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@settitle Programming in Emacs Lisp
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@c ---------
@c <<<< For hard copy printing, this file is now
@c      set for smallbook, which works for all sizes
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@set edition-number 2.07
@set update-date 2002 Aug 23

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@c ----------------------------------------------------

@dircategory Emacs

* Emacs Lisp Intro: (eintr).
  			A simple introduction to Emacs Lisp programming.
@end direntry

@copying
This is an introduction to @cite{Programming in Emacs Lisp}, for
people who are not programmers.

Edition @value{edition-number}, @value{update-date}

Copyright @copyright{} 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@sp 2

Published by the Free Software Foundation, Inc.@*
59 Temple Place, Suite 330@*
Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA@*

@c Printed copies are available for $30 each.@*
ISBN 1-882114-43-4

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; there
being no Invariant Section, with the Front-Cover Texts being ``A GNU
Manual'', and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a) below.  A copy of
the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free
Documentation License''.

@sp 6
@center @titlefont{An Introduction to}
@sp 2
@center @titlefont{Programming in Emacs Lisp}
@sp 2
@center Second Edition
@sp 4
@center by Robert J. Chassell

@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll

@evenheading @thispage @| @| @thischapter
@oddheading @thissection @| @| @thispage
@end iftex

@ifnothtml

@c Keep T.O.C. short by tightening up.
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@contents

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@c >>>> Set pageno appropriately <<<<

@c The first page of the Preface is a roman numeral; it is the first
@c right handed page after the Table of Contents; hence the following
@c setting must be for an odd negative number.

@c if largebook, there are 8 pages in Table of Contents
@ifset largebook
@iftex
@pageno = -9
@end iftex
@end ifset

@c if smallbook, there are 10 pages in Table of Contents
@ifclear largebook
@iftex
@pageno = -11
@end iftex
@end ifclear

@ifnottex
@node Top, Preface, (dir), (dir)
@top An Introduction to Programming in Emacs Lisp

* Debugging::                   How to run the Emacs Lisp debuggers.
* Conclusion::                  Now you have the basics.
* the-the::                     An appendix: how to find reduplicated words.
* Kill Ring::                   An appendix: how the kill ring works.
* Full Graph::                  How to create a graph with labelled axes.
* GNU Free Documentation License::
* Index::
* About the Author::

@detailmenu

Handling the Kill Ring

* rotate-yank-pointer::         Move a pointer along a list and around.
* yank::                        Paste a copy of a clipped element.
* yank-pop::                    Insert first element pointed to.

The @code{rotate-yank-pointer} Function

* Understanding rotate-yk-ptr::
* rotate-yk-ptr body::          The body of @code{rotate-yank-pointer}.

* Another Bug::                 Yet another bug @dots{} most insidious.
* Final printed graph::         The graph itself!

@end detailmenu
@end menu

@node Preface, List Processing, Top, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@unnumbered Preface

@iftex
@headings off
@evenheading @thispage @| @| @thischapter
@oddheading @thissection @| @| @thispage
@pageno = 1
@end iftex

@node List Processing, Practicing Evaluation, Preface, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@chapter List Processing

To the untutored eye, Lisp is a strange programming language.  In Lisp
code there are parentheses everywhere.  Some people even claim that the
name stands for `Lots of Isolated Silly Parentheses'.  But the claim is
unwarranted.  Lisp stands for LISt Processing, and the programming
language handles @emph{lists} (and lists of lists) by putting them
between parentheses.  The parentheses mark the boundaries of the list.
Sometimes a list is preceded by a single apostrophe or quotation mark,
@samp{'}.  Lists are the basis of Lisp.

@menu
* Lisp Lists::                  What are lists?
* Run a Program::               Any list in Lisp is a program ready to run.
* Making Errors::               Generating an error message.

@code{+}, is not itself the set of instructions for the computer to
carry out.  Instead, the symbol is used, perhaps temporarily, as a way
of locating the definition or set of instructions.  What we see is the
name through which the instructions can be found.  Names of people
work the same way.  I can be referred to as @samp{Bob}; however, I am
not the letters @samp{B}, @samp{o}, @samp{b} but am the consciousness
consistently associated with a particular life-form.  The name is not
me, but it can be used to refer to me.

In Lisp, one set of instructions can be attached to several names.
For example, the computer instructions for adding numbers can be
linked to the symbol @code{plus} as well as to the symbol @code{+}
(and are in some dialects of Lisp).  Among humans, I can be referred

The type of data that should be passed to a function depends on what
kind of information it uses.  The arguments to a function such as
@code{+} must have values that are numbers, since @code{+} adds numbers.
Other functions use different kinds of data for their arguments.

@findex concat
For example, the @code{concat} function links together or unites two or
more strings of text to produce a string.  The arguments are strings.
Concatenating the two character strings @code{abc}, @code{def} produces
the single string @code{abcdef}.  This can be seen by evaluating the

@end group
@end smallexample

@need 1250
As usual, the error message tries to be helpful and makes sense after you
learn how to read it.

The first part of the error message is straightforward; it says
@samp{wrong type argument}.  Next comes the mysterious jargon word
@w{@samp{number-or-marker-p}}.  This word is trying to tell you what
kind of argument the @code{+} expected.

for @samp{%s}:

@smallexample
@group
(message "He saw %d %s"
         (- fill-column 34)
         (concat "red "
                 (substring
                  "The quick brown foxes jumped." 16 21)
                 " leaping."))
@end group

Learning Lisp is like climbing a hill in which the first part is the
steepest.  You have now climbed the most difficult part; what remains
becomes easier as you progress onwards.

In summary,

@itemize @bullet

@item

each argument by adding parts to the string that follows
@code{interactive}.  When you do this, the information is passed to
each argument in the same order it is specified in the
@code{interactive} list.  In the string, each part is separated from
the next part by a @samp{\n}, which is a newline.  For example, you
could follow @code{"BAppend to buffer:@: "} with a @samp{\n}) and an
@samp{r}.  This would cause Emacs to pass the values of point and mark
to the function as well as prompt you for the buffer---three arguments
in all.

In this case, the function definition would look like the following,

@code{(interactive)}.  The @code{mark-whole-buffer} function is like
this.

Alternatively, if the special letter-codes are not right for your
application, you can pass your own arguments to @code{interactive} as
a list.  @xref{interactive, , Using @code{Interactive}, elisp, The
GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}, for more information about this advanced
technique.

@node Permanent Installation, let, Interactive Options, Writing Defuns
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up

An @code{if} expression may have an optional third argument, called
the @dfn{else-part}, for the case when the true-or-false-test returns
false.  When this happens, the second argument or then-part of the
overall @code{if} expression is @emph{not} evaluated, but the third or
else-part @emph{is} evaluated.  You might think of this as the cloudy
day alternative for the decision `if it is warm and sunny, then go to
the beach, else read a book!''.

The word ``else'' is not written in the Lisp code; the else-part of an
@code{if} expression comes after the then-part.  In the written Lisp, the
else-part is usually written to start on a line of its own and is

or more parts that pass the information to the arguments of the
function, in sequence.  These parts may also tell the interpreter to
prompt for information.  Parts of the string are separated by
newlines, @samp{\n}.

Common code characters are:

@table @code
@item b
The name of an existing buffer.

@item message
Print a message in the echo area. The first argument is a string that
can contain @samp{%s}, @samp{%d}, or @samp{%c} to print the value of
arguments that follow the string.  The argument used by @samp{%s} must
be a string or a symbol; the argument used by @samp{%d} must be a
number.  The argument used by @samp{%c} must be an ascii code number;
it will be printed as the character with that @sc{ascii} code.

@item setq
@itemx set
The @code{setq} function sets the value of its first argument to the
value of the second argument.  The first argument is automatically

@cindex Find source of function
In versions 20 and higher, when a function is written in Emacs Lisp,
@code{describe-function} will also tell you the location of the
function definition.  If you move point over the file name and press
the @key{RET} key, which is this case means @code{help-follow} rather
than `return' or `enter', Emacs will take you directly to the function
definition.

More generally, if you want to see a function in its original source
file, you can use the @code{find-tags} function to jump to it.

The @code{find-tags} function depends on `tags tables' that record
the locations of the functions, variables, and other items to which
@code{find-tags} jumps.

To use the @code{find-tags} command, type @kbd{M-.}  (i.e., type the
@key{META} key and the period key at the same time, or else type the
@key{ESC} key and then type the period key), and then, at the prompt,
type in the name of the function whose source code you want to see,
such as @code{mark-whole-buffer}, and then type @key{RET}.  Emacs will
switch buffers and display the source code for the function on your
screen.  To switch back to your current buffer, type @kbd{C-x b

interested in Emacs sources, the tags table you will most likely want,
if it has already been created for you, will be in a subdirectory of
the @file{/usr/local/share/emacs/} directory; thus you would use the
@code{M-x visit-tags-table} command and specify a pathname such as
@file{/usr/local/share/emacs/21.0.100/lisp/TAGS} or
@file{/usr/local/src/emacs/lisp/TAGS}.  If the tags table has
not already been created, you will have to create it yourself.

@need 1250
To create a @file{TAGS} file in a specific directory, switch to that
directory in Emacs using @kbd{M-x cd} command, or list the directory

The next line is an @code{(interactive)} expression that tells Emacs
that the function will be used interactively.  These details are similar
to the @code{simplified-beginning-of-buffer} function described in the
previous section.

@node Body of mark-whole-buffer,  , mark-whole-buffer overview, mark-whole-buffer
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@subsection Body of @code{mark-whole-buffer}

The body of the @code{mark-whole-buffer} function consists of three

@code{insert-buffer} is yet another buffer-related function.  This
command copies another buffer @emph{into} the current buffer.  It is the
reverse of @code{append-to-buffer} or @code{copy-to-buffer}, since they
copy a region of text @emph{from} the current buffer to another buffer.

In addition, this code illustrates the use of @code{interactive} with a
buffer that might be @dfn{read-only} and the important distinction
between the name of an object and the object actually referred to.

@menu

and false if its argument is true.  So if @code{(bufferp buffer)}
returns true, the @code{not} expression returns false and vice-versa:
what is ``not true'' is false and what is ``not false'' is true.

Using this test, the @code{if} expression works as follows: when the
value of the variable @code{buffer} is actually a buffer rather then
its name, the true-or-false-test returns false and the @code{if}
expression does not evaluate the then-part.  This is fine, since we do
not need to do anything to the variable @code{buffer} if it really is
a buffer.

the @code{let} expression, the @code{(push-mark newmark)} expression
function sets a mark to this location.  (The previous location of the
mark is still accessible; it is recorded on the mark ring and you can
go back to it with @kbd{C-u C-@key{SPC}}.)  Meanwhile, point is
located at the beginning of the inserted text, which is where it was
before you called the insert function.

@need 1250
The whole @code{let} expression looks like this:

@smallexample

@code{(prefix-numeric-value arg)}, which converts the raw argument to a
number.  This number is multiplied by the buffer size in the following
expression:

@smallexample
(* (buffer-size) (prefix-numeric-value arg)
@end smallexample

@noindent
This multiplication creates a number that may be larger than the size of
the buffer---seven times larger if the argument is 7, for example.  Ten

position in the buffer.

The number that results from all this is passed to @code{goto-char} and
the cursor is moved to that point.

@node beginning-of-buffer complete,  , beginning-of-buffer opt arg, beginning-of-buffer
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@subsection The Complete @code{beginning-of-buffer}

@need 800
Here is the complete text of the @code{beginning-of-buffer} function:

@smallexample
@group
(defun beginning-of-buffer (&optional arg)
  "Move point to the beginning of the buffer;
leave mark at previous position.
With arg N, put point N/10 of the way
from the true beginning.
Don't use this in Lisp programs!
\(goto-char (point-min)) is faster
and does not set the mark."
  (interactive "P")
  (push-mark)

@node optional Exercise,  , Second Buffer Related Review, More Complex
@section @code{optional} Argument Exercise

Write an interactive function with an optional argument that tests
whether its argument, a number, is greater or less than the value of
@code{fill-column}, and tells you which, in a message.  However, if you
do not pass an argument to the function, use 56 as a default value.

@node Narrowing & Widening, car cdr & cons, More Complex, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@chapter Narrowing and Widening
@cindex Focusing attention (narrowing)

@cindex Widening, example of

The @code{what-line} command tells you the number of the line in which
the cursor is located.  The function illustrates the use of the
@code{save-restriction} and @code{save-excursion} commands.  Here is the
text of the function in full:

@smallexample
@group
(defun what-line ()
  "Print the current line number (in the buffer) of point."

      (message "Line %d"
               (1+ (count-lines 1 (point)))))))
@end group
@end smallexample

The function has a documentation line and is interactive, as you would
expect.  The next two lines use the functions @code{save-restriction} and
@code{widen}.

The @code{save-restriction} special form notes whatever narrowing is in
effect, if any, in the current buffer and restores that narrowing after
the code in the body of the @code{save-restriction} has been evaluated.

@samp{%s}, or @samp{%c} to print arguments that follow the string.
@samp{%d} prints the argument as a decimal, so the message will say
something such as @samp{Line 243}.

@need 1200
The number that is printed in place of the @samp{%d} is computed by the
last line of the function:

@smallexample
(1+ (count-lines 1 (point)))

@node narrow Exercise,  , what-line, Narrowing & Widening
@section Exercise with Narrowing

Write a function that will display the first 60 characters of the
current buffer, even if you have narrowed the buffer to its latter
half so that the first line is inaccessible.  Restore point, mark,
and narrowing.  For this exercise, you need to use
@code{save-restriction}, @code{widen}, @code{goto-char},
@code{point-min}, @code{buffer-substring}, @code{message}, and other
functions, a whole potpourri.

@node car cdr & cons, Cutting & Storing Text, Narrowing & Widening, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@chapter @code{car}, @code{cdr}, @code{cons}: Fundamental Functions
@findex car, @r{introduced}

first item.  Thus, while the @sc{car} of the list @code{'(rose violet
daisy buttercup)} is @code{rose}, the rest of the list, the value
returned by the @code{cdr} function, is @code{(violet daisy
buttercup)}.

@need 1250
You can see this by evaluating the following in the usual way:

@smallexample
(cdr '(rose violet daisy buttercup))
@end smallexample

The @code{setcdr} function is similar to the @code{setcar} function,
except that the function replaces the second and subsequent elements of
a list rather than the first element.

@need 1200
To see how this works, set the value of the variable to a list of
domesticated animals by evaluating the following expression:

@smallexample

(interactive "*p\ncZap to char: ")
@end smallexample

The part within quotation marks, @code{"*p\ncZap to char:@: "}, specifies
three different things.  First, and most simply, the asterisk, @samp{*},
causes an error to be signalled if the buffer is read-only.  This means that
if you try @code{zap-to-char} in a read-only buffer you will not be able to
remove text, and you will receive a message that says ``Buffer is
read-only''; your terminal may beep at you as well.

The version 21 implementation does not have the asterisk, @samp{*}.  The

However, the version 19 implementation copies text from a read-only
buffer only because of a mistake in the implementation of
@code{interactive}.  According to the documentation for
@code{interactive}, the asterisk, @samp{*}, should prevent the
@code{zap-to-char} function from doing anything at all when the buffer
is read only.  The function should not copy the text to the kill ring.
It is a bug that it does.

In version 21, @code{interactive} is implemented correctly.  So the
asterisk, @samp{*}, had to be removed from the interactive
specification.  If you insert an @samp{*} and evaluate the function
definition, then the next time you run the @code{zap-to-char} function
on a read-only buffer, you will not copy any text.

That change aside, and a change to the documentation, the two versions
of the  @code{zap-to-char} function are identical.

Let us continue with the interactive specification.

@unnumberedsubsec The Complete @code{kill-region} Definition
@end ifnottex

@need 1200
We will go through the @code{condition-case} code in a moment.  First,
let us look at the complete definition of @code{kill-region}, with
comments added:

@c v 21
@smallexample
@group
(defun kill-region (beg end)

In the past, Emacs used the @code{defvar} special form both for
internal variables that you would not expect a user to change and for
variables that you do expect a user to change.  Although you can still
use @code{defvar} for user customizable variables, please use
@code{defcustom} instead, since that special form provides a path into
the Customization commands.  (@xref{defcustom, , Setting Variables
with @code{defcustom}}.)

When you specified a variable using the @code{defvar} special form,
you could distinguish a readily settable variable from others by
typing an asterisk, @samp{*}, in the first column of its documentation
string.  For example:

  "*Buffer name for `shell-command' @dots{} error output.
@dots{} ")
@end group
@end smallexample

@noindent
This means that you could (and still can) use the @code{edit-options}
command to change the value of
@code{shell-command-default-error-buffer} temporarily.

@findex edit-options
However, options set using @code{edit-options} are set only for the
duration of your editing session.  The new values are not saved
between sessions.  Each time Emacs starts, it reads the original
value, unless you change the value within your @file{.emacs} file,
either by setting it manually or by using @code{customize}.
@xref{Emacs Initialization, , Your @file{.emacs} File}.

For me, the major use of the @code{edit-options} command is to suggest
variables that I might want to set in my @file{.emacs} file.  I urge
you to look through the list.  (@xref{Edit Options, , Editing Variable
Values, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}.)

@node copy-region-as-kill, cons & search-fwd Review, defvar, Cutting & Storing Text
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@section @code{copy-region-as-kill}
@findex copy-region-as-kill

@end ifnottex

@need 1200
Here is the complete text of the version 21 @code{copy-region-as-kill}
function:

@smallexample
@group
(defun copy-region-as-kill (beg end)
  "Save the region as if killed, but don't kill it.

@code{kill-append}.  When the @code{kill-append} function is
evaluated, it is bound to the value returned by evaluating the actual
argument.  In this case, this is the expression @code{(< end beg)}.
This expression does not directly determine whether the killed text in
this command is located before or after the kill text of the last
command; what is does is determine whether the value of the variable
@code{end} is less than the value of the variable @code{beg}.  If it
is, it means that the user is most likely heading towards the
beginning of the buffer.  Also, the result of evaluating the predicate
expression, @code{(< end beg)}, will be true and the text will be
prepended before the previous text.  On the other hand, if the value of

@dots{}  It does this @var{N} times and returns the results.

@findex setcdr, @r{example}
Thus, if we had a four element list that was supposed to be three
elements long, we could set the @sc{cdr} of the next to last element
to @code{nil}, and thereby shorten the list.

You can see this by evaluating the following three expressions in turn.
First set the value of @code{trees} to @code{(maple oak pine birch)},
then set the @sc{cdr} of its second @sc{cdr} to @code{nil} and then
find the value of @code{trees}:

@smallexample
@group
(setq trees '(maple oak pine birch))
     @result{} (maple oak pine birch)

bringing back text that has been cut out of the buffer---the yank
commands.  However, before discussing the yank commands, it is better
to learn how lists are implemented in a computer.  This will make
clear such mysteries as the use of the term `pointer'.

@node cons & search-fwd Review, search Exercises, copy-region-as-kill, Cutting & Storing Text
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@section Review

Here is a brief summary of some recently introduced functions.

Optionally, how many times to repeat the search; if negative, the
search goes backwards.
@end enumerate

@item kill-region
@itemx delete-region
@itemx copy-region-as-kill

@code{kill-region} cuts the text between point and mark from the
buffer and stores that text in the kill ring, so you can get it back
by yanking.

to say, the symbol @code{flowers} holds the address of the pair of
address-boxes, the first of which holds the address of @code{violet},
and the second of which holds the address of @code{buttercup}.

A pair of address-boxes is called a @dfn{cons cell} or @dfn{dotted
pair}.  @xref{List Type, , List Type , elisp, The GNU Emacs Lisp
Reference Manual}, and @ref{Dotted Pair Notation, , Dotted Pair
Notation, elisp, The GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}, for more
information about cons cells and dotted pairs.

@need 1200

@c comma in printed title causes problem in Info cross reference
@item
Write a function for Texinfo mode that creates an index entry at the
beginning of a paragraph for every @samp{@@dfn} within the paragraph.
(In a Texinfo file, @samp{@@dfn} marks a definition.  For more
information, see
@ifinfo
@ref{Indicating, , Indicating Definitions, texinfo}.)
@end ifinfo
@ifhtml
@ref{Indicating, , Indicating, texinfo, Texinfo Manual}.)
@end ifhtml
@iftex
``Indicating Definitions, Commands, etc.'' in @cite{Texinfo, The GNU
Documentation Format}.)
@end iftex
@end itemize

@node Regexp Search, Counting Words, Loops & Recursion, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up

@smallexample
(custom-set-variables '(eval-expression-print-length nil))
@end smallexample

@noindent
(@xref{defcustom, , Setting Variables with @code{defcustom}}.
Then evaluate the @code{lengths-list-file} expression.)

@need 1200
The lengths' list for @file{debug.el} takes less than a second to
produce and looks like this:

(sort
 (recursive-lengths-list-many-files
  '("../lisp/macros.el"
    "../lisp/mailalias.el"
    "../lisp/makesum.el"))
 '<
@end group
@end smallexample

@need 800
@noindent

@group
       ;; check whether filename is that of a directory
       ((eq t (car (cdr (car current-directory-list))))
        ;; decide whether to skip or recurse
        (if
            (equal (or "." "..")
                   (substring (car (car current-directory-list)) -1))
            ;; then do nothing if filename is that of
            ;;   current directory or parent
            ()
@end group
@group
          ;; else descend into the directory and repeat the process
          (setq el-files-list

The fourth and subsequent arguments to @code{defcustom} specify types
and options; these are not featured in @code{defvar}.  (These
arguments are optional.)

Each of these arguments consists of a keyword followed by a value.
Each keyword starts with the character @code{:}.

@need 1250
For example, the customizable user option variable
@code{text-mode-hook} looks like this:

@noindent
The name of the variable is @code{text-mode-hook}; it has no default
value; and its documentation string tells you what it does.

The @code{:type} keyword tells Emacs what kind of data
@code{text-mode-hook} should be set to and how to display the value in
a Customization buffer.

The @code{:options} keyword specifies a suggested list of values for
the variable.  Currently, you can use @code{:options} only for a hook.
The list is only a suggestion; it is not exclusive; a person who sets
the variable may set it to other values; the list shown following the

In spite of the warning, you certainly may edit, cut, and paste the
expression!  I do all time.  The purpose of the warning is to scare
those who do not know what they are doing, so they do not
inadvertently generate an error.

The @code{custom-set-variables} works somewhat differently than a
@code{setq}.  While I have never learned the differences, I do modify
the @code{custom-set-variables} expressions in my @file{.emacs} file
by hand:  I make the changes in what appears to me to be a reasonable
manner and have not had any problems.  Others prefer to use the
Customization command and let Emacs do the work for them.

Another @code{custom-set-@dots{}} function is @code{custom-set-faces}.
This function sets the various font faces.  Over time, I have set a
considerable number of faces.  Some of the time, I re-set them using
@code{customize}; other times, I simply edit the

The first part of the file consists of comments: reminders to myself.
By now, of course, I remember these things, but when I started, I did
not.

@smallexample
@group
;;;; Bob's .emacs file
; Robert J. Chassell
; 26 September 1985

@c findex load

Many people in the GNU Emacs community have written extensions to
Emacs.  As time goes by, these extensions are often included in new
releases.  For example, the Calendar and Diary packages are now part
of the standard GNU Emacs.

(Calc, which I consider a vital part of Emacs, would be part of the
standard distribution except that it was so large it was packaged
separately and no one has changed that.)

You can use a @code{load} command to evaluate a complete file and
thereby install all the functions and variables in the file into Emacs.
For example:

@group
  (setq x-pointer-shape (string-to-int mpointer))
  (set-mouse-color "white"))
@end group
@end smallexample
@end itemize

@node Mode Line,  , Miscellaneous, Emacs Initialization
@section A Modified Mode Line
@vindex default-mode-line-format
@cindex Mode line format

@code{mode-line-modified} is a variable that tells whether the buffer
has been modified, @code{mode-name} tells the name of the mode, and so
on.  However, the format looks complicated because of two features we
have not discussed.

The first string in the mode line is a dash or hyphen, @samp{-}.  In
the old days, it would have been specified simply as @code{"-"}.  But
nowadays, Emacs can add properties to a string, such as highlighting
or, as in this case, a help feature.  If you place your mouse cursor
over the hyphen, some help information appears  (By default, you must
wait one second before the information appears.  You can change that
timing by changing the value of @code{tooltip-delay}.)

@need 1000
The new string format has a special syntax:

the range.  It consists of a property list,  a
property name, in this case, @samp{help-echo}, followed by a value, in this
case, a string.  The second, third, and fourth elements of this new
string format can be repeated.

@xref{Text Props and Strings, , Text Properties in String, elisp, The
GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}, and see @ref{Mode Line Format, , Mode
Line Format, elisp, The GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}, for more
information.

@code{mode-line-buffer-identification}
displays the current buffer name.  It is a list
beginning @code{(#("%12b" 0 4 @dots{}}.
The @code{#(} begins the list.

  call-interactively(eval-last-sexp)
---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------
@end group
@end smallexample

@noindent
Finally, after you type @kbd{d} two more times, Emacs will reach the
error, and the top two lines of the @file{*Backtrace*} buffer will look
like this:

quickly until reaching a @dfn{breakpoint} where execution stops.

Edebug is described in @ref{edebug, , Edebug, elisp, The GNU Emacs
Lisp Reference Manual}.

Here is a bugged function definition for @code{triangle-recursively}.
@xref{Recursive triangle function, , Recursion in place of a counter},
for a review of it.

@smallexample

Result: 3 = C-c
@end smallexample

@noindent
This means the value of @code{number} is 3, which is @sc{ascii}
`control-c' (the third letter of the alphabet).

You can continue moving through the code until you reach the line with
the error.  Before evaluation, that line looks like this:

@smallexample

@cindex Duplicated words function
@cindex Words, duplicated

Sometimes when you you write text, you duplicate words---as with ``you
you'' near the beginning of this sentence.  I find that most
frequently, I duplicate ``the'; hence, I call the function for
detecting duplicated words, @code{the-the}.

@need 1250
As a first step, you could use the following regular expression to
search for duplicates:

@menu
* rotate-yank-pointer::         Move a pointer along a list and around.
* yank::                        Paste a copy of a clipped element.
* yank-pop::                    Insert first element pointed to.
@end menu

@node rotate-yank-pointer, yank, Kill Ring, Kill Ring
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@appendixsec The @code{rotate-yank-pointer} Function

@end smallexample

@noindent
will be 1.

Consequently, the argument to @code{nthcdr} will be found as the result of
the expression

@smallexample
(% 1 length)

@noindent
is 1.  (I just checked this by placing the cursor after the expression
and typing @kbd{C-x C-e}.  Indeed, 1 is printed in the echo area.)

@node rotate-yk-ptr remainder, kill-rng-yk-ptr last elt, Remainder Function, rotate-yk-ptr body
@unnumberedsubsubsec Using @code{%} in @code{rotate-yank-pointer}

When the @code{kill-ring-yank-pointer} points to the
beginning of the kill ring, and the argument passed to

simplification for writing the program.  You don't need to jump back
towards the beginning of the kill ring more than one place at a time
and doing this is easier than writing a function to determine the
magnitude of the number that follows the minus sign.

@node yank-pop,  , yank, Kill Ring
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@appendixsec @code{yank-pop}
@findex yank-pop

After understanding @code{yank}, the @code{yank-pop} function is easy.

inserted.  This leaves point after the new text.  If in the previous
yank, point was left before the inserted text, point and mark are now
exchanged so point is again left in front of the newly inserted text.
That is all there is to it!

@node Full Graph, GNU Free Documentation License, Kill Ring, Top
@appendix A Graph with Labelled Axes

Printed axes help you understand a graph.  They convey scale.  In an
earlier chapter (@pxref{Readying a Graph, ,  Readying a Graph}), we
wrote the code to print the body of a graph.  Here we write the code

@end smallexample

@noindent
As we shall see, this expression is not quite right.

@node print-Y-axis, print-X-axis, print-graph Varlist, Full Graph
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@appendixsec The @code{print-Y-axis} Function
@cindex Axis, print vertical
@cindex Y axis printing

As usual in cases like this, a complex problem becomes simpler if it is
divided into several smaller problems.

First, consider the case when the highest value of the graph is an
integral multiple of five---when it is 5, 10, 15 ,or some higher
multiple of five.  We can use this value as the Y axis height.

A fairly simply way to determine whether a number is a multiple of
five is to divide it by five and see if the division results in a
remainder.  If there is no remainder, the number is a multiple of

@code{Y-axis-label-spacing}.  If it is, we construct a numbered label
using the @code{Y-axis-element} function; if not, we construct a
blank label using the @code{make-string} function.  The base line
consists of the number one followed by a tic mark.

@node print-Y-axis Penultimate,  , Y-axis-column, print-Y-axis
@appendixsubsec The Not Quite Final Version of @code{print-Y-axis}

The list constructed by the @code{Y-axis-column} function is passed to
the @code{print-Y-axis} function, which inserts the list as a column.

Emacs will print labels vertically, the top one being
@w{@samp{10 -@w{ }}}.  (The @code{print-graph} function
will pass the value of @code{height-of-top-line}, which
in this case would end up as 15.)

@node print-X-axis, Print Whole Graph, print-Y-axis, Full Graph
@appendixsec The @code{print-X-axis} Function
@cindex Axis, print horizontal
@cindex X axis printing
@cindex Print horizontal axis

Press @key{RET} to evaluate the expression.
@end enumerate

@need 1250
Emacs will print the horizontal axis like this:

@smallexample
@group
     |   |    |    |    |
     1   5   10   15   20

     |   |    |    |
     1   5   10   15
@end group
@end smallexample

On the other hand, if you pass @code{print-graph} a
@code{vertical-step} value of 2, by evaluating this expression:

@smallexample
(print-graph '(3 2 5 6 7 5 3 4 6 4 3 2 1) 2)

         top-of-ranges))
@end group
@end smallexample

@noindent
On my machine, this takes about an hour.  It looks though 303 Lisp
files in my copy of Emacs version 19.23.  After all that computing,
the @code{list-for-graph} has this value:

@smallexample
@group
(537 1027 955 785 594 483 349 292 224 199 166 120 116 99
90 80 67 48 52 45 41 33 28 26 25 20 12 28 11 13 220)
@end group
@end smallexample

@noindent
This means that my copy of Emacs has 537 function definitions with
fewer than 10 words or symbols in them, 1,027 function definitions
with 10 to 19 words or symbols in them, 955 function definitions with
20 to 29 words or symbols in them, and so on.

Clearly, just by looking at this list we can see that most function

@noindent
is a function definition that says `return the value resulting from
dividing whatever is passed to me as @code{arg} by 50'.

Earlier, for example, we had a function @code{multiply-by-seven}; it
multiplied its argument by 7.  This function is similar, except it
divides its argument by 50; and, it has no name.  The anonymous
equivalent of @code{multiply-by-seven} is:

    (print-X-axis numbers-list horizontal-step)))
@end group
@end smallexample
@end ifnottex

@ignore
Graphing Definitions Re-listed

@need 1250
Here are all the graphing definitions in their final form:

    (graph-body-print
        numbers-list height-of-top-line symbol-width)
    (print-X-axis numbers-list horizontal-step)))
@end group
@end smallexample
@end ignore

@page
@node Final printed graph,  , Another Bug, Print Whole Graph
@appendixsubsec The Printed Graph

When made and installed, you can call the @code{print-graph} command
like this:

@smallexample
@group
(print-graph fiftieth-list-for-graph 50 10)
@end group
@end smallexample

Here is the graph:

@sp 2

@smallexample
@group
1000 -  *

@end group
@end smallexample

@sp 2

The largest group of functions contain 10 -- 19 words and symbols each.

@node GNU Free Documentation License, Index, Full Graph, Top
@appendix GNU Free Documentation License

@cindex FDL, GNU Free Documentation License
@center Version 1.1, March 2000

@display
Copyright @copyright{} 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307, USA

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
@end display

@enumerate 0
@item
PREAMBLE

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
written document @dfn{free} in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone
the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without
modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.  Secondarily,
this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get
credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for
modifications made by others.

This License is a kind of ``copyleft'', which means that derivative
works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense.  It
complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
license designed for free software.

principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.

@item
APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

This License applies to any manual or other work that contains a
notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed
under the terms of this License.  The ``Document'', below, refers to any
such manual or work.  Any member of the public is a licensee, and is
addressed as ``you''.

A ``Modified Version'' of the Document means any work containing the
Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
modifications and/or translated into another language.

A ``Secondary Section'' is a named appendix or a front-matter section of
the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the
publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall subject
(or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly
within that overall subject.  (For example, if the Document is in part a
textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any
mathematics.)  The relationship could be a matter of historical
connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
them.

The ``Invariant Sections'' are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice
that says that the Document is released under this License.

The ``Cover Texts'' are certain short passages of text that are listed,
as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
the Document is released under this License.

A ``Transparent'' copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
represented in a format whose specification is available to the
general public, whose contents can be viewed and edited directly and
straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of
pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or
for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input
to text formatters.  A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
format whose markup has been designed to thwart or discourage
subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent.  A copy that is
not ``Transparent'' is called ``Opaque''.

Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
@sc{ascii} without markup, Texinfo input format, La@TeX{} input format,
@acronym{SGML} or @acronym{XML} using a publicly available
@acronym{DTD}, and standard-conforming simple @acronym{HTML} designed
for human modification.  Opaque formats include PostScript,
@acronym{PDF}, proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by
proprietary word processors, @acronym{SGML} or @acronym{XML} for which
the @acronym{DTD} and/or processing tools are not generally available,
and the machine-generated @acronym{HTML} produced by some word
processors for output purposes only.

The ``Title Page'' means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material
this License requires to appear in the title page.  For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such, ``Title Page'' means
the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title,
preceding the beginning of the body of the text.

@item
VERBATIM COPYING

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either

you may publicly display copies.

@item
COPYING IN QUANTITY

If you publish printed copies of the Document numbering more than 100,
and the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose
the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover.  Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify
you as the publisher of these copies.  The front cover must present
the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible.  You may add other material on the covers in addition.

pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
a publicly-accessible computer-network location containing a complete
Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material, which the
general network-using public has access to download anonymously at no
charge using public-standard network protocols.  If you use the latter
option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin
distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this
Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location
until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque
copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to
the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

@item
List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
Document (all of its principal authors, if it has less than five).

@item
State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
Modified Version, as the publisher.

@item
Include an unaltered copy of this License.

@item
Preserve the section entitled ``History'', and its title, and add to
it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page.  If
there is no section entitled ``History'' in the Document, create one
stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
Version as stated in the previous sentence.

@item

You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.

@item
In any section entitled ``Acknowledgments'' or ``Dedications'',
preserve the section's title, and preserve in the section all the
substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgments
and/or dedications given therein.

@item
Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
unaltered in their text and in their titles.  Section numbers
or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.

@item
Delete any section entitled ``Endorsements''.  Such a section
may not be included in the Modified Version.

@item
Do not retitle any existing section as ``Endorsements''
or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
@end enumerate

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
of these sections as invariant.  To do this, add their titles to the
list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section entitled ``Endorsements'', provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
parties---for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
standard.

You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
license notice.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy.  If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections entitled ``History''
in the various original documents, forming one section entitled
``History''; likewise combine any sections entitled ``Acknowledgments'',
and any sections entitled ``Dedications''.  You must delete all sections
entitled ``Endorsements.''

@item
COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents

@item
AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, does not as a whole count as a Modified Version
of the Document, provided no compilation copyright is claimed for the
compilation.  Such a compilation is called an ``aggregate'', and this
License does not apply to the other self-contained works thus compiled
with the Document, on account of their being thus compiled, if they
are not themselves derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one quarter
of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
covers that surround only the Document within the aggregate.
Otherwise they must appear on covers around the whole aggregate.

@item
TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections.  You may include a
translation of this License provided that you also include the
original English version of this License.  In case of a disagreement
between the translation and the original English version of this
License, the original English version will prevail.

@item
TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except

of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation.  If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
@end enumerate

@node Index, About the Author, GNU Free Documentation License, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@unnumbered Index

@evenheading @thispage @| @| @thistitle
@oddheading            @| @| @thispage
@end iftex

@bye

88155:d7ddb3e565de

\input texinfo                                  @c -*-texinfo-*-
@comment %**start of header
@setfilename ../info/eintr
@c setfilename emacs-lisp-intro.info
@c sethtmlfilename emacs-lisp-intro.html
@settitle Programming in Emacs Lisp
@syncodeindex vr cp
@syncodeindex fn cp
@setchapternewpage odd

@c ---------
@c <<<< For hard copy printing, this file is now
@c      set for smallbook, which works for all sizes
@c      of paper, and with Postscript figures >>>>
@smallbook
@clear  largebook
@set print-postscript-figures
@c set largebook
@c clear print-postscript-figures
@c ---------

@comment %**end of header

@set edition-number 2.14
@set update-date 2004 Oct 12

@ignore
 ## Summary of shell commands to create various output formats:

    pushd /usr/local/src/emacs/lispintro/

    ## Info output
    makeinfo --no-split --paragraph-indent=0 --verbose emacs-lisp-intro.texi

    ## DVI output

    --verbose emacs-lisp-intro.texi

    ## XML output
    makeinfo --xml --no-split --paragraph-indent=0 \
    --verbose emacs-lisp-intro.texi

    #### (You must be in the same directory as the viewed file.)

      ## View DVI output
      xdvi emacs-lisp-intro.dvi &

      ## View HTML output
      galeon emacs-lisp-intro.html

      ## View Info output with standalone reader
      info emacs-lisp-intro.info

 ## popd

@end ignore

@c ================ Included Figures ================

@end tex
@end ifset

@c For all sized formats:  print within-book cross
@c reference with ``...''  rather than [...]

@c This works with the texinfo.tex file, version 2003-05-04.08,
@c in the Texinfo version 4.6 of the 2003 Jun 13 distribution.

@tex
\global\def\xrefprintnodename#1{``#1''}
@end tex

@c ----------------------------------------------------

@dircategory Emacs

* Emacs Lisp Intro: (eintr).
  			A simple introduction to Emacs Lisp programming.
@end direntry

@copying
This is an @cite{Introduction to Programming in Emacs Lisp}, for
people who are not programmers.
@sp 1
Edition @value{edition-number}, @value{update-date}
@sp 1
Copyright @copyright{} 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2001,
   2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@sp 1

@iftex
Published by the:@*

GNU Press,                      @hfill  @uref{http://www.gnupress.org}@*
a division of the               @hfill General: @email{press@@gnu.org}@*
Free Software Foundation, Inc.  @hfill Orders:@w{ }  @email{sales@@gnu.org}@*
51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor @hfill Tel: [phone]@*
Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA       @hfill Fax: [phone]@*
@end iftex

@ifnottex
Published by the:

@example
GNU Press,                          Website: http://www.gnupress.org
a division of the                   General: press@@gnu.org
Free Software Foundation, Inc.      Orders:  sales@@gnu.org
51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor     Tel: [phone]
Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA           Fax: [phone]
@end example
@end ifnottex

@sp 1
@c Printed copies are available for $30 each.@*
ISBN 1-882114-43-4

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; there
being no Invariant Section, with the Front-Cover Texts being ``A GNU
Manual'', and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a) below.  A copy of
the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU Free
Documentation License''.

@sp 6
@center @titlefont{An Introduction to}
@sp 2
@center @titlefont{Programming in Emacs Lisp}
@sp 2
@center Revised Second Edition
@sp 4
@center by Robert J. Chassell

@page
@vskip 0pt plus 1filll

@evenheading @thispage @| @| @thischapter
@oddheading @thissection @| @| @thispage
@end iftex

@ifnothtml
@c     Keep T.O.C. short by tightening up for largebook
@ifset largebook
@tex
\global\parskip 2pt plus 1pt
\global\advance\baselineskip by -1pt
@end tex
@end ifset
@end ifnothtml

@shortcontents
@contents

@ifnottex
@node Top, Preface, (dir), (dir)
@top An Introduction to Programming in Emacs Lisp

* Debugging::                   How to run the Emacs Lisp debuggers.
* Conclusion::                  Now you have the basics.
* the-the::                     An appendix: how to find reduplicated words.
* Kill Ring::                   An appendix: how the kill ring works.
* Full Graph::                  How to create a graph with labelled axes.
* Free Software and Free Manuals::
* GNU Free Documentation License::
* Index::
* About the Author::

@detailmenu

Handling the Kill Ring

* rotate-yank-pointer::         Move a pointer along a list and around.
* yank::                        Paste a copy of a clipped element.
* yank-pop::                    Insert first element pointed to.
* ring file::

The @code{rotate-yank-pointer} Function

* Understanding rotate-yk-ptr::
* rotate-yk-ptr body::          The body of @code{rotate-yank-pointer}.

* Another Bug::                 Yet another bug @dots{} most insidious.
* Final printed graph::         The graph itself!

@end detailmenu
@end menu

@c >>>> Set pageno appropriately <<<<

@c The first page of the Preface is a roman numeral; it is the first
@c right handed page after the Table of Contents; hence the following
@c setting must be for an odd negative number.

@iftex
@global@pageno = -11
@end iftex

@node Preface, List Processing, Top, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@unnumbered Preface

@iftex
@headings off
@evenheading @thispage @| @| @thischapter
@oddheading @thissection @| @| @thispage
@global@pageno = 1
@end iftex

@node List Processing, Practicing Evaluation, Preface, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@chapter List Processing

To the untutored eye, Lisp is a strange programming language.  In Lisp
code there are parentheses everywhere.  Some people even claim that
the name stands for `Lots of Isolated Silly Parentheses'.  But the
claim is unwarranted.  Lisp stands for LISt Processing, and the
programming language handles @emph{lists} (and lists of lists) by
putting them between parentheses.  The parentheses mark the boundaries
of the list.  Sometimes a list is preceded by a single apostrophe or
quotation mark, @samp{'}@footnote{The single apostrophe or quotation
mark is an abbreviation for the function @code{quote}; you need not
think about functions now; functions are defined in @ref{Making
Errors, , Generate an Error Message}.}  Lists are the basis of Lisp.

@menu
* Lisp Lists::                  What are lists?
* Run a Program::               Any list in Lisp is a program ready to run.
* Making Errors::               Generating an error message.

@code{+}, is not itself the set of instructions for the computer to
carry out.  Instead, the symbol is used, perhaps temporarily, as a way
of locating the definition or set of instructions.  What we see is the
name through which the instructions can be found.  Names of people
work the same way.  I can be referred to as @samp{Bob}; however, I am
not the letters @samp{B}, @samp{o}, @samp{b} but am, or were, the
consciousness consistently associated with a particular life-form.
The name is not me, but it can be used to refer to me.

In Lisp, one set of instructions can be attached to several names.
For example, the computer instructions for adding numbers can be
linked to the symbol @code{plus} as well as to the symbol @code{+}
(and are in some dialects of Lisp).  Among humans, I can be referred

The type of data that should be passed to a function depends on what
kind of information it uses.  The arguments to a function such as
@code{+} must have values that are numbers, since @code{+} adds numbers.
Other functions use different kinds of data for their arguments.

@need 1250
@findex concat
For example, the @code{concat} function links together or unites two or
more strings of text to produce a string.  The arguments are strings.
Concatenating the two character strings @code{abc}, @code{def} produces
the single string @code{abcdef}.  This can be seen by evaluating the

@end group
@end smallexample

@need 1250
As usual, the error message tries to be helpful and makes sense after you
learn how to read it.@footnote{@code{(quote hello)} is an expansion of
the abbreviation @code{'hello}.}

The first part of the error message is straightforward; it says
@samp{wrong type argument}.  Next comes the mysterious jargon word
@w{@samp{number-or-marker-p}}.  This word is trying to tell you what
kind of argument the @code{+} expected.

for @samp{%s}:

@smallexample
@group
(message "He saw %d %s"
         (- fill-column 32)
         (concat "red "
                 (substring
                  "The quick brown foxes jumped." 16 21)
                 " leaping."))
@end group

Learning Lisp is like climbing a hill in which the first part is the
steepest.  You have now climbed the most difficult part; what remains
becomes easier as you progress onwards.

@need 1000
In summary,

@itemize @bullet

@item

each argument by adding parts to the string that follows
@code{interactive}.  When you do this, the information is passed to
each argument in the same order it is specified in the
@code{interactive} list.  In the string, each part is separated from
the next part by a @samp{\n}, which is a newline.  For example, you
could follow @code{"BAppend to buffer:@: "} with a @samp{\n} and an
@samp{r}.  This would cause Emacs to pass the values of point and mark
to the function as well as prompt you for the buffer---three arguments
in all.

In this case, the function definition would look like the following,

@code{(interactive)}.  The @code{mark-whole-buffer} function is like
this.

Alternatively, if the special letter-codes are not right for your
application, you can pass your own arguments to @code{interactive} as
a list.  @xref{Using Interactive, , Using @code{Interactive}, elisp, The
GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}, for more information about this advanced
technique.

@node Permanent Installation, let, Interactive Options, Writing Defuns
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up

An @code{if} expression may have an optional third argument, called
the @dfn{else-part}, for the case when the true-or-false-test returns
false.  When this happens, the second argument or then-part of the
overall @code{if} expression is @emph{not} evaluated, but the third or
else-part @emph{is} evaluated.  You might think of this as the cloudy
day alternative for the decision ``if it is warm and sunny, then go to
the beach, else read a book!''.

The word ``else'' is not written in the Lisp code; the else-part of an
@code{if} expression comes after the then-part.  In the written Lisp, the
else-part is usually written to start on a line of its own and is

or more parts that pass the information to the arguments of the
function, in sequence.  These parts may also tell the interpreter to
prompt for information.  Parts of the string are separated by
newlines, @samp{\n}.

@need 1000
Common code characters are:

@table @code
@item b
The name of an existing buffer.

@item message
Print a message in the echo area. The first argument is a string that
can contain @samp{%s}, @samp{%d}, or @samp{%c} to print the value of
arguments that follow the string.  The argument used by @samp{%s} must
be a string or a symbol; the argument used by @samp{%d} must be a
number.  The argument used by @samp{%c} must be an @sc{ascii} code
number; it will be printed as the character with that @sc{ascii} code.

@item setq
@itemx set
The @code{setq} function sets the value of its first argument to the
value of the second argument.  The first argument is automatically

@cindex Find source of function
In versions 20 and higher, when a function is written in Emacs Lisp,
@code{describe-function} will also tell you the location of the
function definition.  If you move point over the file name and press
the @key{RET} key, which in this case means @code{help-follow} rather
than `return' or `enter', Emacs will take you directly to the function
definition.

More generally, if you want to see a function in its original source
file, you can use the @code{find-tags} function to jump to it.

The @code{find-tags} function depends on `tags tables' that record
the locations of the functions, variables, and other items to which
@code{find-tags} jumps.

To use the @code{find-tags} command, type @kbd{M-.}  (i.e., press the
period key while holding down the @key{META} key, or else type the
@key{ESC} key and then type the period key), and then, at the prompt,
type in the name of the function whose source code you want to see,
such as @code{mark-whole-buffer}, and then type @key{RET}.  Emacs will
switch buffers and display the source code for the function on your
screen.  To switch back to your current buffer, type @kbd{C-x b

interested in Emacs sources, the tags table you will most likely want,
if it has already been created for you, will be in a subdirectory of
the @file{/usr/local/share/emacs/} directory; thus you would use the
@code{M-x visit-tags-table} command and specify a pathname such as
@file{/usr/local/share/emacs/21.0.100/lisp/TAGS} or
@file{/usr/local/src/emacs/src/TAGS}.  If the tags table has
not already been created, you will have to create it yourself.

@need 1250
To create a @file{TAGS} file in a specific directory, switch to that
directory in Emacs using @kbd{M-x cd} command, or list the directory

The next line is an @code{(interactive)} expression that tells Emacs
that the function will be used interactively.  These details are similar
to the @code{simplified-beginning-of-buffer} function described in the
previous section.

@need 1250
@node Body of mark-whole-buffer,  , mark-whole-buffer overview, mark-whole-buffer
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@subsection Body of @code{mark-whole-buffer}

The body of the @code{mark-whole-buffer} function consists of three

@code{insert-buffer} is yet another buffer-related function.  This
command copies another buffer @emph{into} the current buffer.  It is the
reverse of @code{append-to-buffer} or @code{copy-to-buffer}, since they
copy a region of text @emph{from} the current buffer to another buffer.

Here is a discussion based on the original code.  The code was
simplified in 2003 and is harder to understand.

In addition, this code illustrates the use of @code{interactive} with a
buffer that might be @dfn{read-only} and the important distinction
between the name of an object and the object actually referred to.

@menu

and false if its argument is true.  So if @code{(bufferp buffer)}
returns true, the @code{not} expression returns false and vice-versa:
what is ``not true'' is false and what is ``not false'' is true.

Using this test, the @code{if} expression works as follows: when the
value of the variable @code{buffer} is actually a buffer rather than
its name, the true-or-false-test returns false and the @code{if}
expression does not evaluate the then-part.  This is fine, since we do
not need to do anything to the variable @code{buffer} if it really is
a buffer.

the @code{let} expression, the @code{(push-mark newmark)} expression
function sets a mark to this location.  (The previous location of the
mark is still accessible; it is recorded on the mark ring and you can
go back to it with @kbd{C-u C-@key{SPC}}.)  Meanwhile, point is
located at the beginning of the inserted text, which is where it was
before you called the insert function, the position of which was saved
by the first @code{save-excursion}.

@need 1250
The whole @code{let} expression looks like this:

@smallexample

@code{(prefix-numeric-value arg)}, which converts the raw argument to a
number.  This number is multiplied by the buffer size in the following
expression:

@smallexample
(* (buffer-size) (prefix-numeric-value arg))
@end smallexample

@noindent
This multiplication creates a number that may be larger than the size of
the buffer---seven times larger if the argument is 7, for example.  Ten

position in the buffer.

The number that results from all this is passed to @code{goto-char} and
the cursor is moved to that point.

@need 1500
@node beginning-of-buffer complete,  , beginning-of-buffer opt arg, beginning-of-buffer
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@subsection The Complete @code{beginning-of-buffer}

@need 1000
Here is the complete text of the @code{beginning-of-buffer} function:
@sp 1

@smallexample
@group
(defun beginning-of-buffer (&optional arg)
  "Move point to the beginning of the buffer;
leave mark at previous position.
With arg N, put point N/10 of the way
from the true beginning.
@end group
@group
Don't use this in Lisp programs!
\(goto-char (point-min)) is faster
and does not set the mark."
  (interactive "P")
  (push-mark)

@node optional Exercise,  , Second Buffer Related Review, More Complex
@section @code{optional} Argument Exercise

Write an interactive function with an optional argument that tests
whether its argument, a number, is greater than or equal to, or else,
less than the value of @code{fill-column}, and tells you which, in a
message.  However, if you do not pass an argument to the function, use
56 as a default value.

@node Narrowing & Widening, car cdr & cons, More Complex, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@chapter Narrowing and Widening
@cindex Focusing attention (narrowing)

@cindex Widening, example of

The @code{what-line} command tells you the number of the line in which
the cursor is located.  The function illustrates the use of the
@code{save-restriction} and @code{save-excursion} commands.  Here is the
original text of the function:

@smallexample
@group
(defun what-line ()
  "Print the current line number (in the buffer) of point."

      (message "Line %d"
               (1+ (count-lines 1 (point)))))))
@end group
@end smallexample

(In recent versions of GNU Emacs, the @code{what-line} function has
been expanded to tell you your line number in a narrowed buffer as
well as your line number in a widened buffer.  The recent version is
more complex than the version shown here.  If you feel adventurous,
you might want to look at it after figuring out how this version
works.  The newer version uses a conditional to determine whether the
buffer has been narrowed, and rather than use @code{beginning-of-line}
to move point to the beginning of the current line, if need be, the
function uses @code{(forward-line 0)}.)

The function as shown here has a documentation line and is
interactive, as you would expect.  The next two lines use the
functions @code{save-restriction} and @code{widen}.

The @code{save-restriction} special form notes whatever narrowing is in
effect, if any, in the current buffer and restores that narrowing after
the code in the body of the @code{save-restriction} has been evaluated.

@samp{%s}, or @samp{%c} to print arguments that follow the string.
@samp{%d} prints the argument as a decimal, so the message will say
something such as @samp{Line 243}.

@need 1200

The number that is printed in place of the @samp{%d} is computed by the
last line of the function:

@smallexample
(1+ (count-lines 1 (point)))

@node narrow Exercise,  , what-line, Narrowing & Widening
@section Exercise with Narrowing

Write a function that will display the first 60 characters of the
current buffer, even if you have narrowed the buffer to its latter
half so that the first line is inaccessible.  Restore point, mark, and
narrowing.  For this exercise, you need to use a whole potpourri of
functions, including @code{save-restriction}, @code{widen},
@code{goto-char}, @code{point-min}, @code{message}, and
@code{buffer-substring}.

@cindex Properties, mention of @code{buffer-substring-no-properties}
(@code{buffer-substring} is a previously unmentioned function you will
have to investigate yourself; or perhaps you will have to use
@code{buffer-substring-no-properties} @dots{}, yet another function
and one that introduces text properties, a feature otherwise not
discussed here.  @xref{Text Properties, , Text Properties, elisp, The
GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}.  Additionally, do you really need
@code{goto-char} or @code{point-min}?  Or can you write the function
without them?)

@node car cdr & cons, Cutting & Storing Text, Narrowing & Widening, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@chapter @code{car}, @code{cdr}, @code{cons}: Fundamental Functions
@findex car, @r{introduced}

first item.  Thus, while the @sc{car} of the list @code{'(rose violet
daisy buttercup)} is @code{rose}, the rest of the list, the value
returned by the @code{cdr} function, is @code{(violet daisy
buttercup)}.

@need 800
You can see this by evaluating the following in the usual way:

@smallexample
(cdr '(rose violet daisy buttercup))
@end smallexample

The @code{setcdr} function is similar to the @code{setcar} function,
except that the function replaces the second and subsequent elements of
a list rather than the first element.

(To see how to change the last element of a list, look ahead to
@ref{kill-new function, , The @code{kill-new} function}, which uses
the @code{nthcdr} and @code{setcdr} functions.)

@need 1200
To see how this works, set the value of the variable to a list of
domesticated animals by evaluating the following expression:

@smallexample

(interactive "*p\ncZap to char: ")
@end smallexample

The part within quotation marks, @code{"*p\ncZap to char:@: "}, specifies
three different things.  First, and most simply, the asterisk, @samp{*},
causes an error to be signaled if the buffer is read-only.  This means that
if you try @code{zap-to-char} in a read-only buffer you will not be able to
remove text, and you will receive a message that says ``Buffer is
read-only''; your terminal may beep at you as well.

The version 21 implementation does not have the asterisk, @samp{*}.  The

However, the version 19 implementation copies text from a read-only
buffer only because of a mistake in the implementation of
@code{interactive}.  According to the documentation for
@code{interactive}, the asterisk, @samp{*}, should prevent the
@code{zap-to-char} function from doing anything at all when the buffer
is read only.  In version 19, the function should not copy the text to
the kill ring.  It is a bug that it does.

In version 21, the function is designed to copy the text to the kill
ring; moreover, @code{interactive} is implemented correctly.  So the
asterisk, @samp{*}, had to be removed from the interactive
specification.  However, if you insert an @samp{*} yourself and
evaluate the function definition, then the next time you run the
@code{zap-to-char} function on a read-only buffer, you will not copy
any text.

That change aside, and a change to the documentation, the two versions
of the  @code{zap-to-char} function are identical.

Let us continue with the interactive specification.

@unnumberedsubsec The Complete @code{kill-region} Definition
@end ifnottex

@need 1200
We will go through the @code{condition-case} code in a moment.  First,
let us look at the original definition of @code{kill-region}, with
comments added (the newer definition has an optional third argument
and is more complex):

@c v 21
@smallexample
@group
(defun kill-region (beg end)

In the past, Emacs used the @code{defvar} special form both for
internal variables that you would not expect a user to change and for
variables that you do expect a user to change.  Although you can still
use @code{defvar} for user customizable variables, please use
@code{defcustom} instead, since that special form provides a path into
the Customization commands.  (@xref{defcustom, , Specifying Variables
using @code{defcustom}}.)

When you specified a variable using the @code{defvar} special form,
you could distinguish a readily settable variable from others by
typing an asterisk, @samp{*}, in the first column of its documentation
string.  For example:

  "*Buffer name for `shell-command' @dots{} error output.
@dots{} ")
@end group
@end smallexample

@findex set-variable
@noindent
You could (and still can) use the @code{set-variable} command to
change the value of @code{shell-command-default-error-buffer}
temporarily.  However, options set using @code{set-variable} are set
only for the duration of your editing session.  The new values are not
saved between sessions.  Each time Emacs starts, it reads the original
value, unless you change the value within your @file{.emacs} file,
either by setting it manually or by using @code{customize}.
@xref{Emacs Initialization, , Your @file{.emacs} File}.

For me, the major use of the @code{set-variable} command is to suggest
variables that I might want to set in my @file{.emacs} file.  There
are now more than 700 such variables --- far too many to remember
readily.  Fortunately, you can press @key{TAB} after calling the
@code{M-x set-variable} command to see the list of variables.
(@xref{Examining, , Examining and Setting Variables, emacs,
The GNU Emacs Manual}.)

@node copy-region-as-kill, cons & search-fwd Review, defvar, Cutting & Storing Text
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@section @code{copy-region-as-kill}
@findex copy-region-as-kill

@end ifnottex

@need 1200
Here is the complete text of the version 21 @code{copy-region-as-kill}
function:

@c !!! for no text properties, use buffer-substring-no-properties

@smallexample
@group
(defun copy-region-as-kill (beg end)
  "Save the region as if killed, but don't kill it.

@code{kill-append}.  When the @code{kill-append} function is
evaluated, it is bound to the value returned by evaluating the actual
argument.  In this case, this is the expression @code{(< end beg)}.
This expression does not directly determine whether the killed text in
this command is located before or after the kill text of the last
command; what it does is determine whether the value of the variable
@code{end} is less than the value of the variable @code{beg}.  If it
is, it means that the user is most likely heading towards the
beginning of the buffer.  Also, the result of evaluating the predicate
expression, @code{(< end beg)}, will be true and the text will be
prepended before the previous text.  On the other hand, if the value of

@dots{}  It does this @var{N} times and returns the results.

@findex setcdr, @r{example}
Thus, if we had a four element list that was supposed to be three
elements long, we could set the @sc{cdr} of the next to last element
to @code{nil}, and thereby shorten the list.  (If you sent the last
element to some other value than @code{nil}, which you could do, then
you would not have shortened the list.)

You can see shortening by evaluating the following three expressions
in turn.  First set the value of @code{trees} to @code{(maple oak pine
birch)}, then set the @sc{cdr} of its second @sc{cdr} to @code{nil}
and then find the value of @code{trees}:

@smallexample
@group
(setq trees '(maple oak pine birch))
     @result{} (maple oak pine birch)

bringing back text that has been cut out of the buffer---the yank
commands.  However, before discussing the yank commands, it is better
to learn how lists are implemented in a computer.  This will make
clear such mysteries as the use of the term `pointer'.

@need 1250
@node cons & search-fwd Review, search Exercises, copy-region-as-kill, Cutting & Storing Text
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@section Review

Here is a brief summary of some recently introduced functions.

Optionally, how many times to repeat the search; if negative, the
search goes backwards.
@end enumerate

@item kill-region
@itemx delete-and-extract-region
@itemx copy-region-as-kill

@code{kill-region} cuts the text between point and mark from the
buffer and stores that text in the kill ring, so you can get it back
by yanking.

to say, the symbol @code{flowers} holds the address of the pair of
address-boxes, the first of which holds the address of @code{violet},
and the second of which holds the address of @code{buttercup}.

A pair of address-boxes is called a @dfn{cons cell} or @dfn{dotted
pair}.  @xref{Cons Cell Type, , Cons Cell and List Types, elisp, The GNU Emacs Lisp
Reference Manual}, and @ref{Dotted Pair Notation, , Dotted Pair
Notation, elisp, The GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}, for more
information about cons cells and dotted pairs.

@need 1200

@c comma in printed title causes problem in Info cross reference
@item
Write a function for Texinfo mode that creates an index entry at the
beginning of a paragraph for every @samp{@@dfn} within the paragraph.
(In a Texinfo file, @samp{@@dfn} marks a definition.  This book is
written in Texinfo.)

Many of the functions you will need are described in two of the
previous chapters, @ref{Cutting & Storing Text, , Cutting and Storing
Text}, and @ref{Yanking, , Yanking Text Back}.  If you use
@code{forward-paragraph} to put the index entry at the beginning of
the paragraph, you will have to use @w{@kbd{C-h f}}
(@code{describe-function}) to find out how to make the command go
backwards.

For more information, see
@ifinfo
@ref{Indicating, , Indicating Definitions, texinfo}.
@end ifinfo
@ifhtml
@ref{Indicating, , Indicating, texinfo, Texinfo Manual}, which goes to
a Texinfo manual in the current directory.  Or, if you are on the
Internet, see
@uref{http://www.gnu.org/manual/texinfo-4.6/html_node/Indicating.html}
@end ifhtml
@iftex
``Indicating Definitions, Commands, etc.'' in @cite{Texinfo, The GNU
Documentation Format}.
@end iftex
@end itemize

@node Regexp Search, Counting Words, Loops & Recursion, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up

@smallexample
(custom-set-variables '(eval-expression-print-length nil))
@end smallexample

@noindent
(@xref{defcustom, , Specifying Variables using @code{defcustom}}.)
Then evaluate the @code{lengths-list-file} expression.)

@need 1200
The lengths' list for @file{debug.el} takes less than a second to
produce and looks like this:

(sort
 (recursive-lengths-list-many-files
  '("../lisp/macros.el"
    "../lisp/mailalias.el"
    "../lisp/makesum.el"))
 '<)
@end group
@end smallexample

@need 800
@noindent

@group
       ;; check whether filename is that of a directory
       ((eq t (car (cdr (car current-directory-list))))
        ;; decide whether to skip or recurse
        (if
            (equal "."
                   (substring (car (car current-directory-list)) -1))
            ;; then do nothing since filename is that of
            ;;   current directory or parent, "." or ".."
            ()
@end group
@group
          ;; else descend into the directory and repeat the process
          (setq el-files-list

The fourth and subsequent arguments to @code{defcustom} specify types
and options; these are not featured in @code{defvar}.  (These
arguments are optional.)

Each of these arguments consists of a keyword followed by a value.
Each keyword starts with the colon character @samp{:}.

@need 1250
For example, the customizable user option variable
@code{text-mode-hook} looks like this:

@noindent
The name of the variable is @code{text-mode-hook}; it has no default
value; and its documentation string tells you what it does.

The @code{:type} keyword tells Emacs the kind of data to which
@code{text-mode-hook} should be set and how to display the value in a
Customization buffer.

The @code{:options} keyword specifies a suggested list of values for
the variable.  Currently, you can use @code{:options} only for a hook.
The list is only a suggestion; it is not exclusive; a person who sets
the variable may set it to other values; the list shown following the

In spite of the warning, you certainly may edit, cut, and paste the
expression!  I do all time.  The purpose of the warning is to scare
those who do not know what they are doing, so they do not
inadvertently generate an error.

The @code{custom-set-variables} function works somewhat differently
than a @code{setq}.  While I have never learned the differences, I do
modify the @code{custom-set-variables} expressions in my @file{.emacs}
file by hand:  I make the changes in what appears to me to be a
reasonable manner and have not had any problems.  Others prefer to use
the Customization command and let Emacs do the work for them.

Another @code{custom-set-@dots{}} function is @code{custom-set-faces}.
This function sets the various font faces.  Over time, I have set a
considerable number of faces.  Some of the time, I re-set them using
@code{customize}; other times, I simply edit the

The first part of the file consists of comments: reminders to myself.
By now, of course, I remember these things, but when I started, I did
not.

@need 1200
@smallexample
@group
;;;; Bob's .emacs file
; Robert J. Chassell
; 26 September 1985

@c findex load

Many people in the GNU Emacs community have written extensions to
Emacs.  As time goes by, these extensions are often included in new
releases.  For example, the Calendar and Diary packages are now part
of the standard GNU Emacs, as is Calc.

You can use a @code{load} command to evaluate a complete file and
thereby install all the functions and variables in the file into Emacs.
For example:

@group
  (setq x-pointer-shape (string-to-int mpointer))
  (set-mouse-color "white"))
@end group
@end smallexample

@item
Convert @kbd{@key{CTL}-h} into @key{DEL} and @key{DEL}
into @kbd{@key{CTL}-h}.@*
(Some olders keyboards needed this, although I have not seen the
problem recently.)

@smallexample
@group
;; Translate `C-h' to <DEL>.
; (keyboard-translate ?\C-h ?\C-?)

;; Translate <DEL> to `C-h'.
(keyboard-translate ?\C-? ?\C-h)
@end group
@end smallexample

@item Turn off a blinking cursor!

@smallexample
@group
(if (fboundp 'blink-cursor-mode)
    (blink-cursor-mode -1))
@end group
@end smallexample

@item  Ignore case when using `grep'@*
@samp{-n}@w{  }   Prefix each line of output with line number@*
@samp{-i}@w{  }   Ignore case distinctions@*
@samp{-e}@w{  }   Protect patterns beginning with a hyphen character, @samp{-}

@smallexample
(setq grep-command "grep  -n -i -e ")
@end smallexample

@item Automatically uncompress compressed files when visiting them

@smallexample
(load "uncompress")
@end smallexample

@item Find an existing buffer, even if it has a different name@*
This avoids problems with symbolic links.

@smallexample
(setq find-file-existing-other-name t)
@end smallexample

@item Set your language environment and default input method

@smallexample
@group
(set-language-environment "latin-1")
;; Remember you can enable or disable multilingual text input
;; with the @code{toggle-input-method'} (@kbd{C-\}) command
(setq default-input-method "latin-1-prefix")
@end group
@end smallexample

If you want to write with Chinese `GB' characters, set this instead:

@smallexample
@group
(set-language-environment "Chinese-GB")
(setq default-input-method "chinese-tonepy")
@end group
@end smallexample
@end itemize

@subsubheading Fixing Unpleasant Key Bindings
@cindex Key bindings, fixing
@cindex Bindings, key, fixing unpleasant

Some systems bind keys unpleasantly.  Sometimes, for example, the
@key{CTL} key appears in an awkward spot rather than at the far left
of the home row.

Usually, when people fix these sorts of keybindings, they do not
change their @file{~/.emacs} file.  Instead, they bind the proper keys
on their consoles with the @code{loadkeys} or @code{install-keymap}
commands in their boot script and then include @code{xmodmap} commands
in their @file{.xinitrc} or @file{.Xsession} file for X Windows.

@need 1250
@noindent
For a boot script:

@smallexample
@group
loadkeys /usr/share/keymaps/i386/qwerty/emacs2.kmap.gz

@exdent or

install-keymap emacs2
@end group
@end smallexample

@need 1250
@noindent
For a @file{.xinitrc} or @file{.Xsession} file when the @key{Caps
Lock} key is at the far left of the home row:

@smallexample
@group
# Bind the key labeled `Caps Lock' to `Control'
# (Such a broken user interface suggests that keyboard manufacturers
# think that computers are typewriters from 1885.)

xmodmap -e "clear Lock"
xmodmap -e "add Control = Caps_Lock"
@end group
@end smallexample

@need 1250
@noindent
In a @file{.xinitrc} or @file{.Xsession} file, to convert an @key{ALT}
key to a @key{META} key:

@smallexample
@group
# Some ill designed keyboards have a key labeled ALT and no Meta
xmodmap -e "keysym Alt_L = Meta_L Alt_L"
@end group
@end smallexample

@node Mode Line,  , Miscellaneous, Emacs Initialization
@section A Modified Mode Line
@vindex default-mode-line-format
@cindex Mode line format

@code{mode-line-modified} is a variable that tells whether the buffer
has been modified, @code{mode-name} tells the name of the mode, and so
on.  However, the format looks complicated because of two features we
have not discussed.

@cindex Properties, in mode line example
The first string in the mode line is a dash or hyphen, @samp{-}.  In
the old days, it would have been specified simply as @code{"-"}.  But
nowadays, Emacs can add properties to a string, such as highlighting
or, as in this case, a help feature.  If you place your mouse cursor
over the hyphen, some help information appears (By default, you must
wait one second before the information appears.  You can change that
timing by changing the value of @code{tooltip-delay}.)

@need 1000
The new string format has a special syntax:

the range.  It consists of a property list,  a
property name, in this case, @samp{help-echo}, followed by a value, in this
case, a string.  The second, third, and fourth elements of this new
string format can be repeated.

@xref{Text Properties, , Text Properties, elisp, The GNU Emacs Lisp
Reference Manual}, and see @ref{Mode Line Format, , Mode Line Format,
elisp, The GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual}, for more information.

@code{mode-line-buffer-identification}
displays the current buffer name.  It is a list
beginning @code{(#("%12b" 0 4 @dots{}}.
The @code{#(} begins the list.

  call-interactively(eval-last-sexp)
---------- Buffer: *Backtrace* ----------
@end group
@end smallexample

@need 1500
@noindent
Finally, after you type @kbd{d} two more times, Emacs will reach the
error, and the top two lines of the @file{*Backtrace*} buffer will look
like this:

quickly until reaching a @dfn{breakpoint} where execution stops.

Edebug is described in @ref{edebug, , Edebug, elisp, The GNU Emacs
Lisp Reference Manual}.

@need 1250
Here is a bugged function definition for @code{triangle-recursively}.
@xref{Recursive triangle function, , Recursion in place of a counter},
for a review of it.

@smallexample

Result: 3 = C-c
@end smallexample

@noindent
This means the value of @code{number} is 3, which is @sc{ascii}
`control-c' (the third letter of the alphabet, in case you need to
know this information).

You can continue moving through the code until you reach the line with
the error.  Before evaluation, that line looks like this:

@smallexample

@cindex Duplicated words function
@cindex Words, duplicated

Sometimes when you you write text, you duplicate words---as with ``you
you'' near the beginning of this sentence.  I find that most
frequently, I duplicate ``the''; hence, I call the function for
detecting duplicated words, @code{the-the}.

@need 1250
As a first step, you could use the following regular expression to
search for duplicates:

@menu
* rotate-yank-pointer::         Move a pointer along a list and around.
* yank::                        Paste a copy of a clipped element.
* yank-pop::                    Insert first element pointed to.
* ring file::
@end menu

@node rotate-yank-pointer, yank, Kill Ring, Kill Ring
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@appendixsec The @code{rotate-yank-pointer} Function

@end smallexample

@noindent
will be 1.

@need 1200
Consequently, the argument to @code{nthcdr} will be found as the result of
the expression

@smallexample
(% 1 length)

@noindent
is 1.  (I just checked this by placing the cursor after the expression
and typing @kbd{C-x C-e}.  Indeed, 1 is printed in the echo area.)

@need 2000
@node rotate-yk-ptr remainder, kill-rng-yk-ptr last elt, Remainder Function, rotate-yk-ptr body
@unnumberedsubsubsec Using @code{%} in @code{rotate-yank-pointer}

When the @code{kill-ring-yank-pointer} points to the
beginning of the kill ring, and the argument passed to

simplification for writing the program.  You don't need to jump back
towards the beginning of the kill ring more than one place at a time
and doing this is easier than writing a function to determine the
magnitude of the number that follows the minus sign.

@node yank-pop, ring file, yank, Kill Ring
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@appendixsec @code{yank-pop}
@findex yank-pop

After understanding @code{yank}, the @code{yank-pop} function is easy.

inserted.  This leaves point after the new text.  If in the previous
yank, point was left before the inserted text, point and mark are now
exchanged so point is again left in front of the newly inserted text.
That is all there is to it!

@node ring file,  , yank-pop, Kill Ring
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@appendixsec The @file{ring.el} File
@cindex @file{ring.el} file

Interestingly, GNU Emacs posses a file called @file{ring.el} that
provides many of the features we just discussed.  But functions such
as @code{kill-ring-yank-pointer} do not use this library, possibly
because they were written earlier.

@node Full Graph, Free Software and Free Manuals, Kill Ring, Top
@appendix A Graph with Labelled Axes

Printed axes help you understand a graph.  They convey scale.  In an
earlier chapter (@pxref{Readying a Graph, ,  Readying a Graph}), we
wrote the code to print the body of a graph.  Here we write the code

@end smallexample

@noindent
As we shall see, this expression is not quite right.

@need 2000
@node print-Y-axis, print-X-axis, print-graph Varlist, Full Graph
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@appendixsec The @code{print-Y-axis} Function
@cindex Axis, print vertical
@cindex Y axis printing

As usual in cases like this, a complex problem becomes simpler if it is
divided into several smaller problems.

First, consider the case when the highest value of the graph is an
integral multiple of five---when it is 5, 10, 15, or some higher
multiple of five.  We can use this value as the Y axis height.

A fairly simply way to determine whether a number is a multiple of
five is to divide it by five and see if the division results in a
remainder.  If there is no remainder, the number is a multiple of

@code{Y-axis-label-spacing}.  If it is, we construct a numbered label
using the @code{Y-axis-element} function; if not, we construct a
blank label using the @code{make-string} function.  The base line
consists of the number one followed by a tic mark.

@need 2000
@node print-Y-axis Penultimate,  , Y-axis-column, print-Y-axis
@appendixsubsec The Not Quite Final Version of @code{print-Y-axis}

The list constructed by the @code{Y-axis-column} function is passed to
the @code{print-Y-axis} function, which inserts the list as a column.

Emacs will print labels vertically, the top one being
@w{@samp{10 -@w{ }}}.  (The @code{print-graph} function
will pass the value of @code{height-of-top-line}, which
in this case would end up as 15.)

@need 2000
@node print-X-axis, Print Whole Graph, print-Y-axis, Full Graph
@appendixsec The @code{print-X-axis} Function
@cindex Axis, print horizontal
@cindex X axis printing
@cindex Print horizontal axis

Press @key{RET} to evaluate the expression.
@end enumerate

@need 1250
Emacs will print the horizontal axis like this:
@sp 1

@smallexample
@group
     |   |    |    |    |
     1   5   10   15   20

     |   |    |    |
     1   5   10   15
@end group
@end smallexample

@need 1200
On the other hand, if you pass @code{print-graph} a
@code{vertical-step} value of 2, by evaluating this expression:

@smallexample
(print-graph '(3 2 5 6 7 5 3 4 6 4 3 2 1) 2)

         top-of-ranges))
@end group
@end smallexample

@noindent
On my old machine, this took about an hour.  It looked though 303 Lisp
files in my copy of Emacs version 19.23.  After all that computing,
the @code{list-for-graph} had this value:

@smallexample
@group
(537 1027 955 785 594 483 349 292 224 199 166 120 116 99
90 80 67 48 52 45 41 33 28 26 25 20 12 28 11 13 220)
@end group
@end smallexample

@noindent
This means that my copy of Emacs had 537 function definitions with
fewer than 10 words or symbols in them, 1,027 function definitions
with 10 to 19 words or symbols in them, 955 function definitions with
20 to 29 words or symbols in them, and so on.

Clearly, just by looking at this list we can see that most function

@noindent
is a function definition that says `return the value resulting from
dividing whatever is passed to me as @code{arg} by 50'.

@need 1200
Earlier, for example, we had a function @code{multiply-by-seven}; it
multiplied its argument by 7.  This function is similar, except it
divides its argument by 50; and, it has no name.  The anonymous
equivalent of @code{multiply-by-seven} is:

    (print-X-axis numbers-list horizontal-step)))
@end group
@end smallexample
@end ifnottex

@c qqq
@ignore
Graphing Definitions Re-listed

@need 1250
Here are all the graphing definitions in their final form:

    (graph-body-print
        numbers-list height-of-top-line symbol-width)
    (print-X-axis numbers-list horizontal-step)))
@end group
@end smallexample
@c qqq
@end ignore

@page
@node Final printed graph,  , Another Bug, Print Whole Graph
@appendixsubsec The Printed Graph

When made and installed, you can call the @code{print-graph} command
like this:
@sp 1

@smallexample
@group
(print-graph fiftieth-list-for-graph 50 10)
@end group
@end smallexample
@sp 1

@noindent
Here is the graph:
@sp 2

@smallexample
@group
1000 -  *

@end group
@end smallexample

@sp 2

@noindent
The largest group of functions contain 10 -- 19 words and symbols each.

@node Free Software and Free Manuals, GNU Free Documentation License, Full Graph, Top
@appendix Free Software and Free Manuals

@strong{by Richard M. Stallman}
@sp 1

The biggest deficiency in free operating systems is not in the
software---it is the lack of good free manuals that we can include in
these systems.  Many of our most important programs do not come with
full manuals.  Documentation is an essential part of any software
package; when an important free software package does not come with a
free manual, that is a major gap.  We have many such gaps today.

Once upon a time, many years ago, I thought I would learn Perl.  I got
a copy of a free manual, but I found it hard to read.  When I asked
Perl users about alternatives, they told me that there were better
introductory manuals---but those were not free.

Why was this?  The authors of the good manuals had written them for
O'Reilly Associates, which published them with restrictive terms---no
copying, no modification, source files not available---which exclude
them from the free software community.

That wasn't the first time this sort of thing has happened, and (to
our community's great loss) it was far from the last.  Proprietary
manual publishers have enticed a great many authors to restrict their
manuals since then.  Many times I have heard a GNU user eagerly tell me
about a manual that he is writing, with which he expects to help the
GNU project---and then had my hopes dashed, as he proceeded to explain
that he had signed a contract with a publisher that would restrict it
so that we cannot use it.

Given that writing good English is a rare skill among programmers, we
can ill afford to lose manuals this way.

@c (texinfo)uref
(The Free Software Foundation
@uref{http://www.gnu.org/doc/doc.html#DescriptionsOfGNUDocumentation, ,
sells printed copies} of free @uref{http://www.gnu.org/doc/doc.html,
GNU manuals}, too.)

Free documentation, like free software, is a matter of freedom, not
price.  The problem with these manuals was not that O'Reilly Associates
charged a price for printed copies---that in itself is fine.  (The Free
Software Foundation sells printed copies of free GNU manuals, too.)
But GNU manuals are available in source code form, while these manuals
are available only on paper.  GNU manuals come with permission to copy
and modify; the Perl manuals do not.  These restrictions are the
problems.

The criterion for a free manual is pretty much the same as for free
software: it is a matter of giving all users certain
freedoms.  Redistribution (including commercial redistribution) must be
permitted, so that the manual can accompany every copy of the program,
on-line or on paper.  Permission for modification is crucial too.

As a general rule, I don't believe that it is essential for people to
have permission to modify all sorts of articles and books.  The issues
for writings are not necessarily the same as those for software.  For
example, I don't think you or I are obliged to give permission to
modify articles like this one, which describe our actions and our
views.

But there is a particular reason why the freedom to modify is crucial
for documentation for free software.  When people exercise their right
to modify the software, and add or change its features, if they are
conscientious they will change the manual too---so they can provide
accurate and usable documentation with the modified program.  A manual
which forbids programmers to be conscientious and finish the job, or
more precisely requires them to write a new manual from scratch if
they change the program, does not fill our community's needs.

While a blanket prohibition on modification is unacceptable, some
kinds of limits on the method of modification pose no problem.  For
example, requirements to preserve the original author's copyright
notice, the distribution terms, or the list of authors, are ok.  It is
also no problem to require modified versions to include notice that
they were modified, even to have entire sections that may not be
deleted or changed, as long as these sections deal with nontechnical
topics.  (Some GNU manuals have them.)

These kinds of restrictions are not a problem because, as a practical
matter, they don't stop the conscientious programmer from adapting the
manual to fit the modified program.  In other words, they don't block
the free software community from making full use of the manual.

However, it must be possible to modify all the technical content of
the manual, and then distribute the result in all the usual media,
through all the usual channels; otherwise, the restrictions do block
the community, the manual is not free, and so we need another manual.

Unfortunately, it is often hard to find someone to write another
manual when a proprietary manual exists.  The obstacle is that many
users think that a proprietary manual is good enough---so they don't
see the need to write a free manual.  They do not see that the free
operating system has a gap that needs filling.

Why do users think that proprietary manuals are good enough? Some have
not considered the issue.  I hope this article will do something to
change that.

Other users consider proprietary manuals acceptable for the same
reason so many people consider proprietary software acceptable: they
judge in purely practical terms, not using freedom as a
criterion.  These people are entitled to their opinions, but since
those opinions spring from values which do not include freedom, they
are no guide for those of us who do value freedom.

Please spread the word about this issue.  We continue to lose manuals
to proprietary publishing.  If we spread the word that proprietary
manuals are not sufficient, perhaps the next person who wants to help
GNU by writing documentation will realize, before it is too late, that
he must above all make it free.

We can also encourage commercial publishers to sell free, copylefted
manuals instead of proprietary ones.  One way you can help this is to
check the distribution terms of a manual before you buy it, and prefer
copylefted manuals to non-copylefted ones.

@sp 2
@noindent
Note: The Free Software Foundation maintains a page on its Web site
that lists free books available from other publishers:@*
@uref{http://www.gnu.org/doc/other-free-books.html}


@node GNU Free Documentation License, Index, Free Software and Free Manuals, Top
@appendix GNU Free Documentation License

@cindex FDL, GNU Free Documentation License
@center Version 1.2, November 2002

@display
Copyright @copyright{} 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA  02110-1301, USA

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
@end display

@enumerate 0
@item
PREAMBLE

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
functional and useful document @dfn{free} in the sense of freedom: to
assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
for modifications made by others.

This License is a kind of ``copyleft'', which means that derivative
works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense.  It
complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
license designed for free software.

principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.

@item
APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that
contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be
distributed under the terms of this License.  Such a notice grants a
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that
work under the conditions stated herein.  The ``Document'', below,
refers to any such manual or work.  Any member of the public is a
licensee, and is addressed as ``you''.  You accept the license if you
copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission
under copyright law.

A ``Modified Version'' of the Document means any work containing the
Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
modifications and/or translated into another language.

A ``Secondary Section'' is a named appendix or a front-matter section
of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the
publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall
subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall
directly within that overall subject.  (Thus, if the Document is in
part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain
any mathematics.)  The relationship could be a matter of historical
connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
them.

The ``Invariant Sections'' are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice
that says that the Document is released under this License.  If a
section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not
allowed to be designated as Invariant.  The Document may contain zero
Invariant Sections.  If the Document does not identify any Invariant
Sections then there are none.

The ``Cover Texts'' are certain short passages of text that are listed,
as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
the Document is released under this License.  A Front-Cover Text may
be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.

A ``Transparent'' copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
represented in a format whose specification is available to the
general public, that is suitable for revising the document
straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of
pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or
for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input
to text formatters.  A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart
or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent.
An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount
of text.  A copy that is not ``Transparent'' is called ``Opaque''.

Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
@sc{ascii} without markup, Texinfo input format, La@TeX{} input
format, @acronym{SGML} or @acronym{XML} using a publicly available
@acronym{DTD}, and standard-conforming simple @acronym{HTML},
PostScript or @acronym{PDF} designed for human modification.  Examples
of transparent image formats include @acronym{PNG}, @acronym{XCF} and
@acronym{JPG}.  Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be
read and edited only by proprietary word processors, @acronym{SGML} or
@acronym{XML} for which the @acronym{DTD} and/or processing tools are
not generally available, and the machine-generated @acronym{HTML},
PostScript or @acronym{PDF} produced by some word processors for
output purposes only.

The ``Title Page'' means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material
this License requires to appear in the title page.  For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such, ``Title Page'' means
the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title,
preceding the beginning of the body of the text.

A section ``Entitled XYZ'' means a named subunit of the Document whose
title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following
text that translates XYZ in another language.  (Here XYZ stands for a
specific section name mentioned below, such as ``Acknowledgements'',
``Dedications'', ``Endorsements'', or ``History''.)  To ``Preserve the Title''
of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
section ``Entitled XYZ'' according to this definition.

The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which
states that this License applies to the Document.  These Warranty
Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this
License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has
no effect on the meaning of this License.

@item
VERBATIM COPYING

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either

you may publicly display copies.

@item
COPYING IN QUANTITY

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover.  Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify
you as the publisher of these copies.  The front cover must present
the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible.  You may add other material on the covers in addition.

pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
a computer-network location from which the general network-using
public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure
that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

@item
List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
unless they release you from this requirement.

@item
State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
Modified Version, as the publisher.

@item
Include an unaltered copy of this License.

@item
Preserve the section Entitled ``History'', Preserve its Title, and add
to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page.  If
there is no section Entitled ``History'' in the Document, create one
stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
Version as stated in the previous sentence.

@item

You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.

@item
For any section Entitled ``Acknowledgements'' or ``Dedications'', Preserve
the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the
substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or
dedications given therein.

@item
Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
unaltered in their text and in their titles.  Section numbers
or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.

@item
Delete any section Entitled ``Endorsements''.  Such a section
may not be included in the Modified Version.

@item
Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled ``Endorsements'' or
to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.

@item
Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
@end enumerate

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
of these sections as invariant.  To do this, add their titles to the
list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled ``Endorsements'', provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
parties---for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
standard.

You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy.  If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled ``History''
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
``History''; likewise combine any sections Entitled ``Acknowledgements'',
and any sections Entitled ``Dedications''.  You must delete all
sections Entitled ``Endorsements.''

@item
COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents

@item
AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an ``aggregate'' if the copyright
resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.

@item
TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections.  You may include a
translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
the original English version of this License and the original versions
of those notices and disclaimers.  In case of a disagreement between
the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled ``Acknowledgements'',
``Dedications'', or ``History'', the requirement (section 4) to Preserve
its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual
title.

@item
TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except

of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation.  If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
@end enumerate

@page
@appendixsubsec ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and
license notices just after the title page:

@smallexample
@group
Copyright (C)  @var{year}  @var{your name}.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
Free Documentation License''.
@end group
@end smallexample

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
replace the ``with...Texts.'' line with this:

@smallexample
@group
with the Invariant Sections being @var{list their titles}, with
the Front-Cover Texts being @var{list}, and with the Back-Cover Texts
being @var{list}.
@end group
@end smallexample

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
free software license, such as the GNU General Public License,
to permit their use in free software.

@node Index, About the Author, GNU Free Documentation License, Top
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@unnumbered Index

@evenheading @thispage @| @| @thistitle
@oddheading            @| @| @thispage
@end iftex

@bye

@ignore
   arch-tag: da1a2154-531f-43a8-8e33-fc7faad10acf
@end ignore