Emacs Internals 200 @node Garbage Collection, Writing Emacs Primitives, Pure Storage, GNU Emacs Internals
187 @appendixsec Garbage Collection 201 @appendixsec Garbage Collection
188 @cindex garbage collector 202 @cindex garbage collector
189 203
190 @cindex memory allocation 204 @cindex memory allocation
191 When a program creates a list or the user defines a new function (such 205 When a program creates a list or the user defines a new function (such
192 as by loading a library), then that data is placed in normal storage. 206 as by loading a library), that data is placed in normal storage. If
193 If normal storage runs low, then Emacs asks the operating system to 207 normal storage runs low, then Emacs asks the operating system to
194 allocate more memory in blocks of 1k bytes. Each block is used for one 208 allocate more memory in blocks of 1k bytes. Each block is used for one
195 type of Lisp object, so symbols, cons cells, markers, etc.@: are 209 type of Lisp object, so symbols, cons cells, markers, etc., are
196 segregated in distinct blocks in memory. (Vectors, buffers and certain 210 segregated in distinct blocks in memory. (Vectors, long strings,
197 other editing types, which are fairly large, are allocated in individual 211 buffers and certain other editing types, which are fairly large, are
198 blocks, one per object, while strings are packed into blocks of 8k 212 allocated in individual blocks, one per object, while small strings are
199 bytes.) 213 packed into blocks of 8k bytes.)
200 214
201 It is quite common to use some storage for a while, then release it 215 It is quite common to use some storage for a while, then release it by
202 by, for example, killing a buffer or deleting the last pointer to an 216 (for example) killing a buffer or deleting the last pointer to an
203 object. Emacs provides a @dfn{garbage collector} to reclaim this 217 object. Emacs provides a @dfn{garbage collector} to reclaim this
204 abandoned storage. (This name is traditional, but ``garbage recycler'' 218 abandoned storage. (This name is traditional, but ``garbage recycler''
205 might be a more intuitive metaphor for this facility.) 219 might be a more intuitive metaphor for this facility.)
206 220
207 The garbage collector operates by scanning all the objects that have 221 The garbage collector operates by finding and marking all Lisp objects
208 been allocated and marking those that are still accessible to Lisp 222 that are still accessible to Lisp programs. To begin with, it assumes
209 programs. To begin with, all the symbols, their values and associated 223 all the symbols, their values and associated function definitions, and
210 function definitions, and any data presently on the stack, are 224 any data presently on the stack, are accessible. Any objects which can
211 accessible. Any objects which can be reached indirectly through other 225 be reached indirectly through other accessible objects are also
212 accessible objects are also accessible. 226 accessible.
213 227
214 When this is finished, all inaccessible objects are garbage. No 228 When marking is finished, all objects still unmarked are garbage. No
215 matter what the Lisp program or the user does, it is impossible to refer 229 matter what the Lisp program or the user does, it is impossible to refer
216 to them, since there is no longer a way to reach them. Their 230 to them, since there is no longer a way to reach them. Their space
217 space might as well be reused, since no one will notice. That is what 231 might as well be reused, since no one will miss them. The second,
218 the garbage collector arranges to do. 232 ``sweep'' phase of the garbage collector arranges to reuse them.
219 233
220 @cindex free list 234 @cindex free list
221 Unused cons cells are chained together onto a @dfn{free list} for 235 The sweep phase puts unused cons cells onto a @dfn{free list}
222 future allocation; likewise for symbols and markers. The accessible 236 for future allocation; likewise for symbols and markers. It compacts
223 strings are compacted so they are contiguous in memory; then the rest of 237 the accessible strings so they occupy fewer 8k blocks; then it frees the
224 the space formerly occupied by strings is made available to the string 238 other 8k blocks. Vectors, buffers, windows and other large objects are
225 creation functions. Vectors, buffers, windows and other large objects 239 individually allocated and freed using @code{malloc} and @code{free}.
226 are individually allocated and freed using @code{malloc}.
227 240
228 @cindex CL note---allocate more storage 241 @cindex CL note---allocate more storage
229 @quotation 242 @quotation
230 @b{Common Lisp note:} unlike other Lisps, GNU Emacs Lisp does not 243 @b{Common Lisp note:} unlike other Lisps, GNU Emacs Lisp does not
231 call the garbage collector when the free list is empty. Instead, it 244 call the garbage collector when the free list is empty. Instead, it
239 program does not use so much space as to force a second garbage 252 program does not use so much space as to force a second garbage
240 collection). 253 collection).
241 @end quotation 254 @end quotation
242 255
243 @deffn Command garbage-collect 256 @deffn Command garbage-collect
244 This command runs a garbage collection, and returns information on 257 This command runs a garbage collection, and returns information on
245 the amount of space in use. (Garbage collection can also occur 258 the amount of space in use. (Garbage collection can also occur
246 spontaneously if you use more than @code{gc-cons-threshold} bytes of 259 spontaneously if you use more than @code{gc-cons-threshold} bytes of
247 Lisp data since the previous garbage collection.) 260 Lisp data since the previous garbage collection.)
248 261
249 @code{garbage-collect} returns a list containing the following 262 @code{garbage-collect} returns a list containing the following
250 information: 263 information:
251 264
252 @smallexample 265 @example
253 @group 266 @group
254 ((@var{used-conses} . @var{free-conses}) 267 ((@var{used-conses} . @var{free-conses})
255 (@var{used-syms} . @var{free-syms}) 268 (@var{used-syms} . @var{free-syms})
269 @end group
256 (@var{used-markers} . @var{free-markers}) 270 (@var{used-markers} . @var{free-markers})
257 @var{used-string-chars} 271 @var{used-string-chars}
258 @var{used-vector-slots} 272 @var{used-vector-slots}
259 (@var{used-floats} . @var{free-floats})) 273 (@var{used-floats} . @var{free-floats}))
260 274
275 @group
261 (garbage-collect) 276 (garbage-collect)
262 @result{} ((3435 . 2332) (1688 . 0) 277 @result{} ((3435 . 2332) (1688 . 0)
263 (57 . 417) 24510 3839 (4 . 1)) 278 (57 . 417) 24510 3839 (4 . 1))
264 @end group 279 @end group
265 @end smallexample 280 @end example
266 281
267 Here is a table explaining each element: 282 Here is a table explaining each element:
268 283
269 @table @var 284 @table @var
270 @item used-conses 285 @item used-conses
304 operating system, but that are not currently being used. 319 operating system, but that are not currently being used.
305 @end table 320 @end table
306 @end deffn 321 @end deffn
307 322
308 @defopt gc-cons-threshold 323 @defopt gc-cons-threshold
309 The value of this variable is the number of bytes of storage that must 324 The value of this variable is the number of bytes of storage that must
310 be allocated for Lisp objects after one garbage collection in order to 325 be allocated for Lisp objects after one garbage collection in order to
311 request another garbage collection. A cons cell counts as eight bytes, 326 trigger another garbage collection. A cons cell counts as eight bytes,
312 a string as one byte per character plus a few bytes of overhead, and so 327 a string as one byte per character plus a few bytes of overhead, and so
313 on. (Space allocated to the contents of buffers does not count.) Note 328 on; space allocated to the contents of buffers does not count. Note
314 that the new garbage collection does not happen immediately when the 329 that the subsequent garbage collection does not happen immediately when
315 threshold is exhausted, but only the next time the Lisp evaluator is 330 the threshold is exhausted, but only the next time the Lisp evaluator is
316 called. 331 called.
317 332
318 The initial threshold value is 100,000. If you specify a larger 333 The initial threshold value is 100,000. If you specify a larger
319 value, garbage collection will happen less often. This reduces the 334 value, garbage collection will happen less often. This reduces the
320 amount of time spent garbage collecting, but increases total memory use. 335 amount of time spent garbage collecting, but increases total memory use.
321 You may want to do this when running a program which creates lots of 336 You may want to do this when running a program which creates lots of
322 Lisp data. 337 Lisp data.
323 338
324 You can make collections more frequent by specifying a smaller value, 339 You can make collections more frequent by specifying a smaller value,
325 down to 10,000. A value less than 10,000 will remain in effect only 340 down to 10,000. A value less than 10,000 will remain in effect only
326 until the subsequent garbage collection, at which time 341 until the subsequent garbage collection, at which time
327 @code{garbage-collect} will set the threshold back to 10,000. 342 @code{garbage-collect} will set the threshold back to 10,000.
328 @end defopt 343 @end defopt
329 344
352 367
353 @cindex garbage collection protection 368 @cindex garbage collection protection
354 @smallexample 369 @smallexample
355 @group 370 @group
356 DEFUN ("or", For, Sor, 0, UNEVALLED, 0, 371 DEFUN ("or", For, Sor, 0, UNEVALLED, 0,
357 "Eval args until one of them yields non-NIL, then return that value.\n\ 372 "Eval args until one of them yields non-nil, then return that value.\n\
358 The remaining args are not evalled at all.\n\ 373 The remaining args are not evalled at all.\n\
359 @end group 374 @end group
360 @group 375 @group
361 If all args return NIL, return NIL.") 376 If all args return nil, return nil.")
362 (args) 377 (args)
363 Lisp_Object args; 378 Lisp_Object args;
364 @{ 379 @{
365 register Lisp_Object val; 380 register Lisp_Object val;
366 Lisp_Object args_left; 381 Lisp_Object args_left;
367 struct gcpro gcpro1; 382 struct gcpro gcpro1;
368 @end group 383 @end group
369 384
370 @group 385 @group
371 if (NULL(args)) 386 if (NULL (args))
372 return Qnil; 387 return Qnil;
373 388
374 args_left = args; 389 args_left = args;
375 GCPRO1 (args_left); 390 GCPRO1 (args_left);
376 @end group 391 @end group
381 val = Feval (Fcar (args_left)); 396 val = Feval (Fcar (args_left));
382 if (!NULL (val)) 397 if (!NULL (val))
383 break; 398 break;
384 args_left = Fcdr (args_left); 399 args_left = Fcdr (args_left);
385 @} 400 @}
386 while (!NULL(args_left)); 401 while (!NULL (args_left));
387 @end group 402 @end group
388 403
389 @group 404 @group
390 UNGCPRO; 405 UNGCPRO;
391 return val; 406 return val;
392 @} 407 @}
393 @end group 408 @end group
394 @end smallexample 409 @end smallexample
395 410
396 Let's start with a precise explanation of the arguments to the 411 Let's start with a precise explanation of the arguments to the
397 @code{DEFUN} macro. Here are the general names for them: 412 @code{DEFUN} macro. Here is a template for them:
398 413
399 @example 414 @example
400 DEFUN (@var{lname}, @var{fname}, @var{sname}, @var{min}, @var{max}, @var{interactive}, @var{doc}) 415 DEFUN (@var{lname}, @var{fname}, @var{sname}, @var{min}, @var{max}, @var{interactive}, @var{doc})
401 @end example 416 @end example
402 417
403 @table @var 418 @table @var
404 @item lname 419 @item lname
405 This is the name of the Lisp symbol to define with this 420 This is the name of the Lisp symbol to define as the function name; in
406 function; in the example above, it is @code{or}. 421 the example above, it is @code{or}.
407 422
408 @item fname 423 @item fname
409 This is the C function name for this function. This is 424 This is the C function name for this function. This is
410 the name that is used in C code for calling the function. The name is, 425 the name that is used in C code for calling the function. The name is,
411 by convention, @samp{F} prepended to the Lisp name, with all dashes 426 by convention, @samp{F} prepended to the Lisp name, with all dashes
422 create the symbol and store the subr object as its definition. By 437 create the symbol and store the subr object as its definition. By
423 convention, this name is always @var{fname} with @samp{F} replaced with 438 convention, this name is always @var{fname} with @samp{F} replaced with
424 @samp{S}. 439 @samp{S}.
425 440
426 @item min 441 @item min
427 This is the minimum number of arguments that the function requires. For 442 This is the minimum number of arguments that the function requires. The
428 @code{or}, no arguments are required. 443 function @code{or} allows a minimum of zero arguments.
429 444
430 @item max 445 @item max
431 This is the maximum number of arguments that the function accepts. 446 This is the maximum number of arguments that the function accepts, if
432 Alternatively, it can be @code{UNEVALLED}, indicating a special form 447 there is a fixed maximum. Alternatively, it can be @code{UNEVALLED},
433 that receives unevaluated arguments. A function with the equivalent of 448 indicating a special form that receives unevaluated arguments, or
434 an @code{&rest} argument would have @code{MANY} in this position. Both 449 @code{MANY}, indicating an unlimited number of evaluated arguments (the
435 @code{UNEVALLED} and @code{MANY} are macros. This argument must be one 450 equivalent of @code{&rest}). Both @code{UNEVALLED} and @code{MANY} are
436 of these macros or a number at least as large as @var{min}. It may not 451 macros. If @var{max} is a number, it may not be less than @var{min} and
437 be greater than six. 452 it may not be greater than seven.
438 453
439 @item interactive 454 @item interactive
440 This is an interactive specification, a string such as might be used as 455 This is an interactive specification, a string such as might be used as
441 the argument of @code{interactive} in a Lisp function. In the case of 456 the argument of @code{interactive} in a Lisp function. In the case of
442 @code{or}, it is 0 (a null pointer), indicating that @code{or} cannot be 457 @code{or}, it is 0 (a null pointer), indicating that @code{or} cannot be
443 called interactively. A value of @code{""} indicates an interactive 458 called interactively. A value of @code{""} indicates a function that
444 function taking no arguments. 459 should receive no arguments when called interactively.
445 460
446 @item doc 461 @item doc
447 This is the documentation string. It is written just like a 462 This is the documentation string. It is written just like a
448 documentation string for a function defined in Lisp, except you must 463 documentation string for a function defined in Lisp, except you must
449 write @samp{\n\} at the end of each line. In particular, the first line 464 write @samp{\n\} at the end of each line. In particular, the first line
450 should be a single sentence. 465 should be a single sentence.
451 @end table 466 @end table
452 467
453 After the call to the @code{DEFUN} macro, you must write the list 468 After the call to the @code{DEFUN} macro, you must write the argument
454 of argument names that every C function must have, followed by 469 name list that every C function must have, followed by ordinary C
455 ordinary C declarations for them. Normally, all the arguments must 470 declarations for the arguments. For a function with a fixed maximum
456 be declared as @code{Lisp_Object}. If the function has no upper limit 471 number of arguments, declare a C argument for each Lisp argument, and
457 on the number of arguments in Lisp, then in C it receives two arguments: 472 give them all type @code{Lisp_Object}. If the function has no upper
458 the number of Lisp arguments, and the address of a block containing their 473 limit on the number of arguments in Lisp, then in C it receives two
459 values. These have types @code{int} and @w{@code{Lisp_Object *}}. 474 arguments: the first is the number of Lisp arguments, and the second is
475 the address of a block containing their values. They have types
476 @code{int} and @w{@code{Lisp_Object *}}.
460 477
461 Within the function @code{For} itself, note the use of the macros 478 Within the function @code{For} itself, note the use of the macros
462 @code{GCPRO1} and @code{UNGCPRO}. @code{GCPRO1} is used to ``protect'' 479 @code{GCPRO1} and @code{UNGCPRO}. @code{GCPRO1} is used to ``protect''
463 a variable from garbage collection---to inform the garbage collector that 480 a variable from garbage collection---to inform the garbage collector that
464 it must look in that variable and regard its contents as an accessible 481 it must look in that variable and regard its contents as an accessible
466 that can directly or indirectly call @code{Feval}. At such a time, any 483 that can directly or indirectly call @code{Feval}. At such a time, any
467 Lisp object that you intend to refer to again must be protected somehow. 484 Lisp object that you intend to refer to again must be protected somehow.
468 @code{UNGCPRO} cancels the protection of the variables that are 485 @code{UNGCPRO} cancels the protection of the variables that are
469 protected in the current function. It is necessary to do this explicitly. 486 protected in the current function. It is necessary to do this explicitly.
470 487
471 For most data types, it suffices to know that one pointer to the 488 For most data types, it suffices to protect at least one pointer to
472 object is protected; as long as the object is not recycled, all pointers 489 the object; as long as the object is not recycled, all pointers to it
473 to it remain valid. This is not so for strings, because the garbage 490 remain valid. This is not so for strings, because the garbage collector
474 collector can move them. When a string is moved, any pointers to it 491 can move them. When the garbage collector moves a string, it relocates
475 that the garbage collector does not know about will not be properly 492 all the pointers it knows about; any other pointers become invalid.
476 relocated. Therefore, all pointers to strings must be protected across 493 Therefore, you must protect all pointers to strings across any point
477 any point where garbage collection may be possible. 494 where garbage collection may be possible.
478 495
479 The macro @code{GCPRO1} protects just one local variable. If you 496 The macro @code{GCPRO1} protects just one local variable. If you want
480 want to protect two, use @code{GCPRO2} instead; repeating @code{GCPRO1} 497 to protect two, use @code{GCPRO2} instead; repeating @code{GCPRO1} will
481 will not work. There are also @code{GCPRO3} and @code{GCPRO4}. 498 not work. Macros @code{GCPRO3} and @code{GCPRO4} also exist.
482 499
483 In addition to using these macros, you must declare the local 500 These macros implicitly use local variables such as @code{gcpro1}; you
484 variables such as @code{gcpro1} which they implicitly use. If you 501 must declare these explicitly, with type @code{struct gcpro}. Thus, if
485 protect two variables, with @code{GCPRO2}, you must declare 502 you use @code{GCPRO2}, you must declare @code{gcpro1} and @code{gcpro2}.
486 @code{gcpro1} and @code{gcpro2}, as it uses them both. Alas, we can't 503 Alas, we can't explain all the tricky details here.
487 explain all the tricky details here. 504
488 505 Defining the C function is not enough to make a Lisp primitive
489 Defining the C function is not enough; you must also create the 506 available; you must also create the Lisp symbol for the primitive and
490 Lisp symbol for the primitive and store a suitable subr object 507 store a suitable subr object in its function cell. The code looks like
491 in its function cell. This is done by adding code to an initialization 508 this:
492 routine. The code looks like this:
493 509
494 @example 510 @example
495 defsubr (&@var{subr-structure-name}); 511 defsubr (&@var{subr-structure-name});
496 @end example 512 @end example
497 513
498 @noindent 514 @noindent
499 @var{subr-structure-name} is the name you used as the third argument to 515 Here @var{subr-structure-name} is the name you used as the third
500 @code{DEFUN}. 516 argument to @code{DEFUN}.
501 517
502 If you are adding a primitive to a file that already has Lisp 518 If you add a new primitive to a file that already has Lisp primitives
503 primitives defined in it, find the function (near the end of the file) 519 defined in it, find the function (near the end of the file) named
504 named @code{syms_of_@var{something}}, and add that function call to it. 520 @code{syms_of_@var{something}}, and add the call to @code{defsubr}
505 If the file doesn't have this function, or if you create a new file, add 521 there. If the file doesn't have this function, or if you create a new
506 to it a @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} (e.g., @code{syms_of_myfile}). 522 file, add to it a @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} (e.g.,
507 Then find the spot in @file{emacs.c} where all of these functions are 523 @code{syms_of_myfile}). Then find the spot in @file{emacs.c} where all
508 called, and add a call to @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} there. 524 of these functions are called, and add a call to
525 @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} there.
509 526
510 This function @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} is also the place to 527 This function @code{syms_of_@var{filename}} is also the place to
511 define any C variables which are to be visible as Lisp variables. 528 define any C variables which are to be visible as Lisp variables.
512 @code{DEFVAR_LISP} is used to make a C variable of type 529 @code{DEFVAR_LISP} makes a C variable of type @code{Lisp_Object} visible
513 @code{Lisp_Object} visible in Lisp. @code{DEFVAR_INT} is used to make a 530 in Lisp. @code{DEFVAR_INT} makes a C variable of type @code{int}
514 C variable of type @code{int} visible in Lisp with a value that is an 531 visible in Lisp with a value that is always an integer.
515 integer. 532 @code{DEFVAR_BOOL} makes a C variable of type @code{int} visible in Lisp
516 533 with a value that is either @code{t} or @code{nil}.
517 Here is another function, with more complicated arguments. This comes 534
518 from the code for the X Window System, and it demonstrates the use of 535 Here is another example function, with more complicated arguments.
519 macros and functions to manipulate Lisp objects. 536 This comes from the code for the X Window System, and it demonstrates
537 the use of macros and functions to manipulate Lisp objects.
520 538
521 @smallexample 539 @smallexample
522 @group 540 @group
523 DEFUN ("coordinates-in-window-p", Fcoordinates_in_window_p, 541 DEFUN ("coordinates-in-window-p", Fcoordinates_in_window_p,
524 Scoordinates_in_window_p, 2, 2, 542 Scoordinates_in_window_p, 2, 2,
545 @end group 563 @end group
546 @group 564 @group
547 if ((XINT (xcoord) < XINT (XWINDOW (window)->left)) 565 if ((XINT (xcoord) < XINT (XWINDOW (window)->left))
548 || (XINT (xcoord) >= (XINT (XWINDOW (window)->left) 566 || (XINT (xcoord) >= (XINT (XWINDOW (window)->left)
549 + XINT (XWINDOW (window)->width)))) 567 + XINT (XWINDOW (window)->width))))
550 @{ 568 return Qnil;
551 return Qnil;
552 @}
553 XFASTINT (xcoord) -= XFASTINT (XWINDOW (window)->left); 569 XFASTINT (xcoord) -= XFASTINT (XWINDOW (window)->left);
554 @end group 570 @end group
555 @group 571 @group
556 if (XINT (ycoord) == (screen_height - 1)) 572 if (XINT (ycoord) == (screen_height - 1))
557 return Qnil; 573 return Qnil;
558 @end group 574 @end group
559 @group 575 @group
560 if ((XINT (ycoord) < XINT (XWINDOW (window)->top)) 576 if ((XINT (ycoord) < XINT (XWINDOW (window)->top))
561 || (XINT (ycoord) >= (XINT (XWINDOW (window)->top) 577 || (XINT (ycoord) >= (XINT (XWINDOW (window)->top)
562 + XINT (XWINDOW (window)->height)) - 1)) 578 + XINT (XWINDOW (window)->height)) - 1))
563 @{ 579 return Qnil;
564 return Qnil;
565 @}
566 @end group 580 @end group
567 @group 581 @group
568 XFASTINT (ycoord) -= XFASTINT (XWINDOW (window)->top); 582 XFASTINT (ycoord) -= XFASTINT (XWINDOW (window)->top);
569 return (Fcons (xcoord, Fcons (ycoord, Qnil))); 583 return (Fcons (xcoord, Fcons (ycoord, Qnil)));
570 @} 584 @}
571 @end group 585 @end group
572 @end smallexample 586 @end smallexample
573 587
574 Note that you cannot directly call functions defined in Lisp as, for 588 Note that C code cannot call functions by name unless they are defined
575 example, the primitive function @code{Fcons} is called above. You must 589 in C. The way to call a function written in Lisp is to use
576 create the appropriate Lisp form, protect everything from garbage 590 @code{Ffuncall}, which embodies the Lisp function @code{funcall}. Since
577 collection, and @code{Feval} the form, as was done in @code{For} above. 591 the Lisp function @code{funcall} accepts an unlimited number of
592 arguments, in C it takes two: the number of Lisp-level arguments, and a
593 one-dimensional array containing their values. The first Lisp-level
594 argument is the Lisp function to call, and the rest are the arguments to
595 pass to it. Since @code{Ffuncall} can call the evaluator, you must
596 protect pointers from garbage collection around the call to
597 @code{Ffuncall}.
598
599 The C functions @code{call0}, @code{call1}, @code{call2}, and so on,
600 provide handy ways to call a Lisp function conveniently with a fixed
601 number of arguments. They work by calling @code{Ffuncall}.
578 602
579 @file{eval.c} is a very good file to look through for examples; 603 @file{eval.c} is a very good file to look through for examples;
580 @file{lisp.h} contains the definitions for some important macros and 604 @file{lisp.h} contains the definitions for some important macros and
581 functions. 605 functions.
582 606
590 implementations. Depending on the operating system and type of machine 614 implementations. Depending on the operating system and type of machine
591 for which you compile Emacs, twenty-four to twenty-six bits are used to 615 for which you compile Emacs, twenty-four to twenty-six bits are used to
592 address the object, and the remaining six to eight bits are used for a 616 address the object, and the remaining six to eight bits are used for a
593 tag that identifies the object's type. 617 tag that identifies the object's type.
594 618
595 Because all access to data is through tagged pointers, it is always 619 Because Lisp objects are represented as tagged pointers, it is always
596 possible to determine the type of any object. This allows variables to 620 possible to determine the Lisp data type of any object. The C data type
597 be untyped, and the values assigned to them to be changed without regard 621 @code{Lisp_Object} can hold any Lisp object of any data type. Ordinary
598 to type. Function arguments also can be of any type; if you want a 622 variables have type @code{Lisp_Object}, which means they can hold any
599 function to accept only a certain type of argument, you must check the 623 type of Lisp value; you can determine the actual data type only at run
600 type explicitly using a suitable predicate (@pxref{Type Predicates}). 624 time. The same is true for function arguments; if you want a function
625 to accept only a certain type of argument, you must check the type
626 explicitly using a suitable predicate (@pxref{Type Predicates}).
601 @cindex type checking internals 627 @cindex type checking internals
602 628
603 @menu 629 @menu
604 * Buffer Internals:: Components of a buffer structure. 630 * Buffer Internals:: Components of a buffer structure.
605 * Window Internals:: Components of a window structure. 631 * Window Internals:: Components of a window structure.
635 661
636 @item last_window_start 662 @item last_window_start
637 This field contains the @code{window-start} position in the buffer as of 663 This field contains the @code{window-start} position in the buffer as of
638 the last time the buffer was displayed in a window. 664 the last time the buffer was displayed in a window.
639 665
640 @item undodata 666 @item undo_list
641 This field points to the buffer's undo stack. @xref{Undo}. 667 This field points to the buffer's undo list. @xref{Undo}.
642 668
643 @item syntax_table_v 669 @item syntax_table_v
644 This field contains the syntax table for the buffer. @xref{Syntax Tables}. 670 This field contains the syntax table for the buffer. @xref{Syntax Tables}.
645 671
646 @item downcase_table 672 @item downcase_table
662 @item display_table 688 @item display_table
663 This field contains the buffer's display table, or @code{nil} if it doesn't 689 This field contains the buffer's display table, or @code{nil} if it doesn't
664 have one. @xref{Display Tables}. 690 have one. @xref{Display Tables}.
665 691
666 @item markers 692 @item markers
667 This field contains the chain of all markers that point into the 693 This field contains the chain of all markers that currently point into
668 buffer. At each deletion or motion of the buffer gap, all of these 694 the buffer. Deletion of text in the buffer, and motion of the buffer's
669 markers must be checked and perhaps updated. @xref{Markers}. 695 gap, must check each of these markers and perhaps update it.
696 @xref{Markers}.
670 697
671 @item backed_up 698 @item backed_up
672 This field is a flag which tells whether a backup file has been made 699 This field is a flag which tells whether a backup file has been made
673 for the visited file of this buffer. 700 for the visited file of this buffer.
674 701
675 @item mark 702 @item mark
676 This field contains the mark for the buffer. The mark is a marker, 703 This field contains the mark for the buffer. The mark is a marker,
677 hence it is also included on the list @code{markers}. @xref{The Mark}. 704 hence it is also included on the list @code{markers}. @xref{The Mark}.
678 705
706 @item mark_active
707 This field is non-@code{nil} if the buffer's mark is active.
708
679 @item local_var_alist 709 @item local_var_alist
680 This field contains the association list containing all of the variables 710 This field contains the association list describing the variables local
681 local in this buffer, and their values. The function 711 in this buffer, and their values, with the exception of local variables
682 @code{buffer-local-variables} returns a copy of this list. 712 that have special slots in the buffer object. (Those slots are omitted
683 @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}. 713 from this table.) @xref{Buffer-Local Variables}.
684 714
685 @item mode_line_format 715 @item keymap
686 This field contains a Lisp object which controls how to display the mode 716 This field holds the buffer's local keymap. @xref{Keymaps}.
687 line for this buffer. @xref{Mode Line Format}. 717
718 @item overlay_center
719 This field holds the current overlay center position. @xref{Overlays}.
720
721 @item overlays_before
722 This field holds a list of the overlays in this buffer that end at or
723 before the current overlay center position. They are sorted in order of
724 decreasing end position.
725
726 @item overlays_after
727 This field holds a list of the overlays in this buffer that end after
728 the current overlay center position. They are sorted in order of
729 increasing beginning position.
688 @end table 730 @end table
689 731
690 @node Window Internals, Process Internals, Buffer Internals, Object Internals 732 @node Window Internals, Process Internals, Buffer Internals, Object Internals
691 @appendixsubsec Window Internals 733 @appendixsubsec Window Internals
692 @cindex internals, of window 734 @cindex internals, of window
694 736
695 Windows have the following accessible fields: 737 Windows have the following accessible fields:
696 738
697 @table @code 739 @table @code
698 @item frame 740 @item frame
699 The frame that this window is on. 741 The frame that this window is on.
700 742
701 @item mini_p 743 @item mini_p
702 Non-@code{nil} if this window is a minibuffer window. 744 Non-@code{nil} if this window is a minibuffer window.
703
704 @item height
705 The height of the window, measured in lines.
706
707 @item width
708 The width of the window, measured in columns.
709 745
710 @item buffer 746 @item buffer
711 The buffer which the window is displaying. This may change often during 747 The buffer which the window is displaying. This may change often during
712 the life of the window. 748 the life of the window.
713 749
714 @item dedicated 750 @item dedicated
715 Non-@code{nil} if this window is dedicated to its buffer. 751 Non-@code{nil} if this window is dedicated to its buffer.
716
717 @item start
718 The position in the buffer which is the first character to be displayed
719 in the window.
720 752
721 @item pointm 753 @item pointm
722 @cindex window point internals 754 @cindex window point internals
723 This is the value of point in the current buffer when this window is 755 This is the value of point in the current buffer when this window is
724 selected; when it is not selected, it retains its previous value. 756 selected; when it is not selected, it retains its previous value.
725 757
758 @item start
759 he position in the buffer which is the first character to be displayed
760 in the window.
761
762 @item force_start
763 If this flag is non-@code{nil}, it says that the window has been
764 scrolled explicitly by the Lisp program. This affects what the next
765 redisplay does if point is off the screen: instead of scrolling the
766 window to show the text around point, it moves point to a location that
767 is on the screen.
768
769 @item last_modified
770 The @code{modified} field of the window's buffer, as of the last time
771 a redisplay completed in this window.
772
773 @item last_point
774 The buffer's value of point, as of the last time
775 a redisplay completed in this window.
776
726 @item left 777 @item left
727 This is the left-hand edge of the window, measured in columns. (The 778 This is the left-hand edge of the window, measured in columns. (The
728 leftmost column on the screen is @w{column 0}.) 779 leftmost column on the screen is @w{column 0}.)
729 780
730 @item top 781 @item top
731 This is the top edge of the window, measured in lines. (The top line on 782 This is the top edge of the window, measured in lines. (The top line on
732 the screen is @w{line 0}.) 783 the screen is @w{line 0}.)
733 784
785 @item height
786 The height of the window, measured in lines.
787
788 @item width
789 The width of the window, measured in columns.
790
734 @item next 791 @item next
735 This is the window that is the next in the chain of siblings. 792 This is the window that is the next in the chain of siblings. It is
793 @code{nil} in a window that is the rightmost or bottommost of a group of
794 siblings.
736 795
737 @item prev 796 @item prev
738 This is the window that is the previous in the chain of siblings. 797 This is the window that is the previous in the chain of siblings. It is
739 798 @code{nil} in a window that is the leftmost or topmost of a group of
740 @item force_start 799 siblings.
741 This is a flag which, if non-@code{nil}, says that the window has been 800
742 scrolled explicitly by the Lisp program. At the next redisplay, if 801 @item parent
743 point is off the screen, instead of scrolling the window to show the 802 Internally, Emacs arranges windows in a tree; each group of siblings has
744 text around point, point will be moved to a location that is on the 803 a parent window whose area includes all the siblings. This field points
745 screen. 804 to a window's parent.
805
806 Parent windows do not display buffers, and play little role in display
807 except to shape their child windows. Emacs Lisp programs usually have
808 no access to the parent windows; they operate on the windows at the
809 leaves of the tree, that actually display buffers.
746 810
747 @item hscroll 811 @item hscroll
748 This is the number of columns that the display in the window is scrolled 812 This is the number of columns that the display in the window is scrolled
749 horizontally to the left. Normally, this is 0. 813 horizontally to the left. Normally, this is 0.
750 814
751 @item use_time 815 @item use_time
752 This is the last time that the window was selected. The function 816 This is the last time that the window was selected. The function
753 @code{get-lru-window} uses this field. 817 @code{get-lru-window} uses this field.
754 818
755 @item display_table 819 @item display_table
756 The window's display table, or @code{nil} if none is specified for it. 820 The window's display table, or @code{nil} if none is specified for it.
821
822 @item update_mode_line
823 Non-@code{nil} means this window's mode line needs to be updated.
824
825 @item base_line_number
826 The line number of a certain position in the buffer, or @code{nil}.
827 This is used for displaying the line number of point in the mode line.
828
829 @item base_line_pos
830 The position in the buffer for which the line number is known, or
831 @code{nil} meaning none is known.
832
833 @item region_showing
834 If the region (or part of it) is highlighted in this window, this field
835 holds the mark position that made one end of that region. Otherwise,
836 this field is @code{nil}.
757 @end table 837 @end table
758 838
759 @node Process Internals, , Window Internals, Object Internals 839 @node Process Internals, , Window Internals, Object Internals
760 @appendixsubsec Process Internals 840 @appendixsubsec Process Internals
761 @cindex internals, of process 841 @cindex internals, of process
786 866
787 @item childp 867 @item childp
788 A flag, non-@code{nil} if this is really a child process. 868 A flag, non-@code{nil} if this is really a child process.
789 It is @code{nil} for a network connection. 869 It is @code{nil} for a network connection.
790 870
791 @item flags
792 A symbol indicating the state of the process. Possible values include
793 @code{run}, @code{stop}, @code{closed}, etc.
794
795 @item reason
796 An integer, the Unix signal number that the process received that
797 caused the process to terminate or stop. If the process has exited,
798 then this is the exit code it specified.
799
800 @item mark 871 @item mark
801 A marker indicating the position of end of last output from this process 872 A marker indicating the position of end of last output from this process
802 inserted into the buffer. This is usually the end of the buffer. 873 inserted into the buffer. This is usually the end of the buffer.
803 874
804 @item kill_without_query 875 @item kill_without_query
805 A flag, non-@code{nil} meaning this process should not cause 876 If this is non-@code{nil}, killing Emacs while this process is still
806 confirmation to be needed if Emacs is killed. 877 running does not ask for confirmation about killing the process.
878
879 @item raw_status_low
880 @itemx raw_status_high
881 These two fields record 16 bits each of the process status returned by
882 the @code{wait} system call.
883
884 @item status
885 The process status, as @code{process-status} should return it.
886
887 @item tick
888 @itemx update_tick
889 If these two fields are not equal, a change in the status of the process
890 needs to be reported, either by running the sentinel or by inserting a
891 message in the process buffer.
892
893 @item pty_flag
894 Non-@code{nil} if communication with the subprocess uses a @sc{pty};
895 @code{nil} if it uses a pipe.
896
897 @item infd
898 The file descriptor for input from the process.
899
900 @item outfd
901 The file descriptor for output to the process.
902
903 @item subtty
904 The file descriptor for the terminal that the subprocess is using. (On
905 some systems, there is no need to record this, so the value is
906 @code{nil}.)
807 @end table 907 @end table