Mercurial > emacs
comparison man/files.texi @ 25829:ac7e9e5e2ccb
#
author | Dave Love <fx@gnu.org> |
---|---|
date | Wed, 29 Sep 1999 15:17:24 +0000 |
parents | |
children | c881de80a22b |
comparison
equal
deleted
inserted
replaced
25828:55e4513821f8 | 25829:ac7e9e5e2ccb |
---|---|
1 @c This is part of the Emacs manual. | |
2 @c Copyright (C) 1985, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 1997 Free Software Foundation, Inc. | |
3 @c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions. | |
4 @node Files, Buffers, Fixit, Top | |
5 @chapter File Handling | |
6 @cindex files | |
7 | |
8 The operating system stores data permanently in named @dfn{files}. So | |
9 most of the text you edit with Emacs comes from a file and is ultimately | |
10 stored in a file. | |
11 | |
12 To edit a file, you must tell Emacs to read the file and prepare a | |
13 buffer containing a copy of the file's text. This is called | |
14 @dfn{visiting} the file. Editing commands apply directly to text in the | |
15 buffer; that is, to the copy inside Emacs. Your changes appear in the | |
16 file itself only when you @dfn{save} the buffer back into the file. | |
17 | |
18 In addition to visiting and saving files, Emacs can delete, copy, | |
19 rename, and append to files, keep multiple versions of them, and operate | |
20 on file directories. | |
21 | |
22 @menu | |
23 * File Names:: How to type and edit file-name arguments. | |
24 * Visiting:: Visiting a file prepares Emacs to edit the file. | |
25 * Saving:: Saving makes your changes permanent. | |
26 * Reverting:: Reverting cancels all the changes not saved. | |
27 * Auto Save:: Auto Save periodically protects against loss of data. | |
28 * File Aliases:: Handling multiple names for one file. | |
29 * Version Control:: Version control systems (RCS, CVS and SCCS). | |
30 * Directories:: Creating, deleting, and listing file directories. | |
31 * Comparing Files:: Finding where two files differ. | |
32 * Misc File Ops:: Other things you can do on files. | |
33 * Compressed Files:: Accessing compressed files. | |
34 * Remote Files:: Accessing files on other sites. | |
35 * Quoted File Names:: Quoting special characters in file names. | |
36 @end menu | |
37 | |
38 @node File Names | |
39 @section File Names | |
40 @cindex file names | |
41 | |
42 Most Emacs commands that operate on a file require you to specify the | |
43 file name. (Saving and reverting are exceptions; the buffer knows which | |
44 file name to use for them.) You enter the file name using the | |
45 minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer}). @dfn{Completion} is available, to make | |
46 it easier to specify long file names. @xref{Completion}. | |
47 | |
48 For most operations, there is a @dfn{default file name} which is used | |
49 if you type just @key{RET} to enter an empty argument. Normally the | |
50 default file name is the name of the file visited in the current buffer; | |
51 this makes it easy to operate on that file with any of the Emacs file | |
52 commands. | |
53 | |
54 @vindex default-directory | |
55 Each buffer has a default directory, normally the same as the | |
56 directory of the file visited in that buffer. When you enter a file | |
57 name without a directory, the default directory is used. If you specify | |
58 a directory in a relative fashion, with a name that does not start with | |
59 a slash, it is interpreted with respect to the default directory. The | |
60 default directory is kept in the variable @code{default-directory}, | |
61 which has a separate value in every buffer. | |
62 | |
63 For example, if the default file name is @file{/u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks} then | |
64 the default directory is @file{/u/rms/gnu/}. If you type just @samp{foo}, | |
65 which does not specify a directory, it is short for @file{/u/rms/gnu/foo}. | |
66 @samp{../.login} would stand for @file{/u/rms/.login}. @samp{new/foo} | |
67 would stand for the file name @file{/u/rms/gnu/new/foo}. | |
68 | |
69 @findex cd | |
70 @findex pwd | |
71 The command @kbd{M-x pwd} prints the current buffer's default | |
72 directory, and the command @kbd{M-x cd} sets it (to a value read using | |
73 the minibuffer). A buffer's default directory changes only when the | |
74 @code{cd} command is used. A file-visiting buffer's default directory | |
75 is initialized to the directory of the file that is visited there. If | |
76 you create a buffer with @kbd{C-x b}, its default directory is copied | |
77 from that of the buffer that was current at the time. | |
78 | |
79 @vindex insert-default-directory | |
80 The default directory actually appears in the minibuffer when the | |
81 minibuffer becomes active to read a file name. This serves two | |
82 purposes: it @emph{shows} you what the default is, so that you can type | |
83 a relative file name and know with certainty what it will mean, and it | |
84 allows you to @emph{edit} the default to specify a different directory. | |
85 This insertion of the default directory is inhibited if the variable | |
86 @code{insert-default-directory} is set to @code{nil}. | |
87 | |
88 Note that it is legitimate to type an absolute file name after you | |
89 enter the minibuffer, ignoring the presence of the default directory | |
90 name as part of the text. The final minibuffer contents may look | |
91 invalid, but that is not so. For example, if the minibuffer starts out | |
92 with @samp{/usr/tmp/} and you add @samp{/x1/rms/foo}, you get | |
93 @samp{/usr/tmp//x1/rms/foo}; but Emacs ignores everything through the | |
94 first slash in the double slash; the result is @samp{/x1/rms/foo}. | |
95 @xref{Minibuffer File}. | |
96 | |
97 @samp{$} in a file name is used to substitute environment variables. | |
98 For example, if you have used the shell command @samp{export | |
99 FOO=rms/hacks} to set up an environment variable named @code{FOO}, then | |
100 you can use @file{/u/$FOO/test.c} or @file{/u/$@{FOO@}/test.c} as an | |
101 abbreviation for @file{/u/rms/hacks/test.c}. The environment variable | |
102 name consists of all the alphanumeric characters after the @samp{$}; | |
103 alternatively, it may be enclosed in braces after the @samp{$}. Note | |
104 that shell commands to set environment variables affect Emacs only if | |
105 done before Emacs is started. | |
106 | |
107 To access a file with @samp{$} in its name, type @samp{$$}. This pair | |
108 is converted to a single @samp{$} at the same time as variable | |
109 substitution is performed for single @samp{$}. Alternatively, quote the | |
110 whole file name with @samp{/:} (@pxref{Quoted File Names}). | |
111 | |
112 @findex substitute-in-file-name | |
113 The Lisp function that performs the substitution is called | |
114 @code{substitute-in-file-name}. The substitution is performed only on | |
115 file names read as such using the minibuffer. | |
116 | |
117 You can include non-ASCII characters in file names if you set the | |
118 variable @code{file-name-coding-system} to a non-@code{nil} value. | |
119 @xref{Specify Coding}. | |
120 | |
121 @node Visiting | |
122 @section Visiting Files | |
123 @cindex visiting files | |
124 | |
125 @c WideCommands | |
126 @table @kbd | |
127 @item C-x C-f | |
128 Visit a file (@code{find-file}). | |
129 @item C-x C-r | |
130 Visit a file for viewing, without allowing changes to it | |
131 (@code{find-file-read-only}). | |
132 @item C-x C-v | |
133 Visit a different file instead of the one visited last | |
134 (@code{find-alternate-file}). | |
135 @item C-x 4 f | |
136 Visit a file, in another window (@code{find-file-other-window}). Don't | |
137 alter what is displayed in the selected window. | |
138 @item C-x 5 f | |
139 Visit a file, in a new frame (@code{find-file-other-frame}). Don't | |
140 alter what is displayed in the selected frame. | |
141 @item M-x find-file-literally | |
142 Visit a file with no conversion of the contents. | |
143 @end table | |
144 | |
145 @cindex files, visiting and saving | |
146 @cindex visiting files | |
147 @cindex saving files | |
148 @dfn{Visiting} a file means copying its contents into an Emacs buffer | |
149 so you can edit them. Emacs makes a new buffer for each file that you | |
150 visit. We say that this buffer is visiting the file that it was created | |
151 to hold. Emacs constructs the buffer name from the file name by | |
152 throwing away the directory, keeping just the name proper. For example, | |
153 a file named @file{/usr/rms/emacs.tex} would get a buffer named | |
154 @samp{emacs.tex}. If there is already a buffer with that name, a unique | |
155 name is constructed by appending @samp{<2>}, @samp{<3>}, or so on, using | |
156 the lowest number that makes a name that is not already in use. | |
157 | |
158 Each window's mode line shows the name of the buffer that is being displayed | |
159 in that window, so you can always tell what buffer you are editing. | |
160 | |
161 The changes you make with editing commands are made in the Emacs | |
162 buffer. They do not take effect in the file that you visited, or any | |
163 place permanent, until you @dfn{save} the buffer. Saving the buffer | |
164 means that Emacs writes the current contents of the buffer into its | |
165 visited file. @xref{Saving}. | |
166 | |
167 @cindex modified (buffer) | |
168 If a buffer contains changes that have not been saved, we say the | |
169 buffer is @dfn{modified}. This is important because it implies that | |
170 some changes will be lost if the buffer is not saved. The mode line | |
171 displays two stars near the left margin to indicate that the buffer is | |
172 modified. | |
173 | |
174 @kindex C-x C-f | |
175 @findex find-file | |
176 To visit a file, use the command @kbd{C-x C-f} (@code{find-file}). Follow | |
177 the command with the name of the file you wish to visit, terminated by a | |
178 @key{RET}. | |
179 | |
180 The file name is read using the minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer}), with | |
181 defaulting and completion in the standard manner (@pxref{File Names}). | |
182 While in the minibuffer, you can abort @kbd{C-x C-f} by typing @kbd{C-g}. | |
183 | |
184 Your confirmation that @kbd{C-x C-f} has completed successfully is the | |
185 appearance of new text on the screen and a new buffer name in the mode | |
186 line. If the specified file does not exist and could not be created, or | |
187 cannot be read, then you get an error, with an error message displayed | |
188 in the echo area. | |
189 | |
190 If you visit a file that is already in Emacs, @kbd{C-x C-f} does not make | |
191 another copy. It selects the existing buffer containing that file. | |
192 However, before doing so, it checks that the file itself has not changed | |
193 since you visited or saved it last. If the file has changed, a warning | |
194 message is printed. @xref{Interlocking,,Simultaneous Editing}. | |
195 | |
196 @cindex creating files | |
197 What if you want to create a new file? Just visit it. Emacs prints | |
198 @samp{(New File)} in the echo area, but in other respects behaves as if | |
199 you had visited an existing empty file. If you make any changes and | |
200 save them, the file is created. | |
201 | |
202 Emacs recognizes from the contents of a file which convention it uses | |
203 to separate lines---newline (used on GNU/Linux and on Unix), | |
204 carriage-return linefeed (used on Microsoft systems), or just | |
205 carriage-return (used on the Macintosh)---and automatically converts the | |
206 contents to the normal Emacs convention, which is that the newline | |
207 character separates lines. This is a part of the general feature of | |
208 coding system conversion (@pxref{Coding Systems}), and makes it possible | |
209 to edit files imported from various different operating systems with | |
210 equal convenience. If you change the text and save the file, Emacs | |
211 performs the inverse conversion, changing newlines back into | |
212 carriage-return linefeed or just carriage-return if appropriate. | |
213 | |
214 @vindex find-file-run-dired | |
215 If the file you specify is actually a directory, @kbd{C-x C-f} invokes | |
216 Dired, the Emacs directory browser, so that you can ``edit'' the contents | |
217 of the directory (@pxref{Dired}). Dired is a convenient way to delete, | |
218 look at, or operate on the files in the directory. However, if the | |
219 variable @code{find-file-run-dired} is @code{nil}, then it is an error | |
220 to try to visit a directory. | |
221 | |
222 If the file name you specify contains wildcard characters, Emacs | |
223 visits all the files that match it. @xref{Quoted File Names}, if you | |
224 want to visit a file whose name actually contains wildcard characters. | |
225 | |
226 If you visit a file that the operating system won't let you modify, | |
227 Emacs makes the buffer read-only, so that you won't go ahead and make | |
228 changes that you'll have trouble saving afterward. You can make the | |
229 buffer writable with @kbd{C-x C-q} (@code{vc-toggle-read-only}). | |
230 @xref{Misc Buffer}. | |
231 | |
232 @kindex C-x C-r | |
233 @findex find-file-read-only | |
234 Occasionally you might want to visit a file as read-only in order to | |
235 protect yourself from entering changes accidentally; do so by visiting | |
236 the file with the command @kbd{C-x C-r} (@code{find-file-read-only}). | |
237 | |
238 @kindex C-x C-v | |
239 @findex find-alternate-file | |
240 If you visit a nonexistent file unintentionally (because you typed the | |
241 wrong file name), use the @kbd{C-x C-v} command | |
242 (@code{find-alternate-file}) to visit the file you really wanted. | |
243 @kbd{C-x C-v} is similar to @kbd{C-x C-f}, but it kills the current | |
244 buffer (after first offering to save it if it is modified). When it | |
245 reads the file name to visit, it inserts the entire default file name in | |
246 the buffer, with point just after the directory part; this is convenient | |
247 if you made a slight error in typing the name. | |
248 | |
249 If you find a file which exists but cannot be read, @kbd{C-x C-f} | |
250 signals an error. | |
251 | |
252 @kindex C-x 4 f | |
253 @findex find-file-other-window | |
254 @kbd{C-x 4 f} (@code{find-file-other-window}) is like @kbd{C-x C-f} | |
255 except that the buffer containing the specified file is selected in another | |
256 window. The window that was selected before @kbd{C-x 4 f} continues to | |
257 show the same buffer it was already showing. If this command is used when | |
258 only one window is being displayed, that window is split in two, with one | |
259 window showing the same buffer as before, and the other one showing the | |
260 newly requested file. @xref{Windows}. | |
261 | |
262 @kindex C-x 5 f | |
263 @findex find-file-other-frame | |
264 @kbd{C-x 5 f} (@code{find-file-other-frame}) is similar, but opens a | |
265 new frame, or makes visible any existing frame showing the file you | |
266 seek. This feature is available only when you are using a window | |
267 system. @xref{Frames}. | |
268 | |
269 @findex find-file-literally | |
270 If you wish to edit a file as a sequence of characters with no special | |
271 encoding or conversion, use the @kbd{M-x find-file-literally} command. | |
272 It visits a file, like @kbd{C-x C-f}, but does not do format conversion | |
273 (@pxref{Formatted Text}), character code conversion (@pxref{Coding | |
274 Systems}), or automatic uncompression (@pxref{Compressed Files}). | |
275 If you already have visited the same file in the usual (non-literal) | |
276 manner, this command asks you whether to visit it literally instead. | |
277 | |
278 @vindex find-file-hooks | |
279 @vindex find-file-not-found-hooks | |
280 Two special hook variables allow extensions to modify the operation of | |
281 visiting files. Visiting a file that does not exist runs the functions | |
282 in the list @code{find-file-not-found-hooks}; this variable holds a list | |
283 of functions, and the functions are called one by one (with no | |
284 arguments) until one of them returns non-@code{nil}. This is not a | |
285 normal hook, and the name ends in @samp{-hooks} rather than @samp{-hook} | |
286 to indicate that fact. | |
287 | |
288 Any visiting of a file, whether extant or not, expects | |
289 @code{find-file-hooks} to contain a list of functions, and calls them | |
290 all, one by one, with no arguments. This variable is really a normal | |
291 hook, but it has an abnormal name for historical compatibility. In the | |
292 case of a nonexistent file, the @code{find-file-not-found-hooks} are run | |
293 first. @xref{Hooks}. | |
294 | |
295 There are several ways to specify automatically the major mode for | |
296 editing the file (@pxref{Choosing Modes}), and to specify local | |
297 variables defined for that file (@pxref{File Variables}). | |
298 | |
299 @node Saving | |
300 @section Saving Files | |
301 | |
302 @dfn{Saving} a buffer in Emacs means writing its contents back into the file | |
303 that was visited in the buffer. | |
304 | |
305 @table @kbd | |
306 @item C-x C-s | |
307 Save the current buffer in its visited file (@code{save-buffer}). | |
308 @item C-x s | |
309 Save any or all buffers in their visited files (@code{save-some-buffers}). | |
310 @item M-~ | |
311 Forget that the current buffer has been changed (@code{not-modified}). | |
312 @item C-x C-w | |
313 Save the current buffer in a specified file (@code{write-file}). | |
314 @item M-x set-visited-file-name | |
315 Change file the name under which the current buffer will be saved. | |
316 @end table | |
317 | |
318 @kindex C-x C-s | |
319 @findex save-buffer | |
320 When you wish to save the file and make your changes permanent, type | |
321 @kbd{C-x C-s} (@code{save-buffer}). After saving is finished, @kbd{C-x C-s} | |
322 displays a message like this: | |
323 | |
324 @example | |
325 Wrote /u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks | |
326 @end example | |
327 | |
328 @noindent | |
329 If the selected buffer is not modified (no changes have been made in it | |
330 since the buffer was created or last saved), saving is not really done, | |
331 because it would have no effect. Instead, @kbd{C-x C-s} displays a message | |
332 like this in the echo area: | |
333 | |
334 @example | |
335 (No changes need to be saved) | |
336 @end example | |
337 | |
338 @kindex C-x s | |
339 @findex save-some-buffers | |
340 The command @kbd{C-x s} (@code{save-some-buffers}) offers to save any | |
341 or all modified buffers. It asks you what to do with each buffer. The | |
342 possible responses are analogous to those of @code{query-replace}: | |
343 | |
344 @table @kbd | |
345 @item y | |
346 Save this buffer and ask about the rest of the buffers. | |
347 @item n | |
348 Don't save this buffer, but ask about the rest of the buffers. | |
349 @item ! | |
350 Save this buffer and all the rest with no more questions. | |
351 @c following generates acceptable underfull hbox | |
352 @item @key{RET} | |
353 Terminate @code{save-some-buffers} without any more saving. | |
354 @item . | |
355 Save this buffer, then exit @code{save-some-buffers} without even asking | |
356 about other buffers. | |
357 @item C-r | |
358 View the buffer that you are currently being asked about. When you exit | |
359 View mode, you get back to @code{save-some-buffers}, which asks the | |
360 question again. | |
361 @item C-h | |
362 Display a help message about these options. | |
363 @end table | |
364 | |
365 @kbd{C-x C-c}, the key sequence to exit Emacs, invokes | |
366 @code{save-some-buffers} and therefore asks the same questions. | |
367 | |
368 @kindex M-~ | |
369 @findex not-modified | |
370 If you have changed a buffer but you do not want to save the changes, | |
371 you should take some action to prevent it. Otherwise, each time you use | |
372 @kbd{C-x s} or @kbd{C-x C-c}, you are liable to save this buffer by | |
373 mistake. One thing you can do is type @kbd{M-~} (@code{not-modified}), | |
374 which clears out the indication that the buffer is modified. If you do | |
375 this, none of the save commands will believe that the buffer needs to be | |
376 saved. (@samp{~} is often used as a mathematical symbol for `not'; thus | |
377 @kbd{M-~} is `not', metafied.) You could also use | |
378 @code{set-visited-file-name} (see below) to mark the buffer as visiting | |
379 a different file name, one which is not in use for anything important. | |
380 Alternatively, you can cancel all the changes made since the file was | |
381 visited or saved, by reading the text from the file again. This is | |
382 called @dfn{reverting}. @xref{Reverting}. You could also undo all the | |
383 changes by repeating the undo command @kbd{C-x u} until you have undone | |
384 all the changes; but reverting is easier. | |
385 | |
386 @findex set-visited-file-name | |
387 @kbd{M-x set-visited-file-name} alters the name of the file that the | |
388 current buffer is visiting. It reads the new file name using the | |
389 minibuffer. Then it specifies the visited file name and changes the | |
390 buffer name correspondingly (as long as the new name is not in use). | |
391 @code{set-visited-file-name} does not save the buffer in the newly | |
392 visited file; it just alters the records inside Emacs in case you do | |
393 save later. It also marks the buffer as ``modified'' so that @kbd{C-x | |
394 C-s} in that buffer @emph{will} save. | |
395 | |
396 @kindex C-x C-w | |
397 @findex write-file | |
398 If you wish to mark the buffer as visiting a different file and save it | |
399 right away, use @kbd{C-x C-w} (@code{write-file}). It is precisely | |
400 equivalent to @code{set-visited-file-name} followed by @kbd{C-x C-s}. | |
401 @kbd{C-x C-s} used on a buffer that is not visiting a file has the | |
402 same effect as @kbd{C-x C-w}; that is, it reads a file name, marks the | |
403 buffer as visiting that file, and saves it there. The default file name in | |
404 a buffer that is not visiting a file is made by combining the buffer name | |
405 with the buffer's default directory. | |
406 | |
407 If the new file name implies a major mode, then @kbd{C-x C-w} switches | |
408 to that major mode, in most cases. The command | |
409 @code{set-visited-file-name} also does this. @xref{Choosing Modes}. | |
410 | |
411 If Emacs is about to save a file and sees that the date of the latest | |
412 version on disk does not match what Emacs last read or wrote, Emacs | |
413 notifies you of this fact, because it probably indicates a problem caused | |
414 by simultaneous editing and requires your immediate attention. | |
415 @xref{Interlocking,, Simultaneous Editing}. | |
416 | |
417 @vindex require-final-newline | |
418 If the variable @code{require-final-newline} is non-@code{nil}, Emacs | |
419 puts a newline at the end of any file that doesn't already end in one, | |
420 every time a file is saved or written. The default is @code{nil}. | |
421 | |
422 @menu | |
423 * Backup:: How Emacs saves the old version of your file. | |
424 * Interlocking:: How Emacs protects against simultaneous editing | |
425 of one file by two users. | |
426 @end menu | |
427 | |
428 @node Backup | |
429 @subsection Backup Files | |
430 @cindex backup file | |
431 @vindex make-backup-files | |
432 @vindex vc-make-backup-files | |
433 @vindex backup-enable-predicate | |
434 | |
435 On most operating systems, rewriting a file automatically destroys all | |
436 record of what the file used to contain. Thus, saving a file from Emacs | |
437 throws away the old contents of the file---or it would, except that | |
438 Emacs carefully copies the old contents to another file, called the | |
439 @dfn{backup} file, before actually saving. | |
440 | |
441 For most files, the variable @code{make-backup-files} determines | |
442 whether to make backup files. On most operating systems, its default | |
443 value is @code{t}, so that Emacs does write backup files. | |
444 | |
445 For files managed by a version control system (@pxref{Version | |
446 Control}), the variable @code{vc-make-backup-files} determines whether | |
447 to make backup files. By default, it is @code{nil}, since backup files | |
448 are redundant when you store all the previous versions in a version | |
449 control system. @xref{VC Workfile Handling}. | |
450 | |
451 The default value of the @code{backup-enable-predicate} variable | |
452 prevents backup files being written for files in @file{/tmp}. | |
453 | |
454 At your option, Emacs can keep either a single backup file or a series of | |
455 numbered backup files for each file that you edit. | |
456 | |
457 Emacs makes a backup for a file only the first time the file is saved | |
458 from one buffer. No matter how many times you save a file, its backup file | |
459 continues to contain the contents from before the file was visited. | |
460 Normally this means that the backup file contains the contents from before | |
461 the current editing session; however, if you kill the buffer and then visit | |
462 the file again, a new backup file will be made by the next save. | |
463 | |
464 You can also explicitly request making another backup file from a | |
465 buffer even though it has already been saved at least once. If you save | |
466 the buffer with @kbd{C-u C-x C-s}, the version thus saved will be made | |
467 into a backup file if you save the buffer again. @kbd{C-u C-u C-x C-s} | |
468 saves the buffer, but first makes the previous file contents into a new | |
469 backup file. @kbd{C-u C-u C-u C-x C-s} does both things: it makes a | |
470 backup from the previous contents, and arranges to make another from the | |
471 newly saved contents, if you save again. | |
472 | |
473 @menu | |
474 * Names: Backup Names. How backup files are named; | |
475 choosing single or numbered backup files. | |
476 * Deletion: Backup Deletion. Emacs deletes excess numbered backups. | |
477 * Copying: Backup Copying. Backups can be made by copying or renaming. | |
478 @end menu | |
479 | |
480 @node Backup Names | |
481 @subsubsection Single or Numbered Backups | |
482 | |
483 If you choose to have a single backup file (this is the default), | |
484 the backup file's name is constructed by appending @samp{~} to the | |
485 file name being edited; thus, the backup file for @file{eval.c} would | |
486 be @file{eval.c~}. | |
487 | |
488 If you choose to have a series of numbered backup files, backup file | |
489 names are made by appending @samp{.~}, the number, and another @samp{~} to | |
490 the original file name. Thus, the backup files of @file{eval.c} would be | |
491 called @file{eval.c.~1~}, @file{eval.c.~2~}, and so on, through names | |
492 like @file{eval.c.~259~} and beyond. | |
493 | |
494 If protection stops you from writing backup files under the usual names, | |
495 the backup file is written as @file{%backup%~} in your home directory. | |
496 Only one such file can exist, so only the most recently made such backup is | |
497 available. | |
498 | |
499 @vindex version-control | |
500 The choice of single backup or numbered backups is controlled by the | |
501 variable @code{version-control}. Its possible values are | |
502 | |
503 @table @code | |
504 @item t | |
505 Make numbered backups. | |
506 @item nil | |
507 Make numbered backups for files that have numbered backups already. | |
508 Otherwise, make single backups. | |
509 @item never | |
510 Do not in any case make numbered backups; always make single backups. | |
511 @end table | |
512 | |
513 @noindent | |
514 You can set @code{version-control} locally in an individual buffer to | |
515 control the making of backups for that buffer's file. For example, | |
516 Rmail mode locally sets @code{version-control} to @code{never} to make sure | |
517 that there is only one backup for an Rmail file. @xref{Locals}. | |
518 | |
519 @cindex @code{VERSION_CONTROL} environment variable | |
520 If you set the environment variable @code{VERSION_CONTROL}, to tell | |
521 various GNU utilities what to do with backup files, Emacs also obeys the | |
522 environment variable by setting the Lisp variable @code{version-control} | |
523 accordingly at startup. If the environment variable's value is @samp{t} | |
524 or @samp{numbered}, then @code{version-control} becomes @code{t}; if the | |
525 value is @samp{nil} or @samp{existing}, then @code{version-control} | |
526 becomes @code{nil}; if it is @samp{never} or @samp{simple}, then | |
527 @code{version-control} becomes @code{never}. | |
528 | |
529 @node Backup Deletion | |
530 @subsubsection Automatic Deletion of Backups | |
531 | |
532 To prevent unlimited consumption of disk space, Emacs can delete numbered | |
533 backup versions automatically. Generally Emacs keeps the first few backups | |
534 and the latest few backups, deleting any in between. This happens every | |
535 time a new backup is made. | |
536 | |
537 @vindex kept-old-versions | |
538 @vindex kept-new-versions | |
539 The two variables @code{kept-old-versions} and | |
540 @code{kept-new-versions} control this deletion. Their values are, | |
541 respectively the number of oldest (lowest-numbered) backups to keep and | |
542 the number of newest (highest-numbered) ones to keep, each time a new | |
543 backup is made. Recall that these values are used just after a new | |
544 backup version is made; that newly made backup is included in the count | |
545 in @code{kept-new-versions}. By default, both variables are 2. | |
546 | |
547 @vindex delete-old-versions | |
548 If @code{delete-old-versions} is non-@code{nil}, the excess | |
549 middle versions are deleted without a murmur. If it is @code{nil}, the | |
550 default, then you are asked whether the excess middle versions should | |
551 really be deleted. | |
552 | |
553 Dired's @kbd{.} (Period) command can also be used to delete old versions. | |
554 @xref{Dired Deletion}. | |
555 | |
556 @node Backup Copying | |
557 @subsubsection Copying vs.@: Renaming | |
558 | |
559 Backup files can be made by copying the old file or by renaming it. This | |
560 makes a difference when the old file has multiple names. If the old file | |
561 is renamed into the backup file, then the alternate names become names for | |
562 the backup file. If the old file is copied instead, then the alternate | |
563 names remain names for the file that you are editing, and the contents | |
564 accessed by those names will be the new contents. | |
565 | |
566 The method of making a backup file may also affect the file's owner | |
567 and group. If copying is used, these do not change. If renaming is used, | |
568 you become the file's owner, and the file's group becomes the default | |
569 (different operating systems have different defaults for the group). | |
570 | |
571 Having the owner change is usually a good idea, because then the owner | |
572 always shows who last edited the file. Also, the owners of the backups | |
573 show who produced those versions. Occasionally there is a file whose | |
574 owner should not change; it is a good idea for such files to contain | |
575 local variable lists to set @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} | |
576 locally (@pxref{File Variables}). | |
577 | |
578 @vindex backup-by-copying | |
579 @vindex backup-by-copying-when-linked | |
580 @vindex backup-by-copying-when-mismatch | |
581 The choice of renaming or copying is controlled by three variables. | |
582 Renaming is the default choice. If the variable | |
583 @code{backup-by-copying} is non-@code{nil}, copying is used. Otherwise, | |
584 if the variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-linked} is non-@code{nil}, | |
585 then copying is used for files that have multiple names, but renaming | |
586 may still be used when the file being edited has only one name. If the | |
587 variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is non-@code{nil}, then | |
588 copying is used if renaming would cause the file's owner or group to | |
589 change. @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is @code{t} by default | |
590 if you start Emacs as the superuser. | |
591 | |
592 When a file is managed with a version control system (@pxref{Version | |
593 Control}), Emacs does not normally make backups in the usual way for | |
594 that file. But check-in and check-out are similar in some ways to | |
595 making backups. One unfortunate similarity is that these operations | |
596 typically break hard links, disconnecting the file name you visited from | |
597 any alternate names for the same file. This has nothing to do with | |
598 Emacs---the version control system does it. | |
599 | |
600 @node Interlocking | |
601 @subsection Protection against Simultaneous Editing | |
602 | |
603 @cindex file dates | |
604 @cindex simultaneous editing | |
605 Simultaneous editing occurs when two users visit the same file, both | |
606 make changes, and then both save them. If nobody were informed that | |
607 this was happening, whichever user saved first would later find that his | |
608 changes were lost. | |
609 | |
610 On some systems, Emacs notices immediately when the second user starts | |
611 to change the file, and issues an immediate warning. On all systems, | |
612 Emacs checks when you save the file, and warns if you are about to | |
613 overwrite another user's changes. You can prevent loss of the other | |
614 user's work by taking the proper corrective action instead of saving the | |
615 file. | |
616 | |
617 @findex ask-user-about-lock | |
618 @cindex locking files | |
619 When you make the first modification in an Emacs buffer that is | |
620 visiting a file, Emacs records that the file is @dfn{locked} by you. | |
621 (It does this by creating a symbolic link in the same directory with a | |
622 different name.) Emacs removes the lock when you save the changes. The | |
623 idea is that the file is locked whenever an Emacs buffer visiting it has | |
624 unsaved changes. | |
625 | |
626 @cindex collision | |
627 If you begin to modify the buffer while the visited file is locked by | |
628 someone else, this constitutes a @dfn{collision}. When Emacs detects a | |
629 collision, it asks you what to do, by calling the Lisp function | |
630 @code{ask-user-about-lock}. You can redefine this function for the sake | |
631 of customization. The standard definition of this function asks you a | |
632 question and accepts three possible answers: | |
633 | |
634 @table @kbd | |
635 @item s | |
636 Steal the lock. Whoever was already changing the file loses the lock, | |
637 and you gain the lock. | |
638 @item p | |
639 Proceed. Go ahead and edit the file despite its being locked by someone else. | |
640 @item q | |
641 Quit. This causes an error (@code{file-locked}) and the modification you | |
642 were trying to make in the buffer does not actually take place. | |
643 @end table | |
644 | |
645 Note that locking works on the basis of a file name; if a file has | |
646 multiple names, Emacs does not realize that the two names are the same file | |
647 and cannot prevent two users from editing it simultaneously under different | |
648 names. However, basing locking on names means that Emacs can interlock the | |
649 editing of new files that will not really exist until they are saved. | |
650 | |
651 Some systems are not configured to allow Emacs to make locks, and | |
652 there are cases where lock files cannot be written. In these cases, | |
653 Emacs cannot detect trouble in advance, but it still can detect the | |
654 collision when you try to save a file and overwrite someone else's | |
655 changes. | |
656 | |
657 If Emacs or the operating system crashes, this may leave behind lock | |
658 files which are stale. So you may occasionally get warnings about | |
659 spurious collisions. When you determine that the collision is spurious, | |
660 just use @kbd{p} to tell Emacs to go ahead anyway. | |
661 | |
662 Every time Emacs saves a buffer, it first checks the last-modification | |
663 date of the existing file on disk to verify that it has not changed since the | |
664 file was last visited or saved. If the date does not match, it implies | |
665 that changes were made in the file in some other way, and these changes are | |
666 about to be lost if Emacs actually does save. To prevent this, Emacs | |
667 prints a warning message and asks for confirmation before saving. | |
668 Occasionally you will know why the file was changed and know that it does | |
669 not matter; then you can answer @kbd{yes} and proceed. Otherwise, you should | |
670 cancel the save with @kbd{C-g} and investigate the situation. | |
671 | |
672 The first thing you should do when notified that simultaneous editing | |
673 has already taken place is to list the directory with @kbd{C-u C-x C-d} | |
674 (@pxref{Directories}). This shows the file's current author. You | |
675 should attempt to contact him to warn him not to continue editing. | |
676 Often the next step is to save the contents of your Emacs buffer under a | |
677 different name, and use @code{diff} to compare the two files.@refill | |
678 | |
679 @node Reverting | |
680 @section Reverting a Buffer | |
681 @findex revert-buffer | |
682 @cindex drastic changes | |
683 | |
684 If you have made extensive changes to a file and then change your mind | |
685 about them, you can get rid of them by reading in the previous version | |
686 of the file. To do this, use @kbd{M-x revert-buffer}, which operates on | |
687 the current buffer. Since reverting a buffer unintentionally could lose | |
688 a lot of work, you must confirm this command with @kbd{yes}. | |
689 | |
690 @code{revert-buffer} keeps point at the same distance (measured in | |
691 characters) from the beginning of the file. If the file was edited only | |
692 slightly, you will be at approximately the same piece of text after | |
693 reverting as before. If you have made drastic changes, the same value of | |
694 point in the old file may address a totally different piece of text. | |
695 | |
696 Reverting marks the buffer as ``not modified'' until another change is | |
697 made. | |
698 | |
699 Some kinds of buffers whose contents reflect data bases other than files, | |
700 such as Dired buffers, can also be reverted. For them, reverting means | |
701 recalculating their contents from the appropriate data base. Buffers | |
702 created explicitly with @kbd{C-x b} cannot be reverted; @code{revert-buffer} | |
703 reports an error when asked to do so. | |
704 | |
705 @vindex revert-without-query | |
706 When you edit a file that changes automatically and frequently---for | |
707 example, a log of output from a process that continues to run---it may be | |
708 useful for Emacs to revert the file without querying you, whenever you | |
709 visit the file again with @kbd{C-x C-f}. | |
710 | |
711 To request this behavior, set the variable @code{revert-without-query} | |
712 to a list of regular expressions. When a file name matches one of these | |
713 regular expressions, @code{find-file} and @code{revert-buffer} will | |
714 revert it automatically if it has changed---provided the buffer itself | |
715 is not modified. (If you have edited the text, it would be wrong to | |
716 discard your changes.) | |
717 | |
718 @node Auto Save | |
719 @section Auto-Saving: Protection Against Disasters | |
720 @cindex Auto Save mode | |
721 @cindex mode, Auto Save | |
722 @cindex crashes | |
723 | |
724 Emacs saves all the visited files from time to time (based on counting | |
725 your keystrokes) without being asked. This is called @dfn{auto-saving}. | |
726 It prevents you from losing more than a limited amount of work if the | |
727 system crashes. | |
728 | |
729 When Emacs determines that it is time for auto-saving, each buffer is | |
730 considered, and is auto-saved if auto-saving is turned on for it and it | |
731 has been changed since the last time it was auto-saved. The message | |
732 @samp{Auto-saving...} is displayed in the echo area during auto-saving, | |
733 if any files are actually auto-saved. Errors occurring during | |
734 auto-saving are caught so that they do not interfere with the execution | |
735 of commands you have been typing. | |
736 | |
737 @menu | |
738 * Files: Auto Save Files. The file where auto-saved changes are | |
739 actually made until you save the file. | |
740 * Control: Auto Save Control. Controlling when and how often to auto-save. | |
741 * Recover:: Recovering text from auto-save files. | |
742 @end menu | |
743 | |
744 @node Auto Save Files | |
745 @subsection Auto-Save Files | |
746 | |
747 Auto-saving does not normally save in the files that you visited, because | |
748 it can be very undesirable to save a program that is in an inconsistent | |
749 state when you have made half of a planned change. Instead, auto-saving | |
750 is done in a different file called the @dfn{auto-save file}, and the | |
751 visited file is changed only when you request saving explicitly (such as | |
752 with @kbd{C-x C-s}). | |
753 | |
754 Normally, the auto-save file name is made by appending @samp{#} to the | |
755 front and rear of the visited file name. Thus, a buffer visiting file | |
756 @file{foo.c} is auto-saved in a file @file{#foo.c#}. Most buffers that | |
757 are not visiting files are auto-saved only if you request it explicitly; | |
758 when they are auto-saved, the auto-save file name is made by appending | |
759 @samp{#%} to the front and @samp{#} to the rear of buffer name. For | |
760 example, the @samp{*mail*} buffer in which you compose messages to be | |
761 sent is auto-saved in a file named @file{#%*mail*#}. Auto-save file | |
762 names are made this way unless you reprogram parts of Emacs to do | |
763 something different (the functions @code{make-auto-save-file-name} and | |
764 @code{auto-save-file-name-p}). The file name to be used for auto-saving | |
765 in a buffer is calculated when auto-saving is turned on in that buffer. | |
766 | |
767 When you delete a substantial part of the text in a large buffer, auto | |
768 save turns off temporarily in that buffer. This is because if you | |
769 deleted the text unintentionally, you might find the auto-save file more | |
770 useful if it contains the deleted text. To reenable auto-saving after | |
771 this happens, save the buffer with @kbd{C-x C-s}, or use @kbd{C-u 1 M-x | |
772 auto-save}. | |
773 | |
774 @vindex auto-save-visited-file-name | |
775 If you want auto-saving to be done in the visited file, set the variable | |
776 @code{auto-save-visited-file-name} to be non-@code{nil}. In this mode, | |
777 there is really no difference between auto-saving and explicit saving. | |
778 | |
779 @vindex delete-auto-save-files | |
780 A buffer's auto-save file is deleted when you save the buffer in its | |
781 visited file. To inhibit this, set the variable @code{delete-auto-save-files} | |
782 to @code{nil}. Changing the visited file name with @kbd{C-x C-w} or | |
783 @code{set-visited-file-name} renames any auto-save file to go with | |
784 the new visited name. | |
785 | |
786 @node Auto Save Control | |
787 @subsection Controlling Auto-Saving | |
788 | |
789 @vindex auto-save-default | |
790 @findex auto-save-mode | |
791 Each time you visit a file, auto-saving is turned on for that file's | |
792 buffer if the variable @code{auto-save-default} is non-@code{nil} (but not | |
793 in batch mode; @pxref{Entering Emacs}). The default for this variable is | |
794 @code{t}, so auto-saving is the usual practice for file-visiting buffers. | |
795 Auto-saving can be turned on or off for any existing buffer with the | |
796 command @kbd{M-x auto-save-mode}. Like other minor mode commands, @kbd{M-x | |
797 auto-save-mode} turns auto-saving on with a positive argument, off with a | |
798 zero or negative argument; with no argument, it toggles. | |
799 | |
800 @vindex auto-save-interval | |
801 Emacs does auto-saving periodically based on counting how many characters | |
802 you have typed since the last time auto-saving was done. The variable | |
803 @code{auto-save-interval} specifies how many characters there are between | |
804 auto-saves. By default, it is 300. | |
805 | |
806 @vindex auto-save-timeout | |
807 Auto-saving also takes place when you stop typing for a while. The | |
808 variable @code{auto-save-timeout} says how many seconds Emacs should | |
809 wait before it does an auto save (and perhaps also a garbage | |
810 collection). (The actual time period is longer if the current buffer is | |
811 long; this is a heuristic which aims to keep out of your way when you | |
812 are editing long buffers, in which auto-save takes an appreciable amount | |
813 of time.) Auto-saving during idle periods accomplishes two things: | |
814 first, it makes sure all your work is saved if you go away from the | |
815 terminal for a while; second, it may avoid some auto-saving while you | |
816 are actually typing. | |
817 | |
818 Emacs also does auto-saving whenever it gets a fatal error. This | |
819 includes killing the Emacs job with a shell command such as @samp{kill | |
820 %emacs}, or disconnecting a phone line or network connection. | |
821 | |
822 @findex do-auto-save | |
823 You can request an auto-save explicitly with the command @kbd{M-x | |
824 do-auto-save}. | |
825 | |
826 @node Recover | |
827 @subsection Recovering Data from Auto-Saves | |
828 | |
829 @findex recover-file | |
830 You can use the contents of an auto-save file to recover from a loss | |
831 of data with the command @kbd{M-x recover-file @key{RET} @var{file} | |
832 @key{RET}}. This visits @var{file} and then (after your confirmation) | |
833 restores the contents from its auto-save file @file{#@var{file}#}. | |
834 You can then save with @kbd{C-x C-s} to put the recovered text into | |
835 @var{file} itself. For example, to recover file @file{foo.c} from its | |
836 auto-save file @file{#foo.c#}, do:@refill | |
837 | |
838 @example | |
839 M-x recover-file @key{RET} foo.c @key{RET} | |
840 yes @key{RET} | |
841 C-x C-s | |
842 @end example | |
843 | |
844 Before asking for confirmation, @kbd{M-x recover-file} displays a | |
845 directory listing describing the specified file and the auto-save file, | |
846 so you can compare their sizes and dates. If the auto-save file | |
847 is older, @kbd{M-x recover-file} does not offer to read it. | |
848 | |
849 @findex recover-session | |
850 If Emacs or the computer crashes, you can recover all the files you | |
851 were editing from their auto save files with the command @kbd{M-x | |
852 recover-session}. This first shows you a list of recorded interrupted | |
853 sessions. Move point to the one you choose, and type @kbd{C-c C-c}. | |
854 | |
855 Then @code{recover-session} asks about each of the files that were | |
856 being edited during that session, asking whether to recover that file. | |
857 If you answer @kbd{y}, it calls @code{recover-file}, which works in its | |
858 normal fashion. It shows the dates of the original file and its | |
859 auto-save file, and asks once again whether to recover that file. | |
860 | |
861 When @code{recover-session} is done, the files you've chosen to | |
862 recover are present in Emacs buffers. You should then save them. Only | |
863 this---saving them---updates the files themselves. | |
864 | |
865 @vindex auto-save-list-file-prefix | |
866 Interrupted sessions are recorded for later recovery in files named | |
867 @file{~/.saves-@var{pid}-@var{hostname}}. The @samp{~/.saves} portion of | |
868 these names comes from the value of @code{auto-save-list-file-prefix}. | |
869 You can arrange to record sessions in a different place by setting that | |
870 variable in your @file{.emacs} file, but you'll have to redefine | |
871 @code{recover-session} as well to make it look in the new place. If you | |
872 set @code{auto-save-list-file-prefix} to @code{nil} in your | |
873 @file{.emacs} file, sessions are not recorded for recovery. | |
874 | |
875 @node File Aliases | |
876 @section File Name Aliases | |
877 | |
878 Symbolic links and hard links both make it possible for several file | |
879 names to refer to the same file. Hard links are alternate names that | |
880 refer directly to the file; all the names are equally valid, and no one | |
881 of them is preferred. By contrast, a symbolic link is a kind of defined | |
882 alias: when @file{foo} is a symbolic link to @file{bar}, you can use | |
883 either name to refer to the file, but @file{bar} is the real name, while | |
884 @file{foo} is just an alias. More complex cases occur when symbolic | |
885 links point to directories. | |
886 | |
887 If you visit two names for the same file, normally Emacs makes | |
888 two different buffers, but it warns you about the situation. | |
889 | |
890 @vindex find-file-existing-other-name | |
891 If you wish to avoid visiting the same file in two buffers under | |
892 different names, set the variable @code{find-file-existing-other-name} | |
893 to a non-@code{nil} value. Then @code{find-file} uses the existing | |
894 buffer visiting the file, no matter which of the file's names you | |
895 specify. | |
896 | |
897 @vindex find-file-visit-truename | |
898 @cindex truenames of files | |
899 @cindex file truenames | |
900 If the variable @code{find-file-visit-truename} is non-@code{nil}, | |
901 then the file name recorded for a buffer is the file's @dfn{truename} | |
902 (made by replacing all symbolic links with their target names), rather | |
903 than the name you specify. Setting @code{find-file-visit-truename} also | |
904 implies the effect of @code{find-file-existing-other-name}. | |
905 | |
906 @node Version Control | |
907 @section Version Control | |
908 @cindex version control | |
909 | |
910 @dfn{Version control systems} are packages that can record multiple | |
911 versions of a source file, usually storing the unchanged parts of the | |
912 file just once. Version control systems also record history information | |
913 such as the creation time of each version, who created it, and a | |
914 description of what was changed in that version. | |
915 | |
916 The Emacs version control interface is called VC. Its commands work | |
917 with three version control systems---RCS, CVS and SCCS. The GNU project | |
918 recommends RCS and CVS, which are free software and available from the | |
919 Free Software Foundation. | |
920 | |
921 @menu | |
922 * Introduction to VC:: How version control works in general. | |
923 * VC Mode Line:: How the mode line shows version control status. | |
924 * Basic VC Editing:: How to edit a file under version control. | |
925 * Old Versions:: Examining and comparing old versions. | |
926 * Secondary VC Commands:: The commands used a little less frequently. | |
927 * Branches:: Multiple lines of development. | |
928 * Snapshots:: Sets of file versions treated as a unit. | |
929 * Miscellaneous VC:: Various other commands and features of VC. | |
930 * Customizing VC:: Variables that change VC's behavior. | |
931 @end menu | |
932 | |
933 @node Introduction to VC | |
934 @subsection Introduction to Version Control | |
935 | |
936 VC allows you to use a version control system from within Emacs, | |
937 integrating the version control operations smoothly with editing. VC | |
938 provides a uniform interface to version control, so that regardless of | |
939 which version control system is in use, you can use it the same way. | |
940 | |
941 This section provides a general overview of version control, and | |
942 describes the version control systems that VC supports. You can skip | |
943 this section if you are already familiar with the version control system | |
944 you want to use. | |
945 | |
946 @menu | |
947 * Version Systems:: Supported version control back-end systems. | |
948 * VC Concepts:: Words and concepts related to version control. | |
949 @end menu | |
950 | |
951 @node Version Systems | |
952 @subsubsection Supported Version Control Systems | |
953 | |
954 @cindex RCS | |
955 @cindex back end (version control) | |
956 VC currently works with three different version control systems or | |
957 ``back ends'': RCS, CVS, and SCCS. | |
958 | |
959 RCS is a free version control system that is available from the Free | |
960 Software Foundation. It is perhaps the most mature of the supported | |
961 back ends, and the VC commands are conceptually closest to RCS. Almost | |
962 everything you can do with RCS can be done through VC. | |
963 | |
964 @cindex CVS | |
965 CVS is built on top of RCS, and extends the features of RCS, allowing | |
966 for more sophisticated release management, and concurrent multi-user | |
967 development. VC supports basic editing operations under CVS, but for | |
968 some less common tasks you still need to call CVS from the command line. | |
969 Note also that before using CVS you must set up a repository, which is a | |
970 subject too complex to treat here. | |
971 | |
972 @cindex SCCS | |
973 SCCS is a proprietary but widely used version control system. In | |
974 terms of capabilities, it is the weakest of the three that VC | |
975 supports. VC compensates for certain features missing in SCCS | |
976 (snapshots, for example) by implementing them itself, but some other VC | |
977 features, such as multiple branches, are not available with SCCS. You | |
978 should use SCCS only if for some reason you cannot use RCS. | |
979 | |
980 @node VC Concepts | |
981 @subsubsection Concepts of Version Control | |
982 | |
983 @cindex master file | |
984 @cindex registered file | |
985 When a file is under version control, we also say that it is | |
986 @dfn{registered} in the version control system. Each registered file | |
987 has a corresponding @dfn{master file} which represents the file's | |
988 present state plus its change history---enough to reconstruct the | |
989 current version or any earlier version. Usually the master file also | |
990 records a @dfn{log entry} for each version, describing in words what was | |
991 changed in that version. | |
992 | |
993 @cindex work file | |
994 @cindex checking out files | |
995 The file that is maintained under version control is sometimes called | |
996 the @dfn{work file} corresponding to its master file. You edit the work | |
997 file and make changes in it, as you would with an ordinary file. (With | |
998 SCCS and RCS, you must @dfn{lock} the file before you start to edit it.) | |
999 After you are done with a set of changes, you @dfn{check the file in}, | |
1000 which records the changes in the master file, along with a log entry for | |
1001 them. | |
1002 | |
1003 With CVS, there are usually multiple work files corresponding to a | |
1004 single master file---often each user has his own copy. It is also | |
1005 possible to use RCS in this way, but this is not the usual way to use | |
1006 RCS. | |
1007 | |
1008 @cindex locking and version control | |
1009 A version control system typically has some mechanism to coordinate | |
1010 between users who want to change the same file. One method is | |
1011 @dfn{locking} (analogous to the locking that Emacs uses to detect | |
1012 simultaneous editing of a file, but distinct from it). The other method | |
1013 is to merge your changes with other people's changes when you check them | |
1014 in. | |
1015 | |
1016 With version control locking, work files are normally read-only so | |
1017 that you cannot change them. You ask the version control system to make | |
1018 a work file writable for you by locking it; only one user can do | |
1019 this at any given time. When you check in your changes, that unlocks | |
1020 the file, making the work file read-only again. This allows other users | |
1021 to lock the file to make further changes. SCCS always uses locking, and | |
1022 RCS normally does. | |
1023 | |
1024 The other alternative for RCS is to let each user modify the work file | |
1025 at any time. In this mode, locking is not required, but it is | |
1026 permitted; check-in is still the way to record a new version. | |
1027 | |
1028 CVS normally allows each user to modify his own copy of the work file | |
1029 at any time, but requires merging with changes from other users at | |
1030 check-in time. However, CVS can also be set up to require locking. | |
1031 (@pxref{Backend Options}). | |
1032 | |
1033 @node VC Mode Line | |
1034 @subsection Version Control and the Mode Line | |
1035 | |
1036 When you visit a file that is under version control, Emacs indicates | |
1037 this on the mode line. For example, @samp{RCS-1.3} says that RCS is | |
1038 used for that file, and the current version is 1.3. | |
1039 | |
1040 The character between the back-end name and the version number | |
1041 indicates the version control status of the file. @samp{-} means that | |
1042 the work file is not locked (if locking is in use), or not modified (if | |
1043 locking is not in use). @samp{:} indicates that the file is locked, or | |
1044 that it is modified. If the file is locked by some other user (for | |
1045 instance, @samp{jim}), that is displayed as @samp{RCS:jim:1.3}. | |
1046 | |
1047 @node Basic VC Editing | |
1048 @subsection Basic Editing under Version Control | |
1049 | |
1050 The principal VC command is an all-purpose command that performs | |
1051 either locking or check-in, depending on the situation. | |
1052 | |
1053 @table @kbd | |
1054 @item C-x C-q | |
1055 @itemx C-x v v | |
1056 Perform the next logical version control operation on this file. | |
1057 @end table | |
1058 | |
1059 @findex vc-next-action | |
1060 @findex vc-toggle-read-only | |
1061 @kindex C-x v v | |
1062 @kindex C-x C-q @r{(Version Control)} | |
1063 Strictly speaking, the command for this job is @code{vc-next-action}, | |
1064 bound to @kbd{C-x v v}. However, the normal meaning of @kbd{C-x C-q} is | |
1065 to make a read-only buffer writable, or vice versa; we have extended it | |
1066 to do the same job properly for files managed by version control, by | |
1067 performing the appropriate version control operations. When you type | |
1068 @kbd{C-x C-q} on a registered file, it acts like @kbd{C-x v v}. | |
1069 | |
1070 The precise action of this command depends on the state of the file, | |
1071 and whether the version control system uses locking or not. SCCS and | |
1072 RCS normally use locking; CVS normally does not use locking. | |
1073 | |
1074 @menu | |
1075 * VC with Locking:: RCS in its default mode, SCCS, and optionally CVS. | |
1076 * Without Locking:: Without locking: default mode for CVS. | |
1077 * Log Buffer:: Features available in log entry buffers. | |
1078 @end menu | |
1079 | |
1080 @node VC with Locking | |
1081 @subsubsection Basic Version Control with Locking | |
1082 | |
1083 If locking is used for the file (as with SCCS, and RCS in its default | |
1084 mode), @kbd{C-x C-q} can either lock a file or check it in: | |
1085 | |
1086 @itemize @bullet | |
1087 @item | |
1088 If the file is not locked, @kbd{C-x C-q} locks it, and | |
1089 makes it writable so that you can change it. | |
1090 | |
1091 @item | |
1092 If the file is locked by you, and contains changes, @kbd{C-x C-q} checks | |
1093 in the changes. In order to do this, it first reads the log entry | |
1094 for the new version. @xref{Log Buffer}. | |
1095 | |
1096 @item | |
1097 If the file is locked by you, but you have not changed it since you | |
1098 locked it, @kbd{C-x C-q} releases the lock and makes the file read-only | |
1099 again. | |
1100 | |
1101 @item | |
1102 If the file is locked by some other user, @kbd{C-x C-q} asks you whether | |
1103 you want to ``steal the lock'' from that user. If you say yes, the file | |
1104 becomes locked by you, but a message is sent to the person who had | |
1105 formerly locked the file, to inform him of what has happened. | |
1106 @end itemize | |
1107 | |
1108 These rules also apply when you use CVS in locking mode, except | |
1109 that there is no such thing as stealing a lock. | |
1110 | |
1111 @node Without Locking | |
1112 @subsubsection Basic Version Control without Locking | |
1113 | |
1114 When there is no locking---the default for CVS---work files are always | |
1115 writable; you do not need to do anything before you begin to edit a | |
1116 file. The status indicator on the mode line is @samp{-} if the file is | |
1117 unmodified; it flips to @samp{:} as soon as you save any changes in the | |
1118 work file. | |
1119 | |
1120 Here is what @kbd{C-x C-q} does when using CVS: | |
1121 | |
1122 @itemize @bullet | |
1123 @item | |
1124 If some other user has checked in changes into the master file, | |
1125 Emacs asks you whether you want to merge those changes into your own | |
1126 work file (@pxref{Merging}). You must do this before you can check in | |
1127 your own changes. | |
1128 | |
1129 @item | |
1130 If there are no new changes in the master file, but you have made | |
1131 modifications in your work file, @kbd{C-x C-q} checks in your changes. | |
1132 In order to do this, it first reads the log entry for the new version. | |
1133 @xref{Log Buffer}. | |
1134 | |
1135 @item | |
1136 If the file is not modified, the @kbd{C-x C-q} does nothing. | |
1137 @end itemize | |
1138 | |
1139 These rules also apply when you use RCS in the mode that does not | |
1140 require locking, except that automatic merging of changes from the | |
1141 master file is not implemented. Unfortunately, this means that nothing | |
1142 informs you if another user has checked in changes in the same file | |
1143 since you began editing it, and when this happens, his changes will be | |
1144 effectively removed when you check in your version (though they will | |
1145 remain in the master file, so they will not be entirely lost). You must | |
1146 therefore verify the current version is unchanged, before you check in your | |
1147 changes. We hope to eliminate this risk and provide automatic merging | |
1148 with RCS in a future Emacs version. | |
1149 | |
1150 In addition, locking is possible with RCS even in this mode, although | |
1151 it is not required; @kbd{C-x C-q} with an unmodified file locks the | |
1152 file, just as it does with RCS in its normal (locking) mode. | |
1153 | |
1154 @node Log Buffer | |
1155 @subsubsection Features of the Log Entry Buffer | |
1156 | |
1157 When you check in changes, @kbd{C-x C-q} first reads a log entry. It | |
1158 pops up a buffer called @samp{*VC-Log*} for you to enter the log entry. | |
1159 When you are finished, type @kbd{C-c C-c} in the @samp{*VC-Log*} buffer. | |
1160 That is when check-in really happens. | |
1161 | |
1162 To abort check-in, just @strong{don't} type @kbd{C-c C-c} in that | |
1163 buffer. You can switch buffers and do other editing. As long as you | |
1164 don't try to check in another file, the entry you were editing remains | |
1165 in the @samp{*VC-Log*} buffer, and you can go back to that buffer at any | |
1166 time to complete the check-in. | |
1167 | |
1168 If you change several source files for the same reason, it is often | |
1169 convenient to specify the same log entry for many of the files. To do | |
1170 this, use the history of previous log entries. The commands @kbd{M-n}, | |
1171 @kbd{M-p}, @kbd{M-s} and @kbd{M-r} for doing this work just like the | |
1172 minibuffer history commands (except that these versions are used outside | |
1173 the minibuffer). | |
1174 | |
1175 @vindex vc-log-mode-hook | |
1176 Each time you check in a file, the log entry buffer is put into VC Log | |
1177 mode, which involves running two hooks: @code{text-mode-hook} and | |
1178 @code{vc-log-mode-hook}. @xref{Hooks}. | |
1179 | |
1180 @node Old Versions | |
1181 @subsection Examining And Comparing Old Versions | |
1182 | |
1183 One of the convenient features of version control is the ability | |
1184 to examine any version of a file, or compare two versions. | |
1185 | |
1186 @table @kbd | |
1187 @item C-x v ~ @var{version} @key{RET} | |
1188 Examine version @var{version} of the visited file, in a buffer of its | |
1189 own. | |
1190 | |
1191 @item C-x v = | |
1192 Compare the current buffer contents with the latest checked-in version | |
1193 of the file. | |
1194 | |
1195 @item C-u C-x v = @var{file} @key{RET} @var{oldvers} @key{RET} @var{newvers} @key{RET} | |
1196 Compare the specified two versions of @var{file}. | |
1197 | |
1198 @item C-x v g | |
1199 Display the result of the CVS annotate command using colors. | |
1200 @end table | |
1201 | |
1202 @findex vc-version-other-window | |
1203 @kindex C-x v ~ | |
1204 To examine an old version in toto, visit the file and then type | |
1205 @kbd{C-x v ~ @var{version} @key{RET}} (@code{vc-version-other-window}). | |
1206 This puts the text of version @var{version} in a file named | |
1207 @file{@var{filename}.~@var{version}~}, and visits it in its own buffer | |
1208 in a separate window. (In RCS, you can also select an old version | |
1209 and create a branch from it. @xref{Branches}.) | |
1210 | |
1211 @findex vc-diff | |
1212 @kindex C-x v = | |
1213 But usually it is more convenient to compare two versions of the file, | |
1214 with the command @kbd{C-x v =} (@code{vc-diff}). Plain @kbd{C-x v =} | |
1215 compares the current buffer contents (saving them in the file if | |
1216 necessary) with the last checked-in version of the file. @kbd{C-u C-x v | |
1217 =}, with a numeric argument, reads a file name and two version numbers, | |
1218 then compares those versions of the specified file. | |
1219 | |
1220 If you supply a directory name instead of the name of a registered | |
1221 file, this command compares the two specified versions of all registered | |
1222 files in that directory and its subdirectories. | |
1223 | |
1224 You can specify a checked-in version by its number; an empty input | |
1225 specifies the current contents of the work file (which may be different | |
1226 from all the checked-in versions). You can also specify a snapshot name | |
1227 (@pxref{Snapshots}) instead of one or both version numbers. | |
1228 | |
1229 This command works by running the @code{diff} utility, getting the | |
1230 options from the variable @code{diff-switches}. It displays the output | |
1231 in a special buffer in another window. Unlike the @kbd{M-x diff} | |
1232 command, @kbd{C-x v =} does not try to locate the changes in the old and | |
1233 new versions. This is because normally one or both versions do not | |
1234 exist as files when you compare them; they exist only in the records of | |
1235 the master file. @xref{Comparing Files}, for more information about | |
1236 @kbd{M-x diff}. | |
1237 | |
1238 @findex vc-annotate | |
1239 @kindex C-x v g | |
1240 For CVS-controlled files, you can display the result of the CVS | |
1241 annotate command, using colors to enhance the visual appearance. Use | |
1242 the command @kbd{M-x vc-annotate} to do this. Red means new, blue means | |
1243 old, and intermediate colors indicate intermediate ages. A prefix | |
1244 argument @var{n} specifies a stretch factor for the time scale; it makes | |
1245 each color cover a period @var{n} times as long. | |
1246 | |
1247 @node Secondary VC Commands | |
1248 @subsection The Secondary Commands of VC | |
1249 | |
1250 This section explains the secondary commands of VC; those that you might | |
1251 use once a day. | |
1252 | |
1253 @menu | |
1254 * Registering:: Putting a file under version control. | |
1255 * VC Status:: Viewing the VC status of files. | |
1256 * VC Undo:: Cancelling changes before or after check-in. | |
1257 * VC Dired Mode:: Listing files managed by version control. | |
1258 * VC Dired Commands:: Commands to use in a VC Dired buffer. | |
1259 @end menu | |
1260 | |
1261 @node Registering | |
1262 @subsubsection Registering a File for Version Control | |
1263 | |
1264 @kindex C-x v i | |
1265 @findex vc-register | |
1266 You can put any file under version control by simply visiting it, and | |
1267 then typing @w{@kbd{C-x v i}} (@code{vc-register}). | |
1268 | |
1269 @table @kbd | |
1270 @item C-x v i | |
1271 Register the visited file for version control. | |
1272 @end table | |
1273 | |
1274 @vindex vc-default-back-end | |
1275 To register the file, Emacs must choose which version control system | |
1276 to use for it. You can specify your choice explicitly by setting | |
1277 @code{vc-default-back-end} to @code{RCS}, @code{CVS} or @code{SCCS}. | |
1278 Otherwise, if there is a subdirectory named @file{RCS}, @file{SCCS}, or | |
1279 @file{CVS}, Emacs uses the corresponding version control system. In the | |
1280 absence of any specification, the default choice is RCS if RCS is | |
1281 installed, otherwise SCCS. | |
1282 | |
1283 If locking is in use, @kbd{C-x v i} leaves the file unlocked and | |
1284 read-only. Type @kbd{C-x C-q} if you wish to start editing it. After | |
1285 registering a file with CVS, you must subsequently commit the initial | |
1286 version by typing @kbd{C-x C-q}. | |
1287 | |
1288 @vindex vc-default-init-version | |
1289 The initial version number for a newly registered file is 1.1, by | |
1290 default. You can specify a different default by setting the variable | |
1291 @code{vc-default-init-version}, or you can give @kbd{C-x v i} a numeric | |
1292 argument; then it reads the initial version number for this particular | |
1293 file using the minibuffer. | |
1294 | |
1295 @vindex vc-initial-comment | |
1296 If @code{vc-initial-comment} is non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-x v i} reads an | |
1297 initial comment to describe the purpose of this source file. Reading | |
1298 the initial comment works like reading a log entry (@pxref{Log Buffer}). | |
1299 | |
1300 @node VC Status | |
1301 @subsubsection VC Status Commands | |
1302 | |
1303 @table @kbd | |
1304 @item C-x v l | |
1305 Display version control state and change history. | |
1306 @end table | |
1307 | |
1308 @kindex C-x v l | |
1309 @findex vc-print-log | |
1310 To view the detailed version control status and history of a file, | |
1311 type @kbd{C-x v l} (@code{vc-print-log}). It displays the history of | |
1312 changes to the current file, including the text of the log entries. The | |
1313 output appears in a separate window. | |
1314 | |
1315 @node VC Undo | |
1316 @subsubsection Undoing Version Control Actions | |
1317 | |
1318 @table @kbd | |
1319 @item C-x v u | |
1320 Revert the buffer and the file to the last checked-in version. | |
1321 | |
1322 @item C-x v c | |
1323 Remove the last-entered change from the master for the visited file. | |
1324 This undoes your last check-in. | |
1325 @end table | |
1326 | |
1327 @kindex C-x v u | |
1328 @findex vc-revert-buffer | |
1329 If you want to discard your current set of changes and revert to the | |
1330 last version checked in, use @kbd{C-x v u} (@code{vc-revert-buffer}). | |
1331 This leaves the file unlocked; if locking is in use, you must first lock | |
1332 the file again before you change it again. @kbd{C-x v u} requires | |
1333 confirmation, unless it sees that you haven't made any changes since the | |
1334 last checked-in version. | |
1335 | |
1336 @kbd{C-x v u} is also the command to unlock a file if you lock it and | |
1337 then decide not to change it. | |
1338 | |
1339 @kindex C-x v c | |
1340 @findex vc-cancel-version | |
1341 To cancel a change that you already checked in, use @kbd{C-x v c} | |
1342 (@code{vc-cancel-version}). This command discards all record of the | |
1343 most recent checked-in version. @kbd{C-x v c} also offers to revert | |
1344 your work file and buffer to the previous version (the one that precedes | |
1345 the version that is deleted). | |
1346 | |
1347 If you answer @kbd{no}, VC keeps your changes in the buffer, and locks | |
1348 the file. The no-revert option is useful when you have checked in a | |
1349 change and then discover a trivial error in it; you can cancel the | |
1350 erroneous check-in, fix the error, and check the file in again. | |
1351 | |
1352 When @kbd{C-x v c} does not revert the buffer, it unexpands all | |
1353 version control headers in the buffer instead (@pxref{Version Headers}). | |
1354 This is because the buffer no longer corresponds to any existing | |
1355 version. If you check it in again, the check-in process will expand the | |
1356 headers properly for the new version number. | |
1357 | |
1358 However, it is impossible to unexpand the RCS @samp{@w{$}Log$} header | |
1359 automatically. If you use that header feature, you have to unexpand it | |
1360 by hand---by deleting the entry for the version that you just canceled. | |
1361 | |
1362 Be careful when invoking @kbd{C-x v c}, as it is easy to lose a lot of | |
1363 work with it. To help you be careful, this command always requires | |
1364 confirmation with @kbd{yes}. Note also that this command is disabled | |
1365 under CVS, because canceling versions is very dangerous and discouraged | |
1366 with CVS. | |
1367 | |
1368 @node VC Dired Mode | |
1369 @subsubsection Dired under VC | |
1370 | |
1371 @kindex C-x v d | |
1372 @findex vc-directory | |
1373 When you are working on a large program, it is often useful to find | |
1374 out which files have changed within an entire directory tree, or to view | |
1375 the status of all files under version control at once, and to perform | |
1376 version control operations on collections of files. You can use the | |
1377 command @kbd{C-x v d} (@code{vc-directory}) to make a directory listing | |
1378 that includes only files relevant for version control. | |
1379 | |
1380 @vindex vc-dired-terse-display | |
1381 @kbd{C-x v d} creates a buffer which uses VC Dired Mode. This looks | |
1382 much like an ordinary Dired buffer (@pxref{Dired}); however, normally it | |
1383 shows only the noteworthy files (those locked or not up-to-date). This | |
1384 is called @dfn{terse display}. If you set the variable | |
1385 @code{vc-dired-terse-display} to @code{nil}, then VC Dired shows all | |
1386 relevant files---those managed under version control, plus all | |
1387 subdirectories (@dfn{full display}). The command @kbd{v t} in a VC | |
1388 Dired buffer toggles between terse display and full display (@pxref{VC | |
1389 Dired Commands}). | |
1390 | |
1391 @vindex vc-dired-recurse | |
1392 By default, VC Dired produces a recursive listing of noteworthy or | |
1393 relevant files at or below the given directory. You can change this by | |
1394 setting the variable @code{vc-dired-recurse} to @code{nil}; then VC | |
1395 Dired shows only the files in the given directory. | |
1396 | |
1397 The line for an individual file shows the version control state in the | |
1398 place of the hard link count, owner, group, and size of the file. If | |
1399 the file is unmodified, in sync with the master file, the version | |
1400 control state shown is blank. Otherwise it consists of text in | |
1401 parentheses. Under RCS and SCCS, the name of the user locking the file | |
1402 is shown; under CVS, an abbreviated version of the @samp{cvs status} | |
1403 output is used. Here is an example using RCS: | |
1404 | |
1405 @smallexample | |
1406 @group | |
1407 /home/jim/project: | |
1408 | |
1409 -rw-r--r-- (jim) Apr 2 23:39 file1 | |
1410 -r--r--r-- Apr 5 20:21 file2 | |
1411 @end group | |
1412 @end smallexample | |
1413 | |
1414 @noindent | |
1415 The files @samp{file1} and @samp{file2} are under version control, | |
1416 @samp{file1} is locked by user jim, and @samp{file2} is unlocked. | |
1417 | |
1418 Here is an example using CVS: | |
1419 | |
1420 @smallexample | |
1421 @group | |
1422 /home/joe/develop: | |
1423 | |
1424 -rw-r--r-- (modified) Aug 2 1997 file1.c | |
1425 -rw-r--r-- Apr 4 20:09 file2.c | |
1426 -rw-r--r-- (merge) Sep 13 1996 file3.c | |
1427 @end group | |
1428 @end smallexample | |
1429 | |
1430 Here @samp{file1.c} is modified with respect to the repository, and | |
1431 @samp{file2.c} is not. @samp{file3.c} is modified, but other changes | |
1432 have also been checked in to the repository---you need to merge them | |
1433 with the work file before you can check it in. | |
1434 | |
1435 @vindex vc-directory-exclusion-list | |
1436 When VC Dired displays subdirectories (in the ``full'' display mode), | |
1437 it omits some that should never contain any files under version control. | |
1438 By default, this includes Version Control subdirectories such as | |
1439 @samp{RCS} and @samp{CVS}; you can customize this by setting the | |
1440 variable @code{vc-directory-exclusion-list}. | |
1441 | |
1442 You can fine-tune VC Dired's format by typing @kbd{C-u C-x v d}---as in | |
1443 ordinary Dired, that allows you to specify additional switches for the | |
1444 @samp{ls} command. | |
1445 | |
1446 @node VC Dired Commands | |
1447 @subsubsection VC Dired Commands | |
1448 | |
1449 All the usual Dired commands work normally in VC Dired mode, except | |
1450 for @kbd{v}, which is redefined as the version control prefix. You can | |
1451 invoke VC commands such as @code{vc-diff} and @code{vc-print-log} by | |
1452 typing @kbd{v =}, or @kbd{v l}, and so on. Most of these commands apply | |
1453 to the file name on the current line. | |
1454 | |
1455 The command @kbd{v v} (@code{vc-next-action}) operates on all the | |
1456 marked files, so that you can lock or check in several files at once. | |
1457 If it operates on more than one file, it handles each file according to | |
1458 its current state; thus, it might lock one file, but check in another | |
1459 file. This could be confusing; it is up to you to avoid confusing | |
1460 behavior by marking a set of files that are in a similar state. | |
1461 | |
1462 If any files call for check-in, @kbd{v v} reads a single log entry, | |
1463 then uses it for all the files being checked in. This is convenient for | |
1464 registering or checking in several files at once, as part of the same | |
1465 change. | |
1466 | |
1467 @findex vc-dired-toggle-terse-mode | |
1468 @findex vc-dired-mark-locked | |
1469 You can toggle between terse display (only locked files, or files not | |
1470 up-to-date) and full display at any time by typing @kbd{v t} | |
1471 @code{vc-dired-toggle-terse-mode}. There is also a special command | |
1472 @kbd{* l} (@code{vc-dired-mark-locked}), which marks all files currently | |
1473 locked (or, with CVS, all files not up-to-date). Thus, typing @kbd{* l | |
1474 t k} is another way to delete from the buffer all files except those | |
1475 currently locked. | |
1476 | |
1477 @node Branches | |
1478 @subsection Multiple Branches of a File | |
1479 @cindex branch (version control) | |
1480 @cindex trunk (version control) | |
1481 | |
1482 One use of version control is to maintain multiple ``current'' | |
1483 versions of a file. For example, you might have different versions of a | |
1484 program in which you are gradually adding various unfinished new | |
1485 features. Each such independent line of development is called a | |
1486 @dfn{branch}. VC allows you to create branches, switch between | |
1487 different branches, and merge changes from one branch to another. | |
1488 Please note, however, that branches are only supported for RCS at the | |
1489 moment. | |
1490 | |
1491 A file's main line of development is usually called the @dfn{trunk}. | |
1492 The versions on the trunk are normally numbered 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc. At | |
1493 any such version, you can start an independent branch. A branch | |
1494 starting at version 1.2 would have version number 1.2.1.1, and consecutive | |
1495 versions on this branch would have numbers 1.2.1.2, 1.2.1.3, 1.2.1.4, | |
1496 and so on. If there is a second branch also starting at version 1.2, it | |
1497 would consist of versions 1.2.2.1, 1.2.2.2, 1.2.2.3, etc. | |
1498 | |
1499 @cindex head version | |
1500 If you omit the final component of a version number, that is called a | |
1501 @dfn{branch number}. It refers to the highest existing version on that | |
1502 branch---the @dfn{head version} of that branch. The branches in the | |
1503 example above have branch numbers 1.2.1 and 1.2.2. | |
1504 | |
1505 @menu | |
1506 * Switching Branches:: How to get to another existing branch. | |
1507 * Creating Branches:: How to start a new branch. | |
1508 * Merging:: Transferring changes between branches. | |
1509 * Multi-User Branching:: Multiple users working at multiple branches | |
1510 in parallel. | |
1511 @end menu | |
1512 | |
1513 @node Switching Branches | |
1514 @subsubsection Switching between Branches | |
1515 | |
1516 To switch between branches, type @kbd{C-u C-x C-q} and specify the | |
1517 version number you want to select. This version is then visited | |
1518 @emph{unlocked} (write-protected), so you can examine it before locking | |
1519 it. Switching branches in this way is allowed only when the file is not | |
1520 locked. | |
1521 | |
1522 You can omit the minor version number, thus giving only the branch | |
1523 number; this takes you to the head version on the chosen branch. If you | |
1524 only type @key{RET}, Emacs goes to the highest version on the trunk. | |
1525 | |
1526 After you have switched to any branch (including the main branch), you | |
1527 stay on it for subsequent VC commands, until you explicitly select some | |
1528 other branch. | |
1529 | |
1530 @node Creating Branches | |
1531 @subsubsection Creating New Branches | |
1532 | |
1533 To create a new branch from a head version (one that is the latest in | |
1534 the branch that contains it), first select that version if necessary, | |
1535 lock it with @kbd{C-x C-q}, and make whatever changes you want. Then, | |
1536 when you check in the changes, use @kbd{C-u C-x C-q}. This lets you | |
1537 specify the version number for the new version. You should specify a | |
1538 suitable branch number for a branch starting at the current version. | |
1539 For example, if the current version is 2.5, the branch number should be | |
1540 2.5.1, 2.5.2, and so on, depending on the number of existing branches at | |
1541 that point. | |
1542 | |
1543 To create a new branch at an older version (one that is no longer the | |
1544 head of a branch), first select that version (@pxref{Switching | |
1545 Branches}), then lock it with @kbd{C-x C-q}. You'll be asked to | |
1546 confirm, when you lock the old version, that you really mean to create a | |
1547 new branch---if you say no, you'll be offered a chance to lock the | |
1548 latest version instead. | |
1549 | |
1550 Then make your changes and type @kbd{C-x C-q} again to check in a new | |
1551 version. This automatically creates a new branch starting from the | |
1552 selected version. You need not specially request a new branch, because | |
1553 that's the only way to add a new version at a point that is not the head | |
1554 of a branch. | |
1555 | |
1556 After the branch is created, you ``stay'' on it. That means that | |
1557 subsequent check-ins create new versions on that branch. To leave the | |
1558 branch, you must explicitly select a different version with @kbd{C-u C-x | |
1559 C-q}. To transfer changes from one branch to another, use the merge | |
1560 command, described in the next section. | |
1561 | |
1562 @node Merging | |
1563 @subsubsection Merging Branches | |
1564 | |
1565 @cindex merging changes | |
1566 When you have finished the changes on a certain branch, you will | |
1567 often want to incorporate them into the file's main line of development | |
1568 (the trunk). This is not a trivial operation, because development might | |
1569 also have proceeded on the trunk, so that you must @dfn{merge} the | |
1570 changes into a file that has already been changed otherwise. VC allows | |
1571 you to do this (and other things) with the @code{vc-merge} command. | |
1572 | |
1573 @table @kbd | |
1574 @item C-x v m (vc-merge) | |
1575 Merge changes into the work file. | |
1576 @end table | |
1577 | |
1578 @kindex C-x v m | |
1579 @findex vc-merge | |
1580 @kbd{C-x v m} (@code{vc-merge}) takes a set of changes and merges it | |
1581 into the current version of the work file. It first asks you for a | |
1582 branch number or a pair of version numbers in the minibuffer. Then it | |
1583 finds the changes from that branch, or between the two versions you | |
1584 specified, and merges them into the current version of the current file. | |
1585 | |
1586 As an example, suppose that you have finished a certain feature on | |
1587 branch 1.3.1. In the meantime, development on the trunk has proceeded | |
1588 to version 1.5. To merge the changes from the branch to the trunk, | |
1589 first go to the head version of the trunk, by typing @kbd{C-u C-x C-q | |
1590 RET}. Version 1.5 is now current. If locking is used for the file, | |
1591 type @kbd{C-x C-q} to lock version 1.5 so that you can change it. Next, | |
1592 type @kbd{C-x v m 1.3.1 RET}. This takes the entire set of changes on | |
1593 branch 1.3.1 (relative to version 1.3, where the branch started, up to | |
1594 the last version on the branch) and merges it into the current version | |
1595 of the work file. You can now check in the changed file, thus creating | |
1596 version 1.6 containing the changes from the branch. | |
1597 | |
1598 It is possible to do further editing after merging the branch, before | |
1599 the next check-in. But it is usually wiser to check in the merged | |
1600 version, then lock it and make the further changes. This will keep | |
1601 a better record of the history of changes. | |
1602 | |
1603 @cindex conflicts | |
1604 @cindex resolving conflicts | |
1605 When you merge changes into a file that has itself been modified, the | |
1606 changes might overlap. We call this situation a @dfn{conflict}, and | |
1607 reconciling the conflicting changes is called @dfn{resolving a | |
1608 conflict}. | |
1609 | |
1610 Whenever conflicts occur during merging, VC detects them, tells you | |
1611 about them in the echo area, and asks whether you want help in merging. | |
1612 If you say yes, it starts an Ediff session (@pxref{Top, | |
1613 Ediff, Ediff, ediff, The Ediff Manual}). | |
1614 | |
1615 If you say no, the conflicting changes are both inserted into the | |
1616 file, surrounded by @dfn{conflict markers}. The example below shows how | |
1617 a conflict region looks; the file is called @samp{name} and the current | |
1618 master file version with user B's changes in it is 1.11. | |
1619 | |
1620 @c @w here is so CVS won't think this is a conflict. | |
1621 @smallexample | |
1622 @group | |
1623 @w{<}<<<<<< name | |
1624 @var{User A's version} | |
1625 ======= | |
1626 @var{User B's version} | |
1627 @w{>}>>>>>> 1.11 | |
1628 @end group | |
1629 @end smallexample | |
1630 | |
1631 @cindex vc-resolve-conflicts | |
1632 Then you can resolve the conflicts by editing the file manually. Or | |
1633 you can type @code{M-x vc-resolve-conflicts} after visiting the file. | |
1634 This starts an Ediff session, as described above. | |
1635 | |
1636 @node Multi-User Branching | |
1637 @subsubsection Multi-User Branching | |
1638 | |
1639 It is often useful for multiple developers to work simultaneously on | |
1640 different branches of a file. CVS allows this by default; for RCS, it | |
1641 is possible if you create multiple source directories. Each source | |
1642 directory should have a link named @file{RCS} which points to a common | |
1643 directory of RCS master files. Then each source directory can have its | |
1644 own choice of selected versions, but all share the same common RCS | |
1645 records. | |
1646 | |
1647 This technique works reliably and automatically, provided that the | |
1648 source files contain RCS version headers (@pxref{Version Headers}). The | |
1649 headers enable Emacs to be sure, at all times, which version number is | |
1650 present in the work file. | |
1651 | |
1652 If the files do not have version headers, you must instead tell Emacs | |
1653 explicitly in each session which branch you are working on. To do this, | |
1654 first find the file, then type @kbd{C-u C-x C-q} and specify the correct | |
1655 branch number. This ensures that Emacs knows which branch it is using | |
1656 during this particular editing session. | |
1657 | |
1658 @node Snapshots | |
1659 @subsection Snapshots | |
1660 @cindex snapshots and version control | |
1661 | |
1662 A @dfn{snapshot} is a named set of file versions (one for each | |
1663 registered file) that you can treat as a unit. One important kind of | |
1664 snapshot is a @dfn{release}, a (theoretically) stable version of the | |
1665 system that is ready for distribution to users. | |
1666 | |
1667 @menu | |
1668 * Making Snapshots:: The snapshot facilities. | |
1669 * Snapshot Caveats:: Things to be careful of when using snapshots. | |
1670 @end menu | |
1671 | |
1672 @node Making Snapshots | |
1673 @subsubsection Making and Using Snapshots | |
1674 | |
1675 There are two basic commands for snapshots; one makes a | |
1676 snapshot with a given name, the other retrieves a named snapshot. | |
1677 | |
1678 @table @code | |
1679 @kindex C-x v s | |
1680 @findex vc-create-snapshot | |
1681 @item C-x v s @var{name} @key{RET} | |
1682 Define the last saved versions of every registered file in or under the | |
1683 current directory as a snapshot named @var{name} | |
1684 (@code{vc-create-snapshot}). | |
1685 | |
1686 @kindex C-x v r | |
1687 @findex vc-retrieve-snapshot | |
1688 @item C-x v r @var{name} @key{RET} | |
1689 For all registered files at or below the current directory level, select | |
1690 whatever versions correspond to the snapshot @var{name} | |
1691 (@code{vc-retrieve-snapshot}). | |
1692 | |
1693 This command reports an error if any files are locked at or below the | |
1694 current directory, without changing anything; this is to avoid | |
1695 overwriting work in progress. | |
1696 @end table | |
1697 | |
1698 A snapshot uses a very small amount of resources---just enough to record | |
1699 the list of file names and which version belongs to the snapshot. Thus, | |
1700 you need not hesitate to create snapshots whenever they are useful. | |
1701 | |
1702 You can give a snapshot name as an argument to @kbd{C-x v =} or | |
1703 @kbd{C-x v ~} (@pxref{Old Versions}). Thus, you can use it to compare a | |
1704 snapshot against the current files, or two snapshots against each other, | |
1705 or a snapshot against a named version. | |
1706 | |
1707 @node Snapshot Caveats | |
1708 @subsubsection Snapshot Caveats | |
1709 | |
1710 @cindex named configurations (RCS) | |
1711 VC's snapshot facilities are modeled on RCS's named-configuration | |
1712 support. They use RCS's native facilities for this, so under VC | |
1713 snapshots made using RCS are visible even when you bypass VC. | |
1714 | |
1715 @c worded verbosely to avoid overfull hbox. | |
1716 For SCCS, VC implements snapshots itself. The files it uses contain | |
1717 name/file/version-number triples. These snapshots are visible only | |
1718 through VC. | |
1719 | |
1720 A snapshot is a set of checked-in versions. So make sure that all the | |
1721 files are checked in and not locked when you make a snapshot. | |
1722 | |
1723 File renaming and deletion can create some difficulties with snapshots. | |
1724 This is not a VC-specific problem, but a general design issue in version | |
1725 control systems that no one has solved very well yet. | |
1726 | |
1727 If you rename a registered file, you need to rename its master along | |
1728 with it (the command @code{vc-rename-file} does this automatically). If | |
1729 you are using SCCS, you must also update the records of the snapshot, to | |
1730 mention the file by its new name (@code{vc-rename-file} does this, | |
1731 too). An old snapshot that refers to a master file that no longer | |
1732 exists under the recorded name is invalid; VC can no longer retrieve | |
1733 it. It would be beyond the scope of this manual to explain enough about | |
1734 RCS and SCCS to explain how to update the snapshots by hand. | |
1735 | |
1736 Using @code{vc-rename-file} makes the snapshot remain valid for | |
1737 retrieval, but it does not solve all problems. For example, some of the | |
1738 files in the program probably refer to others by name. At the very | |
1739 least, the makefile probably mentions the file that you renamed. If you | |
1740 retrieve an old snapshot, the renamed file is retrieved under its new | |
1741 name, which is not the name that the makefile expects. So the program | |
1742 won't really work as retrieved. | |
1743 | |
1744 @node Miscellaneous VC | |
1745 @subsection Miscellaneous Commands and Features of VC | |
1746 | |
1747 This section explains the less-frequently-used features of VC. | |
1748 | |
1749 @menu | |
1750 * Change Logs and VC:: Generating a change log file from log entries. | |
1751 * Renaming and VC:: A command to rename both the source and master | |
1752 file correctly. | |
1753 * Version Headers:: Inserting version control headers into working files. | |
1754 @end menu | |
1755 | |
1756 @node Change Logs and VC | |
1757 @subsubsection Change Logs and VC | |
1758 | |
1759 If you use RCS or CVS for a program and also maintain a change log | |
1760 file for it (@pxref{Change Log}), you can generate change log entries | |
1761 automatically from the version control log entries: | |
1762 | |
1763 @table @kbd | |
1764 @item C-x v a | |
1765 @kindex C-x v a | |
1766 @findex vc-update-change-log | |
1767 Visit the current directory's change log file and, for registered files | |
1768 in that directory, create new entries for versions checked in since the | |
1769 most recent entry in the change log file. | |
1770 (@code{vc-update-change-log}). | |
1771 | |
1772 This command works with RCS or CVS only, not with SCCS. | |
1773 | |
1774 @item C-u C-x v a | |
1775 As above, but only find entries for the current buffer's file. | |
1776 | |
1777 @item M-1 C-x v a | |
1778 As above, but find entries for all the currently visited files that are | |
1779 maintained with version control. This works only with RCS, and it puts | |
1780 all entries in the log for the default directory, which may not be | |
1781 appropriate. | |
1782 @end table | |
1783 | |
1784 For example, suppose the first line of @file{ChangeLog} is dated | |
1785 1999-04-10, and that the only check-in since then was by Nathaniel | |
1786 Bowditch to @file{rcs2log} on 1999-05-22 with log text @samp{Ignore log | |
1787 messages that start with `#'.}. Then @kbd{C-x v a} visits | |
1788 @file{ChangeLog} and inserts text like this: | |
1789 | |
1790 @iftex | |
1791 @medbreak | |
1792 @end iftex | |
1793 @smallexample | |
1794 @group | |
1795 1999-05-22 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org> | |
1796 | |
1797 * rcs2log: Ignore log messages that start with `#'. | |
1798 @end group | |
1799 @end smallexample | |
1800 @iftex | |
1801 @medbreak | |
1802 @end iftex | |
1803 | |
1804 @noindent | |
1805 You can then edit the new change log entry further as you wish. | |
1806 | |
1807 Unfortunately, timestamps in ChangeLog files are only dates, so some | |
1808 of the new change log entry may duplicate what's already in ChangeLog. | |
1809 You will have to remove these duplicates by hand. | |
1810 | |
1811 Normally, the log entry for file @file{foo} is displayed as @samp{* | |
1812 foo: @var{text of log entry}}. The @samp{:} after @file{foo} is omitted | |
1813 if the text of the log entry starts with @w{@samp{(@var{functionname}): | |
1814 }}. For example, if the log entry for @file{vc.el} is | |
1815 @samp{(vc-do-command): Check call-process status.}, then the text in | |
1816 @file{ChangeLog} looks like this: | |
1817 | |
1818 @iftex | |
1819 @medbreak | |
1820 @end iftex | |
1821 @smallexample | |
1822 @group | |
1823 1999-05-06 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org> | |
1824 | |
1825 * vc.el (vc-do-command): Check call-process status. | |
1826 @end group | |
1827 @end smallexample | |
1828 @iftex | |
1829 @medbreak | |
1830 @end iftex | |
1831 | |
1832 When @kbd{C-x v a} adds several change log entries at once, it groups | |
1833 related log entries together if they all are checked in by the same | |
1834 author at nearly the same time. If the log entries for several such | |
1835 files all have the same text, it coalesces them into a single entry. | |
1836 For example, suppose the most recent check-ins have the following log | |
1837 entries: | |
1838 | |
1839 @flushleft | |
1840 @bullet{} For @file{vc.texinfo}: @samp{Fix expansion typos.} | |
1841 @bullet{} For @file{vc.el}: @samp{Don't call expand-file-name.} | |
1842 @bullet{} For @file{vc-hooks.el}: @samp{Don't call expand-file-name.} | |
1843 @end flushleft | |
1844 | |
1845 @noindent | |
1846 They appear like this in @file{ChangeLog}: | |
1847 | |
1848 @iftex | |
1849 @medbreak | |
1850 @end iftex | |
1851 @smallexample | |
1852 @group | |
1853 1999-04-01 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org> | |
1854 | |
1855 * vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos. | |
1856 | |
1857 * vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name. | |
1858 @end group | |
1859 @end smallexample | |
1860 @iftex | |
1861 @medbreak | |
1862 @end iftex | |
1863 | |
1864 Normally, @kbd{C-x v a} separates log entries by a blank line, but you | |
1865 can mark several related log entries to be clumped together (without an | |
1866 intervening blank line) by starting the text of each related log entry | |
1867 with a label of the form @w{@samp{@{@var{clumpname}@} }}. The label | |
1868 itself is not copied to @file{ChangeLog}. For example, suppose the log | |
1869 entries are: | |
1870 | |
1871 @flushleft | |
1872 @bullet{} For @file{vc.texinfo}: @samp{@{expand@} Fix expansion typos.} | |
1873 @bullet{} For @file{vc.el}: @samp{@{expand@} Don't call expand-file-name.} | |
1874 @bullet{} For @file{vc-hooks.el}: @samp{@{expand@} Don't call expand-file-name.} | |
1875 @end flushleft | |
1876 | |
1877 @noindent | |
1878 Then the text in @file{ChangeLog} looks like this: | |
1879 | |
1880 @iftex | |
1881 @medbreak | |
1882 @end iftex | |
1883 @smallexample | |
1884 @group | |
1885 1999-04-01 Nathaniel Bowditch <nat@@apn.org> | |
1886 | |
1887 * vc.texinfo: Fix expansion typos. | |
1888 * vc.el, vc-hooks.el: Don't call expand-file-name. | |
1889 @end group | |
1890 @end smallexample | |
1891 @iftex | |
1892 @medbreak | |
1893 @end iftex | |
1894 | |
1895 A log entry whose text begins with @samp{#} is not copied to | |
1896 @file{ChangeLog}. For example, if you merely fix some misspellings in | |
1897 comments, you can log the change with an entry beginning with @samp{#} | |
1898 to avoid putting such trivia into @file{ChangeLog}. | |
1899 | |
1900 @node Renaming and VC | |
1901 @subsubsection Renaming VC Work Files and Master Files | |
1902 | |
1903 @findex vc-rename-file | |
1904 When you rename a registered file, you must also rename its master | |
1905 file correspondingly to get proper results. Use @code{vc-rename-file} | |
1906 to rename the source file as you specify, and rename its master file | |
1907 accordingly. It also updates any snapshots (@pxref{Snapshots}) that | |
1908 mention the file, so that they use the new name; despite this, the | |
1909 snapshot thus modified may not completely work (@pxref{Snapshot | |
1910 Caveats}). | |
1911 | |
1912 You cannot use @code{vc-rename-file} on a file that is locked by | |
1913 someone else. | |
1914 | |
1915 @node Version Headers | |
1916 @subsubsection Inserting Version Control Headers | |
1917 | |
1918 Sometimes it is convenient to put version identification strings | |
1919 directly into working files. Certain special strings called | |
1920 @dfn{version headers} are replaced in each successive version by the | |
1921 number of that version. | |
1922 | |
1923 If you are using RCS, and version headers are present in your working | |
1924 files, Emacs can use them to determine the current version and the | |
1925 locking state of the files. This is more reliable than referring to the | |
1926 master files, which is done when there are no version headers. Note | |
1927 that in a multi-branch environment, version headers are necessary to | |
1928 make VC behave correctly (@pxref{Multi-User Branching}). | |
1929 | |
1930 Searching for version headers is controlled by the variable | |
1931 @code{vc-consult-headers}. If it is non-@code{nil}, Emacs searches for | |
1932 headers to determine the version number you are editing. Setting it to | |
1933 @code{nil} disables this feature. | |
1934 | |
1935 @kindex C-x v h | |
1936 @findex vc-insert-headers | |
1937 You can use the @kbd{C-x v h} command (@code{vc-insert-headers}) to | |
1938 insert a suitable header string. | |
1939 | |
1940 @table @kbd | |
1941 @item C-x v h | |
1942 Insert headers in a file for use with your version-control system. | |
1943 @end table | |
1944 | |
1945 @vindex vc-header-alist | |
1946 The default header string is @samp{@w{$}Id$} for RCS and | |
1947 @samp{@w{%}W%} for SCCS. You can specify other headers to insert by | |
1948 setting the variable @code{vc-header-alist}. Its value is a list of | |
1949 elements of the form @code{(@var{program} . @var{string})} where | |
1950 @var{program} is @code{RCS} or @code{SCCS} and @var{string} is the | |
1951 string to use. | |
1952 | |
1953 Instead of a single string, you can specify a list of strings; then | |
1954 each string in the list is inserted as a separate header on a line of | |
1955 its own. | |
1956 | |
1957 It is often necessary to use ``superfluous'' backslashes when writing | |
1958 the strings that you put in this variable. This is to prevent the | |
1959 string in the constant from being interpreted as a header itself if the | |
1960 Emacs Lisp file containing it is maintained with version control. | |
1961 | |
1962 @vindex vc-comment-alist | |
1963 Each header is inserted surrounded by tabs, inside comment delimiters, | |
1964 on a new line at point. Normally the ordinary comment | |
1965 start and comment end strings of the current mode are used, but for | |
1966 certain modes, there are special comment delimiters for this purpose; | |
1967 the variable @code{vc-comment-alist} specifies them. Each element of | |
1968 this list has the form @code{(@var{mode} @var{starter} @var{ender})}. | |
1969 | |
1970 @vindex vc-static-header-alist | |
1971 The variable @code{vc-static-header-alist} specifies further strings | |
1972 to add based on the name of the buffer. Its value should be a list of | |
1973 elements of the form @code{(@var{regexp} . @var{format})}. Whenever | |
1974 @var{regexp} matches the buffer name, @var{format} is inserted as part | |
1975 of the header. A header line is inserted for each element that matches | |
1976 the buffer name, and for each string specified by | |
1977 @code{vc-header-alist}. The header line is made by processing the | |
1978 string from @code{vc-header-alist} with the format taken from the | |
1979 element. The default value for @code{vc-static-header-alist} is as follows: | |
1980 | |
1981 @example | |
1982 @group | |
1983 (("\\.c$" . | |
1984 "\n#ifndef lint\nstatic char vcid[] = \"\%s\";\n\ | |
1985 #endif /* lint */\n")) | |
1986 @end group | |
1987 @end example | |
1988 | |
1989 @noindent | |
1990 It specifies insertion of text of this form: | |
1991 | |
1992 @example | |
1993 @group | |
1994 | |
1995 #ifndef lint | |
1996 static char vcid[] = "@var{string}"; | |
1997 #endif /* lint */ | |
1998 @end group | |
1999 @end example | |
2000 | |
2001 @noindent | |
2002 Note that the text above starts with a blank line. | |
2003 | |
2004 If you use more than one version header in a file, put them close | |
2005 together in the file. The mechanism in @code{revert-buffer} that | |
2006 preserves markers may not handle markers positioned between two version | |
2007 headers. | |
2008 | |
2009 @node Customizing VC | |
2010 @subsection Customizing VC | |
2011 | |
2012 There are many ways of customizing VC. The options you can set fall | |
2013 into four categories, described in the following sections. | |
2014 | |
2015 @menu | |
2016 * Backend Options:: Customizing the back-end to your needs. | |
2017 * VC Workfile Handling:: Various options concerning working files. | |
2018 * VC Status Retrieval:: How VC finds the version control status of a file, | |
2019 and how to customize this. | |
2020 * VC Command Execution:: Which commands VC should run, and how. | |
2021 @end menu | |
2022 | |
2023 @node Backend Options | |
2024 @subsubsection Options for VC Backends | |
2025 | |
2026 @cindex backend options (VC) | |
2027 @cindex locking under version control | |
2028 You can tell RCS and CVS whether to use locking for a file or not | |
2029 (@pxref{VC Concepts}, for a description of locking). VC automatically | |
2030 recognizes what you have chosen, and behaves accordingly. | |
2031 | |
2032 @cindex non-strict locking (RCS) | |
2033 @cindex locking, non-strict (RCS) | |
2034 For RCS, the default is to use locking, but there is a mode called | |
2035 @dfn{non-strict locking} in which you can check-in changes without | |
2036 locking the file first. Use @samp{rcs -U} to switch to non-strict | |
2037 locking for a particular file, see the @samp{rcs} manpage for details. | |
2038 | |
2039 @cindex locking (CVS) | |
2040 Under CVS, the default is not to use locking; anyone can change a work | |
2041 file at any time. However, there are ways to restrict this, resulting | |
2042 in behavior that resembles locking. | |
2043 | |
2044 @cindex CVSREAD environment variable (CVS) | |
2045 For one thing, you can set the @code{CVSREAD} environment variable to | |
2046 an arbitrary value. If this variable is defined, CVS makes your work | |
2047 files read-only by default. In Emacs, you must type @kbd{C-x C-q} to | |
2048 make the file writeable, so that editing works in fact similar as if | |
2049 locking was used. Note however, that no actual locking is performed, so | |
2050 several users can make their files writeable at the same time. When | |
2051 setting @code{CVSREAD} for the first time, make sure to check out all | |
2052 your modules anew, so that the file protections are set correctly. | |
2053 | |
2054 @cindex cvs watch feature | |
2055 @cindex watching files (CVS) | |
2056 Another way to achieve something similar to locking is to use the | |
2057 @dfn{watch} feature of CVS. If a file is being watched, CVS makes it | |
2058 read-only by default, and you must also use @kbd{C-x C-q} in Emacs to | |
2059 make it writable. VC calls @code{cvs edit} to make the file writeable, | |
2060 and CVS takes care to notify other developers of the fact that you | |
2061 intend to change the file. See the CVS documentation for details on | |
2062 using the watch feature. | |
2063 | |
2064 @vindex vc-handle-cvs | |
2065 You can turn off use of VC for CVS-managed files by setting the | |
2066 variable @code{vc-handle-cvs} to @code{nil}. If you do this, Emacs | |
2067 treats these files as if they were not registered, and the VC commands | |
2068 are not available for them. You must do all CVS operations manually. | |
2069 | |
2070 @node VC Workfile Handling | |
2071 @subsubsection VC Workfile Handling | |
2072 | |
2073 @vindex vc-make-backup-files | |
2074 Emacs normally does not save backup files for source files that are | |
2075 maintained with version control. If you want to make backup files even | |
2076 for files that use version control, set the variable | |
2077 @code{vc-make-backup-files} to a non-@code{nil} value. | |
2078 | |
2079 @vindex vc-keep-workfiles | |
2080 Normally the work file exists all the time, whether it is locked or | |
2081 not. If you set @code{vc-keep-workfiles} to @code{nil}, then checking | |
2082 in a new version with @kbd{C-x C-q} deletes the work file; but any | |
2083 attempt to visit the file with Emacs creates it again. (With CVS, work | |
2084 files are always kept.) | |
2085 | |
2086 @vindex vc-follow-symlinks | |
2087 Editing a version-controlled file through a symbolic link can be | |
2088 dangerous. It bypasses the version control system---you can edit the | |
2089 file without locking it, and fail to check your changes in. Also, | |
2090 your changes might overwrite those of another user. To protect against | |
2091 this, VC checks each symbolic link that you visit, to see if it points | |
2092 to a file under version control. | |
2093 | |
2094 The variable @code{vc-follow-symlinks} controls what to do when a | |
2095 symbolic link points to a version-controlled file. If it is @code{nil}, | |
2096 VC only displays a warning message. If it is @code{t}, VC automatically | |
2097 follows the link, and visits the real file instead, telling you about | |
2098 this in the echo area. If the value is @code{ask} (the default), VC | |
2099 asks you each time whether to follow the link. | |
2100 | |
2101 @node VC Status Retrieval | |
2102 @subsubsection VC Status Retrieval | |
2103 @c There is no need to tell users about vc-master-templates. | |
2104 | |
2105 When deducing the locked/unlocked state of a file, VC first looks for | |
2106 an RCS version header string in the file (@pxref{Version Headers}). If | |
2107 there is no header string, or if you are using SCCS, VC normally looks | |
2108 at the file permissions of the work file; this is fast. But there might | |
2109 be situations when the file permissions cannot be trusted. In this case | |
2110 the master file has to be consulted, which is rather expensive. Also | |
2111 the master file can only tell you @emph{if} there's any lock on the | |
2112 file, but not whether your work file really contains that locked | |
2113 version. | |
2114 | |
2115 @vindex vc-consult-headers | |
2116 You can tell VC not to use version headers to determine lock status by | |
2117 setting @code{vc-consult-headers} to @code{nil}. VC then always uses | |
2118 the file permissions (if it can trust them), or else checks the master | |
2119 file. | |
2120 | |
2121 @vindex vc-mistrust-permissions | |
2122 You can specify the criterion for whether to trust the file | |
2123 permissions by setting the variable @code{vc-mistrust-permissions}. Its | |
2124 value can be @code{t} (always mistrust the file permissions and check | |
2125 the master file), @code{nil} (always trust the file permissions), or a | |
2126 function of one argument which makes the decision. The argument is the | |
2127 directory name of the @file{RCS}, @file{CVS} or @file{SCCS} | |
2128 subdirectory. A non-@code{nil} value from the function says to mistrust | |
2129 the file permissions. If you find that the file permissions of work | |
2130 files are changed erroneously, set @code{vc-mistrust-permissions} to | |
2131 @code{t}. Then VC always checks the master file to determine the file's | |
2132 status. | |
2133 | |
2134 @node VC Command Execution | |
2135 @subsubsection VC Command Execution | |
2136 | |
2137 @vindex vc-suppress-confirm | |
2138 If @code{vc-suppress-confirm} is non-@code{nil}, then @kbd{C-x C-q} | |
2139 and @kbd{C-x v i} can save the current buffer without asking, and | |
2140 @kbd{C-x v u} also operates without asking for confirmation. (This | |
2141 variable does not affect @kbd{C-x v c}; that operation is so drastic | |
2142 that it should always ask for confirmation.) | |
2143 | |
2144 @vindex vc-command-messages | |
2145 VC mode does much of its work by running the shell commands for RCS, | |
2146 CVS and SCCS. If @code{vc-command-messages} is non-@code{nil}, VC | |
2147 displays messages to indicate which shell commands it runs, and | |
2148 additional messages when the commands finish. | |
2149 | |
2150 @vindex vc-path | |
2151 You can specify additional directories to search for version control | |
2152 programs by setting the variable @code{vc-path}. These directories are | |
2153 searched before the usual search path. But the proper files are usually | |
2154 found automatically. | |
2155 | |
2156 @node Directories | |
2157 @section File Directories | |
2158 | |
2159 @cindex file directory | |
2160 @cindex directory listing | |
2161 The file system groups files into @dfn{directories}. A @dfn{directory | |
2162 listing} is a list of all the files in a directory. Emacs provides | |
2163 commands to create and delete directories, and to make directory | |
2164 listings in brief format (file names only) and verbose format (sizes, | |
2165 dates, and authors included). There is also a directory browser called | |
2166 Dired; see @ref{Dired}. | |
2167 | |
2168 @table @kbd | |
2169 @item C-x C-d @var{dir-or-pattern} @key{RET} | |
2170 Display a brief directory listing (@code{list-directory}). | |
2171 @item C-u C-x C-d @var{dir-or-pattern} @key{RET} | |
2172 Display a verbose directory listing. | |
2173 @item M-x make-directory @key{RET} @var{dirname} @key{RET} | |
2174 Create a new directory named @var{dirname}. | |
2175 @item M-x delete-directory @key{RET} @var{dirname} @key{RET} | |
2176 Delete the directory named @var{dirname}. It must be empty, | |
2177 or you get an error. | |
2178 @end table | |
2179 | |
2180 @findex list-directory | |
2181 @kindex C-x C-d | |
2182 The command to display a directory listing is @kbd{C-x C-d} | |
2183 (@code{list-directory}). It reads using the minibuffer a file name | |
2184 which is either a directory to be listed or a wildcard-containing | |
2185 pattern for the files to be listed. For example, | |
2186 | |
2187 @example | |
2188 C-x C-d /u2/emacs/etc @key{RET} | |
2189 @end example | |
2190 | |
2191 @noindent | |
2192 lists all the files in directory @file{/u2/emacs/etc}. Here is an | |
2193 example of specifying a file name pattern: | |
2194 | |
2195 @example | |
2196 C-x C-d /u2/emacs/src/*.c @key{RET} | |
2197 @end example | |
2198 | |
2199 Normally, @kbd{C-x C-d} prints a brief directory listing containing | |
2200 just file names. A numeric argument (regardless of value) tells it to | |
2201 make a verbose listing including sizes, dates, and authors (like | |
2202 @samp{ls -l}). | |
2203 | |
2204 @vindex list-directory-brief-switches | |
2205 @vindex list-directory-verbose-switches | |
2206 The text of a directory listing is obtained by running @code{ls} in an | |
2207 inferior process. Two Emacs variables control the switches passed to | |
2208 @code{ls}: @code{list-directory-brief-switches} is a string giving the | |
2209 switches to use in brief listings (@code{"-CF"} by default), and | |
2210 @code{list-directory-verbose-switches} is a string giving the switches to | |
2211 use in a verbose listing (@code{"-l"} by default). | |
2212 | |
2213 @node Comparing Files | |
2214 @section Comparing Files | |
2215 @cindex comparing files | |
2216 | |
2217 @findex diff | |
2218 @vindex diff-switches | |
2219 The command @kbd{M-x diff} compares two files, displaying the | |
2220 differences in an Emacs buffer named @samp{*Diff*}. It works by running | |
2221 the @code{diff} program, using options taken from the variable | |
2222 @code{diff-switches}, whose value should be a string. | |
2223 | |
2224 The buffer @samp{*Diff*} has Compilation mode as its major mode, so | |
2225 you can use @kbd{C-x `} to visit successive changed locations in the two | |
2226 source files. You can also move to a particular hunk of changes and | |
2227 type @key{RET} or @kbd{C-c C-c}, or click @kbd{Mouse-2} on it, to move | |
2228 to the corresponding source location. You can also use the other | |
2229 special commands of Compilation mode: @key{SPC} and @key{DEL} for | |
2230 scrolling, and @kbd{M-p} and @kbd{M-n} for cursor motion. | |
2231 @xref{Compilation}. | |
2232 | |
2233 @findex diff-backup | |
2234 The command @kbd{M-x diff-backup} compares a specified file with its most | |
2235 recent backup. If you specify the name of a backup file, | |
2236 @code{diff-backup} compares it with the source file that it is a backup | |
2237 of. | |
2238 | |
2239 @findex compare-windows | |
2240 The command @kbd{M-x compare-windows} compares the text in the current | |
2241 window with that in the next window. Comparison starts at point in each | |
2242 window, and each starting position is pushed on the mark ring in its | |
2243 respective buffer. Then point moves forward in each window, a character | |
2244 at a time, until a mismatch between the two windows is reached. Then | |
2245 the command is finished. For more information about windows in Emacs, | |
2246 @ref{Windows}. | |
2247 | |
2248 @vindex compare-ignore-case | |
2249 With a numeric argument, @code{compare-windows} ignores changes in | |
2250 whitespace. If the variable @code{compare-ignore-case} is | |
2251 non-@code{nil}, it ignores differences in case as well. | |
2252 | |
2253 See also @ref{Emerge}, for convenient facilities for merging two | |
2254 similar files. | |
2255 | |
2256 @node Misc File Ops | |
2257 @section Miscellaneous File Operations | |
2258 | |
2259 Emacs has commands for performing many other operations on files. | |
2260 All operate on one file; they do not accept wildcard file names. | |
2261 | |
2262 @findex view-file | |
2263 @cindex viewing | |
2264 @cindex View mode | |
2265 @cindex mode, View | |
2266 @kbd{M-x view-file} allows you to scan or read a file by sequential | |
2267 screenfuls. It reads a file name argument using the minibuffer. After | |
2268 reading the file into an Emacs buffer, @code{view-file} displays the | |
2269 beginning. You can then type @key{SPC} to scroll forward one windowful, | |
2270 or @key{DEL} to scroll backward. Various other commands are provided | |
2271 for moving around in the file, but none for changing it; type @kbd{?} | |
2272 while viewing for a list of them. They are mostly the same as normal | |
2273 Emacs cursor motion commands. To exit from viewing, type @kbd{q}. | |
2274 The commands for viewing are defined by a special major mode called View | |
2275 mode. | |
2276 | |
2277 A related command, @kbd{M-x view-buffer}, views a buffer already present | |
2278 in Emacs. @xref{Misc Buffer}. | |
2279 | |
2280 @findex insert-file | |
2281 @kbd{M-x insert-file} inserts a copy of the contents of the specified | |
2282 file into the current buffer at point, leaving point unchanged before the | |
2283 contents and the mark after them. | |
2284 | |
2285 @findex write-region | |
2286 @kbd{M-x write-region} is the inverse of @kbd{M-x insert-file}; it | |
2287 copies the contents of the region into the specified file. @kbd{M-x | |
2288 append-to-file} adds the text of the region to the end of the specified | |
2289 file. @xref{Accumulating Text}. | |
2290 | |
2291 @findex delete-file | |
2292 @cindex deletion (of files) | |
2293 @kbd{M-x delete-file} deletes the specified file, like the @code{rm} | |
2294 command in the shell. If you are deleting many files in one directory, it | |
2295 may be more convenient to use Dired (@pxref{Dired}). | |
2296 | |
2297 @findex rename-file | |
2298 @kbd{M-x rename-file} reads two file names @var{old} and @var{new} using | |
2299 the minibuffer, then renames file @var{old} as @var{new}. If a file named | |
2300 @var{new} already exists, you must confirm with @kbd{yes} or renaming is not | |
2301 done; this is because renaming causes the old meaning of the name @var{new} | |
2302 to be lost. If @var{old} and @var{new} are on different file systems, the | |
2303 file @var{old} is copied and deleted. | |
2304 | |
2305 @findex add-name-to-file | |
2306 The similar command @kbd{M-x add-name-to-file} is used to add an | |
2307 additional name to an existing file without removing its old name. | |
2308 The new name must belong on the same file system that the file is on. | |
2309 | |
2310 @findex copy-file | |
2311 @cindex copying files | |
2312 @kbd{M-x copy-file} reads the file @var{old} and writes a new file named | |
2313 @var{new} with the same contents. Confirmation is required if a file named | |
2314 @var{new} already exists, because copying has the consequence of overwriting | |
2315 the old contents of the file @var{new}. | |
2316 | |
2317 @findex make-symbolic-link | |
2318 @kbd{M-x make-symbolic-link} reads two file names @var{target} and | |
2319 @var{linkname}, then creates a symbolic link named @var{linkname} and | |
2320 pointing at @var{target}. The effect is that future attempts to open file | |
2321 @var{linkname} will refer to whatever file is named @var{target} at the | |
2322 time the opening is done, or will get an error if the name @var{target} is | |
2323 not in use at that time. This command does not expand the argument | |
2324 @var{target}, so that it allows you to specify a relative name | |
2325 as the target of the link. | |
2326 | |
2327 Confirmation is required when creating the link if @var{linkname} is | |
2328 in use. Note that not all systems support symbolic links. | |
2329 | |
2330 @node Compressed Files | |
2331 @section Accessing Compressed Files | |
2332 @cindex compression | |
2333 @cindex uncompression | |
2334 @cindex Auto Compression mode | |
2335 @cindex mode, Auto Compression | |
2336 @pindex gzip | |
2337 | |
2338 @findex auto-compression-mode | |
2339 Emacs comes with a library that can automatically uncompress | |
2340 compressed files when you visit them, and automatically recompress them | |
2341 if you alter them and save them. To enable this feature, type the | |
2342 command @kbd{M-x auto-compression-mode}. | |
2343 | |
2344 When automatic compression (which implies automatic uncompression as | |
2345 well) is enabled, Emacs recognizes compressed files by their file names. | |
2346 File names ending in @samp{.gz} indicate a file compressed with | |
2347 @code{gzip}. Other endings indicate other compression programs. | |
2348 | |
2349 Automatic uncompression and compression apply to all the operations in | |
2350 which Emacs uses the contents of a file. This includes visiting it, | |
2351 saving it, inserting its contents into a buffer, loading it, and byte | |
2352 compiling it. | |
2353 | |
2354 @node Remote Files | |
2355 @section Remote Files | |
2356 | |
2357 @cindex FTP | |
2358 @cindex remote file access | |
2359 You can refer to files on other machines using a special file name syntax: | |
2360 | |
2361 @example | |
2362 @group | |
2363 /@var{host}:@var{filename} | |
2364 /@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename} | |
2365 @end group | |
2366 @end example | |
2367 | |
2368 @noindent | |
2369 When you do this, Emacs uses the FTP program to read and write files on | |
2370 the specified host. It logs in through FTP using your user name or the | |
2371 name @var{user}. It may ask you for a password from time to time; this | |
2372 is used for logging in on @var{host}. | |
2373 | |
2374 @cindex ange-ftp | |
2375 @vindex ange-ftp-default-user | |
2376 Normally, if you do not specify a user name in a remote file name, | |
2377 that means to use your own user name. But if you set the variable | |
2378 @code{ange-ftp-default-user} to a string, that string is used instead. | |
2379 (The Emacs package that implements FTP file access is called | |
2380 @code{ange-ftp}.) | |
2381 | |
2382 @vindex file-name-handler-alist | |
2383 You can entirely turn off the FTP file name feature by setting the | |
2384 variable @code{file-name-handler-alist} to @code{nil}. | |
2385 | |
2386 @node Quoted File Names | |
2387 @section Quoted File Names | |
2388 | |
2389 @cindex quoting file names | |
2390 You can @dfn{quote} an absolute file name to prevent special | |
2391 characters and syntax in it from having their special effects. | |
2392 The way to do this is to add @samp{/:} at the beginning. | |
2393 | |
2394 For example, you can quote a local file name which appears remote, to | |
2395 prevent it from being treated as a remote file name. Thus, if you have | |
2396 a directory named @file{/foo:} and a file named @file{bar} in it, you | |
2397 can refer to that file in Emacs as @samp{/:/foo:/bar}. | |
2398 | |
2399 @samp{/:} can also prevent @samp{~} from being treated as a special | |
2400 character for a user's home directory. For example, @file{/:/tmp/~hack} | |
2401 refers to a file whose name is @file{~hack} in directory @file{/tmp}. | |
2402 | |
2403 Likewise, quoting with @samp{/:} is one way to enter in the minibuffer | |
2404 a file name that contains @samp{$}. However, the @samp{/:} must be at | |
2405 the beginning of the buffer in order to quote @samp{$}. | |
2406 | |
2407 You can also quote wildcard characters with @samp{/:}, for visiting. | |
2408 For example, @file{/:/tmp/foo*bar} visits the file @file{/tmp/foo*bar}. | |
2409 However, in most cases you can simply type the wildcard characters for | |
2410 themselves. For example, if the only file name in @file{/tmp} that | |
2411 starts with @samp{foo} and ends with @samp{bar} is @file{foo*bar}, then | |
2412 specifying @file{/tmp/foo*bar} will visit just @file{/tmp/foo*bar}. | |
2413 |