comparison lispref/intro.texi @ 21682:90da2489c498

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21681:11eafe90b842

@cindex Common Lisp
  Dozens of Lisp implementations have been built over the years, each
with its own idiosyncrasies.  Many of them were inspired by Maclisp,
which was written in the 1960's at MIT's Project MAC.  Eventually the
implementors of the descendants of Maclisp came together and developed a
standard for Lisp systems, called Common Lisp.

  GNU Emacs Lisp is largely inspired by Maclisp, and a little by Common
Lisp.  If you know Common Lisp, you will notice many similarities.
However, many of the features of Common Lisp have been omitted or
simplified in order to reduce the memory requirements of GNU Emacs.
Sometimes the simplifications are so drastic that a Common Lisp user
might be very confused.  We will occasionally point out how GNU Emacs
Lisp differs from Common Lisp.  If you don't know Common Lisp, don't
worry about it; this manual is self-contained.

@node Conventions
@section Conventions

This section explains the notational conventions that are used in this
manual.  You may want to skip this section and refer back to it later.

* Evaluation Notation::      The format we use for examples of evaluation.
* Printing Notation::        The format we use for examples that print output.
* Error Messages::           The format we use for examples of errors.
* Buffer Text Notation::     The format we use for buffer contents in examples.
* Format of Descriptions::   Notation for describing functions, variables, etc.
@end menu

@node Some Terms
@subsection Some Terms

addressed as ``you''.  ``The user'' is the person who uses Lisp programs,
including those you write.

@cindex fonts
  Examples of Lisp code appear in this font or form: @code{(list 1 2
3)}.  Names that represent arguments or metasyntactic variables appear
in this font or form: @var{first-number}.

@node nil and t
@subsection @code{nil} and @code{t}
@cindex @code{nil}, uses of
@cindex truth value

choosing, use @code{t}.  The symbol @code{t} always has value @code{t}.

  In Emacs Lisp, @code{nil} and @code{t} are special symbols that always
evaluate to themselves.  This is so that you do not need to quote them
to use them as constants in a program.  An attempt to change their
values results in a @code{setting-constant} error.  @xref{Accessing
Variables}.

@node Evaluation Notation
@subsection Evaluation Notation
@cindex evaluation notation

and ``after'' versions of the text.  These examples show the contents of
the buffer in question between two lines of dashes containing the buffer
name.  In addition, @samp{@point{}} indicates the location of point.
(The symbol for point, of course, is not part of the text in the buffer;
it indicates the place @emph{between} two characters where point is
located.)

@example
---------- Buffer: foo ----------
This is the @point{}contents of foo.
---------- Buffer: foo ----------

@cindex command descriptions
@cindex macro descriptions
@cindex special form descriptions

  In a function description, the name of the function being described
appears first.  It is followed on the same line by a list of parameters.
The names used for the parameters are also used in the body of the
description.

  The appearance of the keyword @code{&optional} in the parameter list
indicates that the arguments for subsequent parameters may be omitted
(omitted parameters default to @code{nil}).  Do not write
@code{&optional} when you call the function.

  The keyword @code{&rest} (which will always be followed by a single
parameter) indicates that any number of arguments can follow.  The value
of the single following parameter will be a list of all these arguments.
Do not write @code{&rest} when you call the function.

  Here is a description of an imaginary function @code{foo}:

@defun foo integer1 &optional integer2 &rest integers

@equiv{}
(+ (- @var{x} @var{w}) @var{y}@dots{})
@end example
@end defun

  Any parameter whose name contains the name of a type (e.g.,
@var{integer}, @var{integer1} or @var{buffer}) is expected to be of that
type.  A plural of a type (such as @var{buffers}) often means a list of
objects of that type.  Parameters named @var{object} may be of any type.
(@xref{Lisp Data Types}, for a list of Emacs object types.)
Parameters with other sorts of names (e.g., @var{new-file}) are
discussed specifically in the description of the function.  In some
sections, features common to parameters of several functions are
described at the beginning.

  @xref{Lambda Expressions}, for a more complete description of optional
and rest arguments.

  Command, macro, and special form descriptions have the same format,

Form', respectively.  Commands are simply functions that may be called
interactively; macros process their arguments differently from functions
(the arguments are not evaluated), but are presented the same way.

  Special form descriptions use a more complex notation to specify
optional and repeated parameters because they can break the argument
list down into separate arguments in more complicated ways.
@samp{@code{@r{[}@var{optional-arg}@r{]}}} means that @var{optional-arg} is
optional and @samp{@var{repeated-args}@dots{}} stands for zero or more
arguments.  Parentheses are used when several arguments are grouped into
additional levels of list structure.  Here is an example:

if @var{var} equals @var{to}.  Here is an example:

@example
(count-loop (i 0 10)
  (prin1 i) (princ " ")
  (prin1 (aref vector i)) (terpri))
@end example

If @var{from} and @var{to} are omitted, then @var{var} is bound to
@code{nil} before the loop begins, and the loop exits if @var{var} is
non-@code{nil} at the beginning of an iteration.  Here is an example:

have not yet thought about executing.
@end defvar

  User option descriptions have the same format, but `Variable' is
replaced by `User Option'.

@node Acknowledgements
@section Acknowledgements

  This manual was written by Robert Krawitz, Bil Lewis, Dan LaLiberte,

21682:90da2489c498

@cindex Common Lisp
  Dozens of Lisp implementations have been built over the years, each
with its own idiosyncrasies.  Many of them were inspired by Maclisp,
which was written in the 1960's at MIT's Project MAC.  Eventually the
implementors of the descendants of Maclisp came together and developed a
standard for Lisp systems, called Common Lisp.  In the mean time, Gerry
Sussman and Guy Steele at MIT developed a simplified but very powerful
dialect of Lisp, called Scheme.

  GNU Emacs Lisp is largely inspired by Maclisp, and a little by Common
Lisp.  If you know Common Lisp, you will notice many similarities.
However, many of the features of Common Lisp have been omitted or
simplified in order to reduce the memory requirements of GNU Emacs.
Sometimes the simplifications are so drastic that a Common Lisp user
might be very confused.  We will occasionally point out how GNU Emacs
Lisp differs from Common Lisp.  If you don't know Common Lisp, don't
worry about it; this manual is self-contained.

  Emacs Lisp is not at all influenced by Scheme; but the GNU project has
an implementation of Scheme, called Guile.  We use Guile for
extensibility in all new GNU software that calls for extensibility.

@node Conventions
@section Conventions

This section explains the notational conventions that are used in this
manual.  You may want to skip this section and refer back to it later.

* Evaluation Notation::      The format we use for examples of evaluation.
* Printing Notation::        The format we use for examples that print output.
* Error Messages::           The format we use for examples of errors.
* Buffer Text Notation::     The format we use for buffer contents in examples.
* Format of Descriptions::   Notation for describing functions, variables, etc.
* Version Info::             Which Emacs version is running?
@end menu

@node Some Terms
@subsection Some Terms

addressed as ``you''.  ``The user'' is the person who uses Lisp programs,
including those you write.

@cindex fonts
  Examples of Lisp code appear in this font or form: @code{(list 1 2
3)}.  Names that represent metasyntactic variables, or arguments to a
function being described, appear in this font or form:
@var{first-number}.

@node nil and t
@subsection @code{nil} and @code{t}
@cindex @code{nil}, uses of
@cindex truth value

choosing, use @code{t}.  The symbol @code{t} always has value @code{t}.

  In Emacs Lisp, @code{nil} and @code{t} are special symbols that always
evaluate to themselves.  This is so that you do not need to quote them
to use them as constants in a program.  An attempt to change their
values results in a @code{setting-constant} error.  The same is true of
any symbol whose name starts with a colon (@samp{:}).  @xref{Constant
Variables}.

@node Evaluation Notation
@subsection Evaluation Notation
@cindex evaluation notation

and ``after'' versions of the text.  These examples show the contents of
the buffer in question between two lines of dashes containing the buffer
name.  In addition, @samp{@point{}} indicates the location of point.
(The symbol for point, of course, is not part of the text in the buffer;
it indicates the place @emph{between} two characters where point is
currently located.)

@example
---------- Buffer: foo ----------
This is the @point{}contents of foo.
---------- Buffer: foo ----------

@cindex command descriptions
@cindex macro descriptions
@cindex special form descriptions

  In a function description, the name of the function being described
appears first.  It is followed on the same line by a list of argument
names.  These names are also used in the body of the description, to
stand for the values of the arguments.

  The appearance of the keyword @code{&optional} in the argument list
indicates that the subsequent arguments may be omitted (omitted
arguments default to @code{nil}).  Do not write @code{&optional} when
you call the function.

  The keyword @code{&rest} (which will always be followed by a single
argument name) indicates that any number of arguments can follow.  The value
of the single following arguments name will be a list of all these arguments.
Do not write @code{&rest} when you call the function.

  Here is a description of an imaginary function @code{foo}:

@defun foo integer1 &optional integer2 &rest integers

@equiv{}
(+ (- @var{x} @var{w}) @var{y}@dots{})
@end example
@end defun

  Any argument whose name contains the name of a type (e.g.,
@var{integer}, @var{integer1} or @var{buffer}) is expected to be of that
type.  A plural of a type (such as @var{buffers}) often means a list of
objects of that type.  Arguments named @var{object} may be of any type.
(@xref{Lisp Data Types}, for a list of Emacs object types.)  Arguments
with other sorts of names (e.g., @var{new-file}) are discussed
specifically in the description of the function.  In some sections,
features common to the arguments of several functions are described at
the beginning.

  @xref{Lambda Expressions}, for a more complete description of optional
and rest arguments.

  Command, macro, and special form descriptions have the same format,

Form', respectively.  Commands are simply functions that may be called
interactively; macros process their arguments differently from functions
(the arguments are not evaluated), but are presented the same way.

  Special form descriptions use a more complex notation to specify
optional and repeated arguments because they can break the argument
list down into separate arguments in more complicated ways.
@samp{@code{@r{[}@var{optional-arg}@r{]}}} means that @var{optional-arg} is
optional and @samp{@var{repeated-args}@dots{}} stands for zero or more
arguments.  Parentheses are used when several arguments are grouped into
additional levels of list structure.  Here is an example:

if @var{var} equals @var{to}.  Here is an example:

@example
(count-loop (i 0 10)
  (prin1 i) (princ " ")
  (prin1 (aref vector i))
  (terpri))
@end example

If @var{from} and @var{to} are omitted, then @var{var} is bound to
@code{nil} before the loop begins, and the loop exits if @var{var} is
non-@code{nil} at the beginning of an iteration.  Here is an example:

have not yet thought about executing.
@end defvar

  User option descriptions have the same format, but `Variable' is
replaced by `User Option'.

@node Version Info
@section Version Information

  These functions and variables provide information about which
version of Emacs is in use.

@deffn Command emacs-version
This function returns a string describing the version of Emacs that is
running.  It is useful to include this string in bug reports.

@example
@group
(emacs-version)
  @result{} "GNU Emacs 20.3.5 (i486-pc-linux-gnulibc1, X toolkit)
 of Sat Feb 14 1998 on psilocin.gnu.org"
@end group
@end example

Called interactively, the function prints the same information in the
echo area.
@end deffn

@defvar emacs-build-time
The value of this variable is the time at which Emacs was built at the
local site.

@example
@group
emacs-build-time
     @result{} "Tue Jun  6 14:55:57 1995"
@end group
@end example
@end defvar

@defvar emacs-version
The value of this variable is the version of Emacs being run.  It is a
string such as @code{"20.3.1"}.  The last number in this string is not
really part of the Emacs release version number; it is incremented each
time you build Emacs in any given directory.
@end defvar

  The following two variables have existed since Emacs version 19.23,

@defvar emacs-major-version
The major version number of Emacs, as an integer.  For Emacs version
20.3, the value is 20.
@end defvar

@defvar emacs-minor-version
The minor version number of Emacs, as an integer.  For Emacs version
20.3, the value is 3.
@end defvar

@node Acknowledgements
@section Acknowledgements

  This manual was written by Robert Krawitz, Bil Lewis, Dan LaLiberte,