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comparison lispref/functions.texi @ 6455:2fc99253fb65
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author | Karl Heuer <kwzh@gnu.org> |
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date | Mon, 21 Mar 1994 22:27:20 +0000 |
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children | 9a9e88e65617 |
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1 @c -*-texinfo-*- | |
2 @c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual. | |
3 @c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
4 @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions. | |
5 @setfilename ../info/functions | |
6 @node Functions, Macros, Variables, Top | |
7 @chapter Functions | |
8 | |
9 A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions. This chapter | |
10 explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to | |
11 define them. | |
12 | |
13 @menu | |
14 * What Is a Function:: Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology. | |
15 * Lambda Expressions:: How functions are expressed as Lisp objects. | |
16 * Function Names:: A symbol can serve as the name of a function. | |
17 * Defining Functions:: Lisp expressions for defining functions. | |
18 * Calling Functions:: How to use an existing function. | |
19 * Mapping Functions:: Applying a function to each element of a list, etc. | |
20 * Anonymous Functions:: Lambda expressions are functions with no names. | |
21 * Function Cells:: Accessing or setting the function definition | |
22 of a symbol. | |
23 * Inline Functions:: Defining functions that the compiler will open code. | |
24 * Related Topics:: Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives | |
25 that have a special bearing on how functions work. | |
26 @end menu | |
27 | |
28 @node What Is a Function | |
29 @section What Is a Function? | |
30 | |
31 In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a computation | |
32 given several values called @dfn{arguments}. The result of the | |
33 computation is called the value of the function. The computation can | |
34 also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or | |
35 the contents of data structures. | |
36 | |
37 Here are important terms for functions in Emacs Lisp and for other | |
38 function-like objects. | |
39 | |
40 @table @dfn | |
41 @item function | |
42 @cindex function | |
43 In Emacs Lisp, a @dfn{function} is anything that can be applied to | |
44 arguments in a Lisp program. In some cases, we use it more | |
45 specifically to mean a function written in Lisp. Special forms and | |
46 macros are not functions. | |
47 | |
48 @item primitive | |
49 @cindex primitive | |
50 @cindex subr | |
51 @cindex built-in function | |
52 A @dfn{primitive} is a function callable from Lisp that is written in C, | |
53 such as @code{car} or @code{append}. These functions are also called | |
54 @dfn{built-in} functions or @dfn{subrs}. (Special forms are also | |
55 considered primitives.) | |
56 | |
57 Usually the reason that a function is a primitives is because it is | |
58 fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface to operating | |
59 system services, or because it needs to run fast. Primitives can be | |
60 modified or added only by changing the C sources and recompiling the | |
61 editor. See @ref{Writing Emacs Primitives}. | |
62 | |
63 @item lambda expression | |
64 A @dfn{lambda expression} is a function written in Lisp. | |
65 These are described in the following section. | |
66 @ifinfo | |
67 @xref{Lambda Expressions}. | |
68 @end ifinfo | |
69 | |
70 @item special form | |
71 A @dfn{special form} is a primitive that is like a function but does not | |
72 evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way. It may evaluate only | |
73 some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an unusual order, or | |
74 several times. Many special forms are described in @ref{Control | |
75 Structures}. | |
76 | |
77 @item macro | |
78 @cindex macro | |
79 A @dfn{macro} is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer. It | |
80 differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression that you | |
81 write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated instead of the | |
82 original expression. @xref{Macros}, for how to define and use macros. | |
83 | |
84 @item command | |
85 @cindex command | |
86 A @dfn{command} is an object that @code{command-execute} can invoke; it | |
87 is a possible definition for a key sequence. Some functions are | |
88 commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an | |
89 interactive declaration (@pxref{Defining Commands}). Such a function | |
90 can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions; in this case, | |
91 the fact that the function is a command makes no difference. | |
92 | |
93 Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even though | |
94 they are not functions. A symbol is a command if its function | |
95 definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with @kbd{M-x}. | |
96 The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a function. | |
97 @xref{Command Overview}. | |
98 | |
99 @item keystroke command | |
100 @cindex keystroke command | |
101 A @dfn{keystroke command} is a command that is bound to a key sequence | |
102 (typically one to three keystrokes). The distinction is made here | |
103 merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of ``command'' in non-Emacs | |
104 editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally unimportant. | |
105 | |
106 @item byte-code function | |
107 A @dfn{byte-code function} is a function that has been compiled by the | |
108 byte compiler. @xref{Byte-Code Type}. | |
109 @end table | |
110 | |
111 @defun subrp object | |
112 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a built-in function | |
113 (i.e., a Lisp primitive). | |
114 | |
115 @example | |
116 @group | |
117 (subrp 'message) ; @r{@code{message} is a symbol,} | |
118 @result{} nil ; @r{not a subr object.} | |
119 @end group | |
120 @group | |
121 (subrp (symbol-function 'message)) | |
122 @result{} t | |
123 @end group | |
124 @end example | |
125 @end defun | |
126 | |
127 @defun byte-code-function-p object | |
128 This function returns @code{t} if @var{object} is a byte-code | |
129 function. For example: | |
130 | |
131 @example | |
132 @group | |
133 (byte-code-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line)) | |
134 @result{} t | |
135 @end group | |
136 @end example | |
137 @end defun | |
138 | |
139 @node Lambda Expressions | |
140 @section Lambda Expressions | |
141 @cindex lambda expression | |
142 | |
143 A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this: | |
144 | |
145 @example | |
146 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
147 @r{[}@var{documentation-string}@r{]} | |
148 @r{[}@var{interactive-declaration}@r{]} | |
149 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
150 @end example | |
151 | |
152 @noindent | |
153 (Such a list is called a @dfn{lambda expression} for historical reasons, | |
154 even though it is not really an expression at all---it is not a form | |
155 that can be evaluated meaningfully.) | |
156 | |
157 @menu | |
158 * Lambda Components:: The parts of a lambda expression. | |
159 * Simple Lambda:: A simple example. | |
160 * Argument List:: Details and special features of argument lists. | |
161 * Function Documentation:: How to put documentation in a function. | |
162 @end menu | |
163 | |
164 @node Lambda Components | |
165 @subsection Components of a Lambda Expression | |
166 | |
167 @ifinfo | |
168 | |
169 A function written in Lisp (a ``lambda expression'') is a list that | |
170 looks like this: | |
171 | |
172 @example | |
173 (lambda (@var{arg-variables}@dots{}) | |
174 [@var{documentation-string}] | |
175 [@var{interactive-declaration}] | |
176 @var{body-forms}@dots{}) | |
177 @end example | |
178 @end ifinfo | |
179 | |
180 @cindex lambda list | |
181 The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol | |
182 @code{lambda}. This indicates that the list represents a function. The | |
183 reason functions are defined to start with @code{lambda} is so that | |
184 other lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as | |
185 functions. | |
186 | |
187 The second element is a list of symbols--the argument variable names. | |
188 This is called the @dfn{lambda list}. When a Lisp function is called, | |
189 the argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda | |
190 list, which are given local bindings with the values provided. | |
191 @xref{Local Variables}. | |
192 | |
193 The documentation string is an actual string that serves to describe | |
194 the function for the Emacs help facilities. @xref{Function Documentation}. | |
195 | |
196 The interactive declaration is a list of the form @code{(interactive | |
197 @var{code-string})}. This declares how to provide arguments if the | |
198 function is used interactively. Functions with this declaration are called | |
199 @dfn{commands}; they can be called using @kbd{M-x} or bound to a key. | |
200 Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have interactive | |
201 declarations. @xref{Defining Commands}, for how to write an interactive | |
202 declaration. | |
203 | |
204 @cindex body of function | |
205 The rest of the elements are the @dfn{body} of the function: the Lisp | |
206 code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say, | |
207 ``a list of Lisp forms to evaluate''). The value returned by the | |
208 function is the value returned by the last element of the body. | |
209 | |
210 @node Simple Lambda | |
211 @subsection A Simple Lambda-Expression Example | |
212 | |
213 Consider for example the following function: | |
214 | |
215 @example | |
216 (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
217 @end example | |
218 | |
219 @noindent | |
220 We can call this function by writing it as the @sc{car} of an | |
221 expression, like this: | |
222 | |
223 @example | |
224 @group | |
225 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
226 1 2 3) | |
227 @end group | |
228 @end example | |
229 | |
230 @noindent | |
231 This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression with the variable | |
232 @code{a} bound to 1, @code{b} bound to 2, and @code{c} bound to 3. | |
233 Evaluation of the body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; | |
234 therefore, this call to the function returns the value 6. | |
235 | |
236 Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls, as in | |
237 this example: | |
238 | |
239 @example | |
240 @group | |
241 ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c)) | |
242 1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4)) | |
243 @end group | |
244 @end example | |
245 | |
246 @noindent | |
247 This evaluates the arguments @code{1}, @code{(* 2 3)}, and @code{(- 5 | |
248 4)} from left to right. Then it applies the lambda expression applied | |
249 to the argument values 1, 6 and 1 to produce the value 8. | |
250 | |
251 It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the @sc{car} of | |
252 a form in this way. You can get the same result, of making local | |
253 variables and giving them values, using the special form @code{let} | |
254 (@pxref{Local Variables}). And @code{let} is clearer and easier to use. | |
255 In practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function | |
256 definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as | |
257 arguments to other functions (@pxref{Anonymous Functions}). | |
258 | |
259 However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the | |
260 old days of Lisp, before the special form @code{let} was invented. At | |
261 that time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local | |
262 variables. | |
263 | |
264 @node Argument List | |
265 @subsection Advanced Features of Argument Lists | |
266 @kindex wrong-number-of-arguments | |
267 @cindex argument binding | |
268 @cindex binding arguments | |
269 | |
270 Our simple sample function, @code{(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))}, | |
271 specifies three argument variables, so it must be called with three | |
272 arguments: if you try to call it with only two arguments or four | |
273 arguments, you get a @code{wrong-number-of-arguments} error. | |
274 | |
275 It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain | |
276 arguments to be omitted. For example, the function @code{substring} | |
277 accepts three arguments---a string, the start index and the end | |
278 index---but the third argument defaults to the @var{length} of the | |
279 string if you omit it. It is also convenient for certain functions to | |
280 accept an indefinite number of arguments, as the functions @code{and} | |
281 and @code{+} do. | |
282 | |
283 @cindex optional arguments | |
284 @cindex rest arguments | |
285 @kindex &optional | |
286 @kindex &rest | |
287 To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function | |
288 is called, simply include the keyword @code{&optional} before the optional | |
289 arguments. To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include the | |
290 keyword @code{&rest} before one final argument. | |
291 | |
292 Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows: | |
293 | |
294 @example | |
295 @group | |
296 (@var{required-vars}@dots{} | |
297 @r{[}&optional @var{optional-vars}@dots{}@r{]} | |
298 @r{[}&rest @var{rest-var}@r{]}) | |
299 @end group | |
300 @end example | |
301 | |
302 @noindent | |
303 The square brackets indicate that the @code{&optional} and @code{&rest} | |
304 clauses, and the variables that follow them, are optional. | |
305 | |
306 A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the | |
307 @var{required-vars}. There may be actual arguments for zero or more of | |
308 the @var{optional-vars}, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond | |
309 that unless the lambda list uses @code{&rest}. In that case, there may | |
310 be any number of extra actual arguments. | |
311 | |
312 If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted, | |
313 then they always default to @code{nil}. However, the body of the function | |
314 is free to consider @code{nil} an abbreviation for some other meaningful | |
315 value. This is what @code{substring} does; @code{nil} as the third argument | |
316 means to use the length of the string supplied. There is no way for the | |
317 function to distinguish between an explicit argument of @code{nil} and | |
318 an omitted argument. | |
319 | |
320 @cindex CL note---default optional arg | |
321 @quotation | |
322 @b{Common Lisp note:} Common Lisp allows the function to specify what | |
323 default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; Emacs Lisp | |
324 always uses @code{nil}. | |
325 @end quotation | |
326 | |
327 For example, an argument list that looks like this: | |
328 | |
329 @example | |
330 (a b &optional c d &rest e) | |
331 @end example | |
332 | |
333 @noindent | |
334 binds @code{a} and @code{b} to the first two actual arguments, which are | |
335 required. If one or two more arguments are provided, @code{c} and | |
336 @code{d} are bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first | |
337 four are collected into a list and @code{e} is bound to that list. If | |
338 there are only two arguments, @code{c} is @code{nil}; if two or three | |
339 arguments, @code{d} is @code{nil}; if four arguments or fewer, @code{e} | |
340 is @code{nil}. | |
341 | |
342 There is no way to have required arguments following optional | |
343 ones---it would not make sense. To see why this must be so, suppose | |
344 that @code{c} in the example were optional and @code{d} were required. | |
345 Suppose three actual arguments are given; which variable would the third | |
346 argument be for? Similarly, it makes no sense to have any more | |
347 arguments (either required or optional) after a @code{&rest} argument. | |
348 | |
349 Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls: | |
350 | |
351 @smallexample | |
352 ((lambda (n) (1+ n)) ; @r{One required:} | |
353 1) ; @r{requires exactly one argument.} | |
354 @result{} 2 | |
355 ((lambda (n &optional n1) ; @r{One required and one optional:} | |
356 (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n))) ; @r{1 or 2 arguments.} | |
357 1 2) | |
358 @result{} 3 | |
359 ((lambda (n &rest ns) ; @r{One required and one rest:} | |
360 (+ n (apply '+ ns))) ; @r{1 or more arguments.} | |
361 1 2 3 4 5) | |
362 @result{} 15 | |
363 @end smallexample | |
364 | |
365 @node Function Documentation | |
366 @subsection Documentation Strings of Functions | |
367 @cindex documentation of function | |
368 | |
369 A lambda expression may optionally have a @dfn{documentation string} just | |
370 after the lambda list. This string does not affect execution of the | |
371 function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which | |
372 actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the Emacs help | |
373 facilities. @xref{Documentation}, for how the @var{documentation-string} is | |
374 accessed. | |
375 | |
376 It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all commands, | |
377 and for all other functions in your program that users of your program | |
378 should know about; internal functions might as well have only comments, | |
379 since comments don't take up any room when your program is loaded. | |
380 | |
381 The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own, | |
382 because @code{apropos} displays just this first line. It should consist | |
383 of one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose. | |
384 | |
385 The start of the documentation string is usually indented, but since | |
386 these spaces come before the starting double-quote, they are not part of | |
387 the string. Some people make a practice of indenting any additional | |
388 lines of the string so that the text lines up. @emph{This is a | |
389 mistake.} The indentation of the following lines is inside the string; | |
390 what looks nice in the source code will look ugly when displayed by the | |
391 help commands. | |
392 | |
393 You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since | |
394 there are required components of the function that follow it (the body). | |
395 Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side effects, | |
396 it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body. Thus, in | |
397 practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the body and the | |
398 documentation string; if the only body form is a string then it serves both | |
399 as the return value and as the documentation. | |
400 | |
401 @node Function Names | |
402 @section Naming a Function | |
403 @cindex function definition | |
404 @cindex named function | |
405 @cindex function name | |
406 | |
407 In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a | |
408 function without a name is nonsensical. In Lisp, a function in the | |
409 strictest sense has no name. It is simply a list whose first element is | |
410 @code{lambda}, or a primitive subr-object. | |
411 | |
412 However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function. This happens | |
413 when you put the function in the symbol's @dfn{function cell} | |
414 (@pxref{Symbol Components}). Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, | |
415 callable function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its | |
416 function cell refers to. The contents of the function cell are also | |
417 called the symbol's @dfn{function definition}. The procedure of using a | |
418 symbol's function definition in place of the symbol is called | |
419 @dfn{symbol function indirection}; see @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
420 | |
421 In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and | |
422 referred to through their names. For example, the symbol @code{car} works | |
423 as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object | |
424 @code{#<subr car>} is stored in its function cell. | |
425 | |
426 We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by | |
427 their names in Lisp expressions. For primitive subr-objects such as | |
428 @code{#<subr car>}, names are the only way you can refer to them: there | |
429 is no read syntax for such objects. For functions written in Lisp, the | |
430 name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda | |
431 expression. Also, a function with a name can refer to itself---it can | |
432 be recursive. Writing the function's name in its own definition is much | |
433 more convenient than making the function definition point to itself | |
434 (something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in | |
435 practice). | |
436 | |
437 We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them. For | |
438 example, we often speak of ``the function @code{car}'', not | |
439 distinguishing between the symbol @code{car} and the primitive | |
440 subr-object that is its function definition. For most purposes, there | |
441 is no need to distinguish. | |
442 | |
443 Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name. While | |
444 a given function object @emph{usually} appears in the function cell of only | |
445 one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience. It is easy to store | |
446 it in several symbols using @code{fset}; then each of the symbols is | |
447 equally well a name for the same function. | |
448 | |
449 A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable; | |
450 these two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict. | |
451 | |
452 @node Defining Functions | |
453 @section Defining Named Functions | |
454 @cindex defining a function | |
455 | |
456 We usually give a name to a function when it is first created. This | |
457 is called @dfn{defining a function}, and it is done with the | |
458 @code{defun} special form. | |
459 | |
460 @defspec defun name argument-list body-forms | |
461 @code{defun} is the usual way to define new Lisp functions. It | |
462 defines the symbol @var{name} as a function that looks like this: | |
463 | |
464 @example | |
465 (lambda @var{argument-list} . @var{body-forms}) | |
466 @end example | |
467 | |
468 @code{defun} stores this lambda expression in the function cell of | |
469 @var{name}. It returns the value @var{name}, but usually we ignore this | |
470 value. | |
471 | |
472 As described previously (@pxref{Lambda Expressions}), | |
473 @var{argument-list} is a list of argument names and may include the | |
474 keywords @code{&optional} and @code{&rest}. Also, the first two forms | |
475 in @var{body-forms} may be a documentation string and an interactive | |
476 declaration. | |
477 | |
478 There is no conflict if the same symbol @var{name} is also used as a | |
479 variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the function | |
480 cell. @xref{Symbol Components}. | |
481 | |
482 Here are some examples: | |
483 | |
484 @example | |
485 @group | |
486 (defun foo () 5) | |
487 @result{} foo | |
488 @end group | |
489 @group | |
490 (foo) | |
491 @result{} 5 | |
492 @end group | |
493 | |
494 @group | |
495 (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c) | |
496 (list a b c)) | |
497 @result{} bar | |
498 @end group | |
499 @group | |
500 (bar 1 2 3 4 5) | |
501 @result{} (1 2 (3 4 5)) | |
502 @end group | |
503 @group | |
504 (bar 1) | |
505 @result{} (1 nil nil) | |
506 @end group | |
507 @group | |
508 (bar) | |
509 @error{} Wrong number of arguments. | |
510 @end group | |
511 | |
512 @group | |
513 (defun capitalize-backwards () | |
514 "Upcase the last letter of a word." | |
515 (interactive) | |
516 (backward-word 1) | |
517 (forward-word 1) | |
518 (backward-char 1) | |
519 (capitalize-word 1)) | |
520 @result{} capitalize-backwards | |
521 @end group | |
522 @end example | |
523 | |
524 Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally. | |
525 @code{defun} redefines even primitive functions such as @code{car} | |
526 without any hesitation or notification. Redefining a function already | |
527 defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to distinguish | |
528 deliberate redefinition from unintentional redefinition. | |
529 @end defspec | |
530 | |
531 @defun defalias name definition | |
532 This special form defines the symbol @var{name} as a function, with | |
533 definition @var{definition}. It's best to use this rather than | |
534 @code{fset} when defining a function in a file, because @code{defalias} | |
535 records which file defined the function (@pxref{Unloading}). | |
536 @end defun | |
537 | |
538 @node Calling Functions | |
539 @section Calling Functions | |
540 @cindex function invocation | |
541 @cindex calling a function | |
542 | |
543 Defining functions is only half the battle. Functions don't do | |
544 anything until you @dfn{call} them, i.e., tell them to run. Calling a | |
545 function is also known as @dfn{invocation}. | |
546 | |
547 The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list. For | |
548 example, evaluating the list @code{(concat "a" "b")} calls the function | |
549 @code{concat}. @xref{Evaluation}, for a description of evaluation. | |
550 | |
551 When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function | |
552 name is part of the program. This means that you choose which function | |
553 to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you write the program. | |
554 Usually that's just what you want. Occasionally you need to decide at | |
555 run time which function to call. To do that, use the functions | |
556 @code{funcall} and @code{apply}. | |
557 | |
558 @defun funcall function &rest arguments | |
559 @code{funcall} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, and returns | |
560 whatever @var{function} returns. | |
561 | |
562 Since @code{funcall} is a function, all of its arguments, including | |
563 @var{function}, are evaluated before @code{funcall} is called. This | |
564 means that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be | |
565 called. It also means that @code{funcall} does not see the expressions | |
566 you write for the @var{arguments}, only their values. These values are | |
567 @emph{not} evaluated a second time in the act of calling @var{function}; | |
568 @code{funcall} enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the | |
569 place where the arguments have already been evaluated. | |
570 | |
571 The argument @var{function} must be either a Lisp function or a | |
572 primitive function. Special forms and macros are not allowed, because | |
573 they make sense only when given the ``unevaluated'' argument | |
574 expressions. @code{funcall} cannot provide these because, as we saw | |
575 above, it never knows them in the first place. | |
576 | |
577 @example | |
578 @group | |
579 (setq f 'list) | |
580 @result{} list | |
581 @end group | |
582 @group | |
583 (funcall f 'x 'y 'z) | |
584 @result{} (x y z) | |
585 @end group | |
586 @group | |
587 (funcall f 'x 'y '(z)) | |
588 @result{} (x y (z)) | |
589 @end group | |
590 @group | |
591 (funcall 'and t nil) | |
592 @error{} Invalid function: #<subr and> | |
593 @end group | |
594 @end example | |
595 | |
596 Compare these example with the examples of @code{apply}. | |
597 @end defun | |
598 | |
599 @defun apply function &rest arguments | |
600 @code{apply} calls @var{function} with @var{arguments}, just like | |
601 @code{funcall} but with one difference: the last of @var{arguments} is a | |
602 list of arguments to give to @var{function}, rather than a single | |
603 argument. We also say that this list is @dfn{appended} to the other | |
604 arguments. | |
605 | |
606 @code{apply} returns the result of calling @var{function}. As with | |
607 @code{funcall}, @var{function} must either be a Lisp function or a | |
608 primitive function; special forms and macros do not make sense in | |
609 @code{apply}. | |
610 | |
611 @example | |
612 @group | |
613 (setq f 'list) | |
614 @result{} list | |
615 @end group | |
616 @group | |
617 (apply f 'x 'y 'z) | |
618 @error{} Wrong type argument: listp, z | |
619 @end group | |
620 @group | |
621 (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4)) | |
622 @result{} 10 | |
623 @end group | |
624 @group | |
625 (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4)) | |
626 @result{} 10 | |
627 @end group | |
628 | |
629 @group | |
630 (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil)) | |
631 @result{} (a b c x y z) | |
632 @end group | |
633 @end example | |
634 | |
635 For an interesting example of using @code{apply}, see the description of | |
636 @code{mapcar}, in @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
637 @end defun | |
638 | |
639 @cindex functionals | |
640 It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or | |
641 find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property | |
642 lists) and call them using @code{funcall} or @code{apply}. Functions | |
643 that accept function arguments are often called @dfn{functionals}. | |
644 | |
645 Sometimes, when you call such a function, it is useful to supply a | |
646 no-op function as the argument. Here are two different kinds of no-op | |
647 function: | |
648 | |
649 @defun identity arg | |
650 This function returns @var{arg} and has no side effects. | |
651 @end defun | |
652 | |
653 @defun ignore &rest args | |
654 This function ignores any arguments and returns @code{nil}. | |
655 @end defun | |
656 | |
657 @node Mapping Functions | |
658 @section Mapping Functions | |
659 @cindex mapping functions | |
660 | |
661 A @dfn{mapping function} applies a given function to each element of a | |
662 list or other collection. Emacs Lisp has three such functions; | |
663 @code{mapcar} and @code{mapconcat}, which scan a list, are described | |
664 here. For the third mapping function, @code{mapatoms}, see | |
665 @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
666 | |
667 @defun mapcar function sequence | |
668 @code{mapcar} applies @var{function} to each element of @var{sequence} in | |
669 turn. The results are made into a @code{nil}-terminated list. | |
670 | |
671 The argument @var{sequence} may be a list, a vector or a string. The | |
672 result is always a list. The length of the result is the same as the | |
673 length of @var{sequence}. | |
674 | |
675 @smallexample | |
676 @group | |
677 @exdent @r{For example:} | |
678 | |
679 (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f))) | |
680 @result{} (a c e) | |
681 (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3]) | |
682 @result{} (2 3 4) | |
683 (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc") | |
684 @result{} ("a" "b" "c") | |
685 @end group | |
686 | |
687 @group | |
688 ;; @r{Call each function in @code{my-hooks}.} | |
689 (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks) | |
690 @end group | |
691 | |
692 @group | |
693 (defun mapcar* (f &rest args) | |
694 "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS. | |
695 Return the list of results." | |
696 ;; @r{If no list is exhausted,} | |
697 (if (not (memq 'nil args)) | |
698 ;; @r{apply function to @sc{CAR}s.} | |
699 (cons (apply f (mapcar 'car args)) | |
700 (apply 'mapcar* f | |
701 ;; @r{Recurse for rest of elements.} | |
702 (mapcar 'cdr args))))) | |
703 @end group | |
704 | |
705 @group | |
706 (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4)) | |
707 @result{} ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3)) | |
708 @end group | |
709 @end smallexample | |
710 @end defun | |
711 | |
712 @defun mapconcat function sequence separator | |
713 @code{mapconcat} applies @var{function} to each element of | |
714 @var{sequence}: the results, which must be strings, are concatenated. | |
715 Between each pair of result strings, @code{mapconcat} inserts the string | |
716 @var{separator}. Usually @var{separator} contains a space or comma or | |
717 other suitable punctuation. | |
718 | |
719 The argument @var{function} must be a function that can take one | |
720 argument and return a string. | |
721 | |
722 @smallexample | |
723 @group | |
724 (mapconcat 'symbol-name | |
725 '(The cat in the hat) | |
726 " ") | |
727 @result{} "The cat in the hat" | |
728 @end group | |
729 | |
730 @group | |
731 (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x)))) | |
732 "HAL-8000" | |
733 "") | |
734 @result{} "IBM.9111" | |
735 @end group | |
736 @end smallexample | |
737 @end defun | |
738 | |
739 @node Anonymous Functions | |
740 @section Anonymous Functions | |
741 @cindex anonymous function | |
742 | |
743 In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with @code{lambda}, a | |
744 byte-code function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a | |
745 primitive subr-object; names are ``extra''. Although usually functions | |
746 are defined with @code{defun} and given names at the same time, it is | |
747 occasionally more concise to use an explicit lambda expression---an | |
748 anonymous function. Such a list is valid wherever a function name is. | |
749 | |
750 Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function. Even this: | |
751 | |
752 @smallexample | |
753 @group | |
754 (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x)))) | |
755 @result{} (lambda (x) (+ 12 x)) | |
756 @end group | |
757 @end smallexample | |
758 | |
759 @noindent | |
760 This computes a list that looks like @code{(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))} and | |
761 makes it the value (@emph{not} the function definition!) of | |
762 @code{silly}. | |
763 | |
764 Here is how we might call this function: | |
765 | |
766 @example | |
767 @group | |
768 (funcall silly 1) | |
769 @result{} 13 | |
770 @end group | |
771 @end example | |
772 | |
773 @noindent | |
774 (It does @emph{not} work to write @code{(silly 1)}, because this function | |
775 is not the @emph{function definition} of @code{silly}. We have not given | |
776 @code{silly} any function definition, just a value as a variable.) | |
777 | |
778 Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in | |
779 your program. For example, you might want to pass one as an argument | |
780 to the function @code{mapcar}, which applies any given function to each | |
781 element of a list. Here we pass an anonymous function that multiplies | |
782 a number by two: | |
783 | |
784 @example | |
785 @group | |
786 (defun double-each (list) | |
787 (mapcar '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)) list)) | |
788 @result{} double-each | |
789 @end group | |
790 @group | |
791 (double-each '(2 11)) | |
792 @result{} (4 22) | |
793 @end group | |
794 @end example | |
795 | |
796 @noindent | |
797 In such cases, we usually use the special form @code{function} instead | |
798 of simple quotation to quote the anonymous function. | |
799 | |
800 @defspec function function-object | |
801 @cindex function quoting | |
802 This special form returns @var{function-object} without evaluating it. | |
803 In this, it is equivalent to @code{quote}. However, it serves as a | |
804 note to the Emacs Lisp compiler that @var{function-object} is intended | |
805 to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be compiled. | |
806 Contrast this with @code{quote}, in @ref{Quoting}. | |
807 @end defspec | |
808 | |
809 Using @code{function} instead of @code{quote} makes a difference | |
810 inside a function or macro that you are going to compile. For example: | |
811 | |
812 @example | |
813 @group | |
814 (defun double-each (list) | |
815 (mapcar (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))) list)) | |
816 @result{} double-each | |
817 @end group | |
818 @group | |
819 (double-each '(2 11)) | |
820 @result{} (4 22) | |
821 @end group | |
822 @end example | |
823 | |
824 @noindent | |
825 If this definition of @code{double-each} is compiled, the anonymous | |
826 function is compiled as well. By contrast, in the previous definition | |
827 where ordinary @code{quote} is used, the argument passed to | |
828 @code{mapcar} is the precise list shown: | |
829 | |
830 @example | |
831 (lambda (x) (* x 2)) | |
832 @end example | |
833 | |
834 @noindent | |
835 The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it | |
836 looks like one, since it does not know what @code{mapcar} does with the | |
837 list. Perhaps @code{mapcar} will check that the @sc{car} of the third | |
838 element is the symbol @code{*}! The advantage of @code{function} is | |
839 that it tells the compiler to go ahead and compile the constant | |
840 function. | |
841 | |
842 We sometimes write @code{function} instead of @code{quote} when | |
843 quoting the name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of | |
844 comment. | |
845 | |
846 @example | |
847 (function @var{symbol}) @equiv{} (quote @var{symbol}) @equiv{} '@var{symbol} | |
848 @end example | |
849 | |
850 See @code{documentation} in @ref{Accessing Documentation}, for a | |
851 realistic example using @code{function} and an anonymous function. | |
852 | |
853 @node Function Cells | |
854 @section Accessing Function Cell Contents | |
855 | |
856 The @dfn{function definition} of a symbol is the object stored in the | |
857 function cell of the symbol. The functions described here access, test, | |
858 and set the function cell of symbols. | |
859 | |
860 @defun symbol-function symbol | |
861 @kindex void-function | |
862 This returns the object in the function cell of @var{symbol}. If the | |
863 symbol's function cell is void, a @code{void-function} error is | |
864 signaled. | |
865 | |
866 This function does not check that the returned object is a legitimate | |
867 function. | |
868 | |
869 @example | |
870 @group | |
871 (defun bar (n) (+ n 2)) | |
872 @result{} bar | |
873 @end group | |
874 @group | |
875 (symbol-function 'bar) | |
876 @result{} (lambda (n) (+ n 2)) | |
877 @end group | |
878 @group | |
879 (fset 'baz 'bar) | |
880 @result{} bar | |
881 @end group | |
882 @group | |
883 (symbol-function 'baz) | |
884 @result{} bar | |
885 @end group | |
886 @end example | |
887 @end defun | |
888 | |
889 @cindex void function cell | |
890 If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that | |
891 that symbol's function cell is @dfn{void}. In other words, the function | |
892 cell does not have any Lisp object in it. If you try to call such a symbol | |
893 as a function, it signals a @code{void-function} error. | |
894 | |
895 Note that void is not the same as @code{nil} or the symbol | |
896 @code{void}. The symbols @code{nil} and @code{void} are Lisp objects, | |
897 and can be stored into a function cell just as any other object can be | |
898 (and they can be valid functions if you define them in turn with | |
899 @code{defun}); but @code{nil} or @code{void} is @emph{an object}. A | |
900 void function cell contains no object whatsoever. | |
901 | |
902 You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with | |
903 @code{fboundp}. After you have given a symbol a function definition, you | |
904 can make it void once more using @code{fmakunbound}. | |
905 | |
906 @defun fboundp symbol | |
907 This function returns @code{t} if the symbol has an object in its | |
908 function cell, @code{nil} otherwise. It does not check that the object | |
909 is a legitimate function. | |
910 @end defun | |
911 | |
912 @defun fmakunbound symbol | |
913 This function makes @var{symbol}'s function cell void, so that a | |
914 subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a @code{void-function} | |
915 error. (See also @code{makunbound}, in @ref{Local Variables}.) | |
916 | |
917 @example | |
918 @group | |
919 (defun foo (x) x) | |
920 @result{} x | |
921 @end group | |
922 @group | |
923 (fmakunbound 'foo) | |
924 @result{} x | |
925 @end group | |
926 @group | |
927 (foo 1) | |
928 @error{} Symbol's function definition is void: foo | |
929 @end group | |
930 @end example | |
931 @end defun | |
932 | |
933 @defun fset symbol object | |
934 This function stores @var{object} in the function cell of @var{symbol}. | |
935 The result is @var{object}. Normally @var{object} should be a function | |
936 or the name of a function, but this is not checked. | |
937 | |
938 There are three normal uses of this function: | |
939 | |
940 @itemize @bullet | |
941 @item | |
942 Copying one symbol's function definition to another. (In other words, | |
943 making an alternate name for a function.) | |
944 | |
945 @item | |
946 Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and therefore | |
947 cannot be made with @code{defun}. @xref{Classifying Lists}, for an | |
948 example of this usage. | |
949 | |
950 @item | |
951 In constructs for defining or altering functions. If @code{defun} | |
952 were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a macro) using | |
953 @code{fset}. | |
954 @end itemize | |
955 | |
956 Here are examples of the first two uses: | |
957 | |
958 @example | |
959 @group | |
960 ;; @r{Give @code{first} the same definition @code{car} has.} | |
961 (fset 'first (symbol-function 'car)) | |
962 @result{} #<subr car> | |
963 @end group | |
964 @group | |
965 (first '(1 2 3)) | |
966 @result{} 1 | |
967 @end group | |
968 | |
969 @group | |
970 ;; @r{Make the symbol @code{car} the function definition of @code{xfirst}.} | |
971 (fset 'xfirst 'car) | |
972 @result{} car | |
973 @end group | |
974 @group | |
975 (xfirst '(1 2 3)) | |
976 @result{} 1 | |
977 @end group | |
978 @group | |
979 (symbol-function 'xfirst) | |
980 @result{} car | |
981 @end group | |
982 @group | |
983 (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst)) | |
984 @result{} #<subr car> | |
985 @end group | |
986 | |
987 @group | |
988 ;; @r{Define a named keyboard macro.} | |
989 (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k") | |
990 @result{} "\^u2\^k" | |
991 @end group | |
992 @end example | |
993 @end defun | |
994 | |
995 When writing a function that extends a previously defined function, | |
996 the following idiom is often used: | |
997 | |
998 @example | |
999 (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo)) | |
1000 (defun foo () | |
1001 "Just like old-foo, except more so." | |
1002 @group | |
1003 (old-foo) | |
1004 (more-so)) | |
1005 @end group | |
1006 @end example | |
1007 | |
1008 @noindent | |
1009 This does not work properly if @code{foo} has been defined to autoload. | |
1010 In such a case, when @code{foo} calls @code{old-foo}, Lisp attempts | |
1011 to define @code{old-foo} by loading a file. Since this presumably | |
1012 defines @code{foo} rather than @code{old-foo}, it does not produce the | |
1013 proper results. The only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the | |
1014 file is loaded before moving aside the old definition of @code{foo}. | |
1015 | |
1016 See also the function @code{indirect-function} in @ref{Function | |
1017 Indirection}. | |
1018 | |
1019 @node Inline Functions | |
1020 @section Inline Functions | |
1021 @cindex inline functions | |
1022 | |
1023 @findex defsubst | |
1024 You can define an @dfn{inline function} by using @code{defsubst} instead | |
1025 of @code{defun}. An inline function works just like an ordinary | |
1026 function except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, | |
1027 the function's definition is open-coded into the caller. | |
1028 | |
1029 Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster. But it also | |
1030 has disadvantages. For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you change | |
1031 the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use the old | |
1032 definition until you recompile them. Since the flexibility of | |
1033 redefining functions is an important feature of Emacs, you should not | |
1034 make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial. | |
1035 | |
1036 Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can increase | |
1037 the size of compiled code both in files and in memory. Since the speed | |
1038 advantage of inline functions is greatest for small functions, you | |
1039 generally should not make large functions inline. | |
1040 | |
1041 It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an | |
1042 inline function would execute. But the macro would have a limitation: | |
1043 you can use it only explicitly---a macro cannot be called with | |
1044 @code{apply}, @code{mapcar} and so on. Also, it takes some work to | |
1045 convert an ordinary function into a macro. (@xref{Macros}.) To convert | |
1046 it into an inline function is very easy; simply replace @code{defun} | |
1047 with @code{defsubst}. Since each argument of an inline function is | |
1048 evaluated exactly once, you needn't worry about how many times the | |
1049 body uses the arguments, as you do for macros. (@xref{Argument | |
1050 Evaluation}.) | |
1051 | |
1052 Inline functions can be used and open coded later on in the same file, | |
1053 following the definition, just like macros. | |
1054 | |
1055 Emacs versions prior to 19 did not have inline functions. | |
1056 | |
1057 @node Related Topics | |
1058 @section Other Topics Related to Functions | |
1059 | |
1060 Here is a table of several functions that do things related to | |
1061 function calling and function definitions. They are documented | |
1062 elsewhere, but we provide cross references here. | |
1063 | |
1064 @table @code | |
1065 @item apply | |
1066 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1067 | |
1068 @item autoload | |
1069 See @ref{Autoload}. | |
1070 | |
1071 @item call-interactively | |
1072 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1073 | |
1074 @item commandp | |
1075 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1076 | |
1077 @item documentation | |
1078 See @ref{Accessing Documentation}. | |
1079 | |
1080 @item eval | |
1081 See @ref{Eval}. | |
1082 | |
1083 @item funcall | |
1084 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1085 | |
1086 @item ignore | |
1087 See @ref{Calling Functions}. | |
1088 | |
1089 @item indirect-function | |
1090 See @ref{Function Indirection}. | |
1091 | |
1092 @item interactive | |
1093 See @ref{Using Interactive}. | |
1094 | |
1095 @item interactive-p | |
1096 See @ref{Interactive Call}. | |
1097 | |
1098 @item mapatoms | |
1099 See @ref{Creating Symbols}. | |
1100 | |
1101 @item mapcar | |
1102 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1103 | |
1104 @item mapconcat | |
1105 See @ref{Mapping Functions}. | |
1106 | |
1107 @item undefined | |
1108 See @ref{Key Lookup}. | |
1109 @end table | |
1110 |