comparison lispref/numbers.texi @ 88155:d7ddb3e565de

sync with trunk

88154:8ce476d3ba36

@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999
@c   Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
@setfilename ../info/numbers
@node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top
@chapter Numbers
@cindex integers

@node Integer Basics
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@section Integer Basics

  The range of values for an integer depends on the machine.  The
minimum range is @minus{}134217728 to 134217727 (28 bits; i.e.,
@ifnottex
-2**27
@end ifnottex
@tex
@math{-2^{27}}
@end tex
to
@ifnottex
2**27 - 1),
@end ifnottex
@tex
@math{2^{27}-1}),
@end tex
but some machines may provide a wider range.  Many examples in this
chapter assume an integer has 28 bits.
@cindex overflow

  The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional
initial sign and optional final period.

@example
 1               ; @r{The integer 1.}
 1.              ; @r{The integer 1.}
+1               ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
-1               ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.}
 268435457       ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.}
 0               ; @r{The integer 0.}
-0               ; @r{The integer 0.}
@end example

@cindex integers in specific radix
@cindex radix for reading an integer
@cindex base for reading an integer
  In addition, the Lisp reader recognizes a syntax for integers in
bases other than 10: @samp{#B@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in
binary (radix 2), @samp{#O@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in octal
(radix 8), @samp{#X@var{integer}} reads @var{integer} in hexadecimal
(radix 16), and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads @var{integer}
in radix @var{radix} (where @var{radix} is between 2 and 36,
inclusively).  Case is not significant for the letter after @samp{#}
(@samp{B}, @samp{O}, etc.) that denotes the radix.

  To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the
bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to
view the numbers in their binary form.

  In 28-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this:

@example
0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101
@end example

@noindent
(We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces
between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.)

  The integer @minus{}1 looks like this:

@example
1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111
@end example

@noindent
@cindex two's complement
@minus{}1 is represented as 28 ones.  (This is called @dfn{two's
complement} notation.)

  The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from
@minus{}1.  In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100.  Consequently,
@minus{}5 looks like this:

@example
1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1011
@end example

  In this implementation, the largest 28-bit binary integer value is
134,217,727 in decimal.  In binary, it looks like this:

@example
0111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111
@end example

  Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go
outside their range, when you add 1 to 134,217,727, the value is the
negative integer @minus{}134,217,728:

@example
(+ 1 134217727)
     @result{} -134217728
     @result{} 1000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000
@end example

  Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for
arguments in place of numbers.  (@xref{Markers}.)  Since the actual
arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often
give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}.  When the argument
value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored.

@node Float Basics
@section Floating Point Basics

  Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are

example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and
@samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose
value is 1500.  They are all equivalent.  You can also use a minus sign
to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}.

@cindex IEEE floating point
@cindex positive infinity
@cindex negative infinity
@cindex infinity
@cindex NaN
   Most modern computers support the IEEE floating point standard, which
provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point
values.  It also provides for a class of values called NaN or
``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where
there is no correct answer.  For example, @code{(sqrt -1.0)} returns a
NaN.  For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between
different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely
which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp
doesn't try to distinguish them.  Here are the read syntaxes for
these special floating point values:

@table @asis
@item positive infinity
@samp{1.0e+INF}
@item negative infinity
@samp{-1.0e+INF}
@item Not-a-number
@samp{0.0e+NaN}.
@end table

  In addition, the value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary
zero in IEEE floating point (although @code{equal} and @code{=} consider
them equal values).

  You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating
point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer):

@defun logb number

@end defun

@node Predicates on Numbers
@section Type Predicates for Numbers

  The functions in this section test whether the argument is a number or
whether it is a certain sort of number.  The functions @code{integerp}
and @code{floatp} can take any type of Lisp object as argument (the
predicates would not be of much use otherwise); but the @code{zerop}
predicate requires a number as its argument.  See also
@code{integer-or-marker-p} and @code{number-or-marker-p}, in
@ref{Predicates on Markers}.

@defun floatp object
This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point
number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.

@defun zerop number
This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t}
if so, @code{nil} otherwise.  The argument must be a number.

These two forms are equivalent: @code{(zerop x)} @equiv{} @code{(= x 0)}.
@end defun

@node Comparison of Numbers
@section Comparison of Numbers
@cindex number equality

type.  By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not
numbers or markers.  However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you
can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the
representation of integers in a future Emacs version.

  Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it treats
two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both integers, or
both floating point) and the same value.  By contrast, @code{=} can
treat an integer and a floating point number as equal.

  There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not
exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating
point values.  Usually it is better to test for approximate equality.
Here's a function to do this:

@defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
@end defun

@defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are.
@end defun

otherwise.
@end defun

@defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
This function returns the largest of its arguments.
If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned
as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.

@example
(max 20)
     @result{} 20

@end example
@end defun

@defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
This function returns the smallest of its arguments.
If any of the argument is floating-point, the value is returned
as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.

@example
(min -4 1)
     @result{} -4

If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns
it unchanged.
@end defun

There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers;
they differ in how they round.  These functions accept integer arguments
also, and return such arguments unchanged.

@defun truncate number
This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards
zero.

@example
(truncate 1.2)

@defun floor number &optional divisor
This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward
(towards negative infinity).

If @var{divisor} is specified, @code{floor} divides @var{number} by
@var{divisor} and then converts to an integer; this uses the kind of
division operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward.
An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.

@example
(floor 1.2)
     @result{} 1
(floor 1.7)

(floor 5.99 3)
     @result{} 1
@end example
@end defun

@defun ceiling number
This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward
(towards positive infinity).

@example
(ceiling 1.2)

(ceiling -1.7)
     @result{} -1
@end example
@end defun

@defun round number
This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the
nearest integer.  Rounding a value equidistant between two integers
may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer,
depending on your machine.

  All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value
if any argument is floating.

  It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions
do not check for overflow.  Thus @code{(1+ 134217727)} may evaluate to
@minus{}134217728, depending on your hardware.

@defun 1+ number-or-marker
This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1.
For example,

machines round in the standard fashion.

@cindex @code{arith-error} in division
If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled.
(@xref{Errors}.)  Floating point division by zero returns either
infinity or a NaN if your machine supports IEEE floating point;
otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error.

@example
@group
(/ 6 2)

value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward.

The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does
not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits
and change the sign of the number.  For example, left shifting
134,217,727 produces @minus{}2 on a 28-bit machine:

@example
(lsh 134217727 1)          ; @r{left shift}
     @result{} -2
@end example

In binary, in the 28-bit implementation, the argument looks like this:

@example
@group
;; @r{Decimal 134,217,727}
0111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111
@end group
@end example

@noindent
which becomes the following when left shifted:

@example
@group
;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2}
1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1110
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun ash integer1 count

@example
@group
(ash -6 -1) @result{} -3
;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.}
1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1010
     @result{}
1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1101
@end group
@end example

In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with
@code{lsh} looks like this:

@example
@group
(lsh -6 -1) @result{} 134217725
;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 134,217,725.}
1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1010
     @result{}
0111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1101
@end group
@end example

Here are other examples:

@c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format!  XDVI shows problem
@c     with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92
@smallexample
@group
                   ;  @r{             28-bit binary values}

(lsh 5 2)          ;   5  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
     @result{} 20         ;      =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0001 0100}
@end group
@group
(ash 5 2)
     @result{} 20
(lsh -5 2)         ;  -5  =  @r{1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1011}
     @result{} -20        ;      =  @r{1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1110 1100}
(ash -5 2)
     @result{} -20
@end group
@group
(lsh 5 -2)         ;   5  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
     @result{} 1          ;      =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0001}
@end group
@group
(ash 5 -2)
     @result{} 1
@end group
@group
(lsh -5 -2)        ;  -5  =  @r{1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1011}
     @result{} 4194302    ;      =  @r{0011  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1110}
@end group
@group
(ash -5 -2)        ;  -5  =  @r{1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1011}
     @result{} -2         ;      =  @r{1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1110}
@end group
@end smallexample
@end defun

@defun logand &rest ints-or-markers

because its binary representation consists entirely of ones.  If
@code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.

@smallexample
@group
                   ; @r{               28-bit binary values}

(logand 14 13)     ; 14  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1110}
                   ; 13  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1101}
     @result{} 12         ; 12  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
@end group

@group
(logand 14 13 4)   ; 14  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1110}
                   ; 13  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1101}
                   ;  4  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0100}
     @result{} 4          ;  4  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0100}
@end group

@group
(logand)
     @result{} -1         ; -1  =  @r{1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111}
@end group
@end smallexample
@end defun

@defun logior &rest ints-or-markers

which is an identity element for this operation.  If @code{logior} is
passed just one argument, it returns that argument.

@smallexample
@group
                   ; @r{              28-bit binary values}

(logior 12 5)      ; 12  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
                   ;  5  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
     @result{} 13         ; 13  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1101}
@end group

@group
(logior 12 5 7)    ; 12  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
                   ;  5  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
                   ;  7  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0111}
     @result{} 15         ; 15  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1111}
@end group
@end smallexample
@end defun

@defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers

result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation.  If
@code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.

@smallexample
@group
                   ; @r{              28-bit binary values}

(logxor 12 5)      ; 12  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
                   ;  5  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
     @result{} 9          ;  9  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1001}
@end group

@group
(logxor 12 5 7)    ; 12  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
                   ;  5  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
                   ;  7  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0111}
     @result{} 14         ; 14  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1110}
@end group
@end smallexample
@end defun

@defun lognot integer

@var{integer}, and vice-versa.

@example
(lognot 5)
     @result{} -6
;;  5  =  @r{0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
;; @r{becomes}
;; -6  =  @r{1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1010}
@end example
@end defun

@node Math Functions
@section Standard Mathematical Functions

pi/2
@end ifnottex
@tex
@math{\pi/2}
@end tex
(inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg}
is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN.
@end defun

@defun acos arg
The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and
@ifnottex
pi
@end ifnottex
@tex
@math{\pi}
@end tex
(inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg}
is out of range (outside [-1, 1]), then the result is a NaN.
@end defun

@defun atan y &optional x
The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between
@ifnottex

@math{e}
@end tex
@ifnottex
@i{e}
@end ifnottex
is used.  If @var{arg}
is negative, the result is a NaN.
@end defun

@ignore
@defun expm1 arg
This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more

@end defun
@end ignore

@defun log10 arg
This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10.  If
@var{arg} is negative, the result is a NaN.  @code{(log10 @var{x})}
@equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least approximately.
@end defun

@defun expt x y
This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}.  If both
arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an
integer; in this case, it is truncated to fit the range of possible
integer values.
@end defun

@defun sqrt arg
This returns the square root of @var{arg}.  If @var{arg} is negative,
the value is a NaN.
@end defun

@node Random Numbers
@section Random Numbers
@cindex random numbers

-1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030.  This
repeatability is helpful for debugging.

If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute
@code{(random t)}.  This chooses a new seed based on the current time of
day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number.

@defun random &optional limit
This function returns a pseudo-random integer.  Repeated calls return a
series of pseudo-random integers.

If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be
nonnegative and less than @var{limit}.

If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the
current time of day and on Emacs's process @sc{id} number.
@c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage!

On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result
of @code{random}.  On other machines, the result can never be larger
than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum.
@end defun

88155:d7ddb3e565de

@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003,
@c   2004, 2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
@setfilename ../info/numbers
@node Numbers, Strings and Characters, Lisp Data Types, Top
@chapter Numbers
@cindex integers

@node Integer Basics
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@section Integer Basics

  The range of values for an integer depends on the machine.  The
minimum range is @minus{}268435456 to 268435455 (29 bits; i.e.,
@ifnottex
-2**28
@end ifnottex
@tex
@math{-2^{28}}
@end tex
to
@ifnottex
2**28 - 1),
@end ifnottex
@tex
@math{2^{28}-1}),
@end tex
but some machines may provide a wider range.  Many examples in this
chapter assume an integer has 29 bits.
@cindex overflow

  The Lisp reader reads an integer as a sequence of digits with optional
initial sign and optional final period.

@example
 1               ; @r{The integer 1.}
 1.              ; @r{The integer 1.}
+1               ; @r{Also the integer 1.}
-1               ; @r{The integer @minus{}1.}
 536870913       ; @r{Also the integer 1, due to overflow.}
 0               ; @r{The integer 0.}
-0               ; @r{The integer 0.}
@end example

@cindex integers in specific radix
@cindex radix for reading an integer
@cindex base for reading an integer
@cindex hex numbers
@cindex octal numbers
@cindex reading numbers in hex, octal, and binary
  The syntax for integers in bases other than 10 uses @samp{#}
followed by a letter that specifies the radix: @samp{b} for binary,
@samp{o} for octal, @samp{x} for hex, or @samp{@var{radix}r} to
specify radix @var{radix}.  Case is not significant for the letter
that specifies the radix.  Thus, @samp{#b@var{integer}} reads
@var{integer} in binary, and @samp{#@var{radix}r@var{integer}} reads
@var{integer} in radix @var{radix}.  Allowed values of @var{radix} run
from 2 to 36.  For example:

@example
#b101100 @result{} 44
#o54 @result{} 44
#x2c @result{} 44
#24r1k @result{} 44
@end example

  To understand how various functions work on integers, especially the
bitwise operators (@pxref{Bitwise Operations}), it is often helpful to
view the numbers in their binary form.

  In 29-bit binary, the decimal integer 5 looks like this:

@example
0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101
@end example

@noindent
(We have inserted spaces between groups of 4 bits, and two spaces
between groups of 8 bits, to make the binary integer easier to read.)

  The integer @minus{}1 looks like this:

@example
1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111
@end example

@noindent
@cindex two's complement
@minus{}1 is represented as 29 ones.  (This is called @dfn{two's
complement} notation.)

  The negative integer, @minus{}5, is creating by subtracting 4 from
@minus{}1.  In binary, the decimal integer 4 is 100.  Consequently,
@minus{}5 looks like this:

@example
1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1011
@end example

  In this implementation, the largest 29-bit binary integer value is
268,435,455 in decimal.  In binary, it looks like this:

@example
0 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111
@end example

  Since the arithmetic functions do not check whether integers go
outside their range, when you add 1 to 268,435,455, the value is the
negative integer @minus{}268,435,456:

@example
(+ 1 268435455)
     @result{} -268435456
     @result{} 1 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000
@end example

  Many of the functions described in this chapter accept markers for
arguments in place of numbers.  (@xref{Markers}.)  Since the actual
arguments to such functions may be either numbers or markers, we often
give these arguments the name @var{number-or-marker}.  When the argument
value is a marker, its position value is used and its buffer is ignored.

@defvar most-positive-fixnum
The value of this variable is the largest integer that Emacs Lisp
can handle.
@end defvar

@defvar most-negative-fixnum
The value of this variable is the smallest integer that Emacs Lisp can
handle.  It is negative.
@end defvar

@node Float Basics
@section Floating Point Basics

  Floating point numbers are useful for representing numbers that are

example, @samp{1500.0}, @samp{15e2}, @samp{15.0e2}, @samp{1.5e3}, and
@samp{.15e4} are five ways of writing a floating point number whose
value is 1500.  They are all equivalent.  You can also use a minus sign
to write negative floating point numbers, as in @samp{-1.0}.

@cindex @acronym{IEEE} floating point
@cindex positive infinity
@cindex negative infinity
@cindex infinity
@cindex NaN
  Most modern computers support the @acronym{IEEE} floating point standard,
which provides for positive infinity and negative infinity as floating point
values.  It also provides for a class of values called NaN or
``not-a-number''; numerical functions return such values in cases where
there is no correct answer.  For example, @code{(/ 0.0 0.0)} returns a
NaN.  For practical purposes, there's no significant difference between
different NaN values in Emacs Lisp, and there's no rule for precisely
which NaN value should be used in a particular case, so Emacs Lisp
doesn't try to distinguish them (but it does report the sign, if you
print it).  Here are the read syntaxes for these special floating
point values:

@table @asis
@item positive infinity
@samp{1.0e+INF}
@item negative infinity
@samp{-1.0e+INF}
@item Not-a-number 
@samp{0.0e+NaN} or @samp{-0.0e+NaN}.
@end table

  To test whether a floating point value is a NaN, compare it with
itself using @code{=}.  That returns @code{nil} for a NaN, and
@code{t} for any other floating point value.

  The value @code{-0.0} is distinguishable from ordinary zero in
@acronym{IEEE} floating point, but Emacs Lisp @code{equal} and
@code{=} consider them equal values.

  You can use @code{logb} to extract the binary exponent of a floating
point number (or estimate the logarithm of an integer):

@defun logb number

@end defun

@node Predicates on Numbers
@section Type Predicates for Numbers

  The functions in this section test for numbers, or for a specific
type of number.  The functions @code{integerp} and @code{floatp} can
take any type of Lisp object as argument (they would not be of much
use otherwise), but the @code{zerop} predicate requires a number as
its argument.  See also @code{integer-or-marker-p} and
@code{number-or-marker-p}, in @ref{Predicates on Markers}.

@defun floatp object
This predicate tests whether its argument is a floating point
number and returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.

@defun zerop number
This predicate tests whether its argument is zero, and returns @code{t}
if so, @code{nil} otherwise.  The argument must be a number.

@code{(zerop x)} is equivalent to @code{(= x 0)}.
@end defun

@node Comparison of Numbers
@section Comparison of Numbers
@cindex number equality

type.  By contrast, @code{=} signals an error if the arguments are not
numbers or markers.  However, it is a good idea to use @code{=} if you
can, even for comparing integers, just in case we change the
representation of integers in a future Emacs version.

  Sometimes it is useful to compare numbers with @code{equal}; it
treats two numbers as equal if they have the same data type (both
integers, or both floating point) and the same value.  By contrast,
@code{=} can treat an integer and a floating point number as equal.
@xref{Equality Predicates}.

  There is another wrinkle: because floating point arithmetic is not
exact, it is often a bad idea to check for equality of two floating
point values.  Usually it is better to test for approximate equality.
Here's a function to do this:

@defun = number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
returns @code{t} if so, @code{nil} otherwise.
@end defun

@defun eql value1 value2
This function acts like @code{eq} except when both arguments are
numbers.  It compares numbers by type and numberic value, so that
@code{(eql 1.0 1)} returns @code{nil}, but @code{(eql 1.0 1.0)} and
@code{(eql 1 1)} both return @code{t}.
@end defun

@defun /= number-or-marker1 number-or-marker2
This function tests whether its arguments are numerically equal, and
returns @code{t} if they are not, and @code{nil} if they are.
@end defun

otherwise.
@end defun

@defun max number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
This function returns the largest of its arguments.
If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned
as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.

@example
(max 20)
     @result{} 20

@end example
@end defun

@defun min number-or-marker &rest numbers-or-markers
This function returns the smallest of its arguments.
If any of the arguments is floating-point, the value is returned
as floating point, even if it was given as an integer.

@example
(min -4 1)
     @result{} -4

If @var{number} is already a floating point number, @code{float} returns
it unchanged.
@end defun

There are four functions to convert floating point numbers to integers;
they differ in how they round.  All accept an argument @var{number}
and an optional argument @var{divisor}.  Both arguments may be
integers or floating point numbers.  @var{divisor} may also be
@code{nil}.  If @var{divisor} is @code{nil} or omitted, these
functions convert @var{number} to an integer, or return it unchanged
if it already is an integer.  If @var{divisor} is non-@code{nil}, they
divide @var{number} by @var{divisor} and convert the result to an
integer.  An @code{arith-error} results if @var{divisor} is 0.

@defun truncate number &optional divisor
This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards
zero.

@example
(truncate 1.2)

@defun floor number &optional divisor
This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding downward
(towards negative infinity).

If @var{divisor} is specified, this uses the kind of division
operation that corresponds to @code{mod}, rounding downward.

@example
(floor 1.2)
     @result{} 1
(floor 1.7)

(floor 5.99 3)
     @result{} 1
@end example
@end defun

@defun ceiling number &optional divisor
This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding upward
(towards positive infinity).

@example
(ceiling 1.2)

(ceiling -1.7)
     @result{} -1
@end example
@end defun

@defun round number &optional divisor
This returns @var{number}, converted to an integer by rounding towards the
nearest integer.  Rounding a value equidistant between two integers
may choose the integer closer to zero, or it may prefer an even integer,
depending on your machine.

  All of these functions except @code{%} return a floating point value
if any argument is floating.

  It is important to note that in Emacs Lisp, arithmetic functions
do not check for overflow.  Thus @code{(1+ 268435455)} may evaluate to
@minus{}268435456, depending on your hardware.

@defun 1+ number-or-marker
This function returns @var{number-or-marker} plus 1.
For example,

machines round in the standard fashion.

@cindex @code{arith-error} in division
If you divide an integer by 0, an @code{arith-error} error is signaled.
(@xref{Errors}.)  Floating point division by zero returns either
infinity or a NaN if your machine supports @acronym{IEEE} floating point;
otherwise, it signals an @code{arith-error} error.

@example
@group
(/ 6 2)

value of a positive integer by two, rounding downward.

The function @code{lsh}, like all Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions, does
not check for overflow, so shifting left can discard significant bits
and change the sign of the number.  For example, left shifting
268,435,455 produces @minus{}2 on a 29-bit machine:

@example
(lsh 268435455 1)          ; @r{left shift}
     @result{} -2
@end example

In binary, in the 29-bit implementation, the argument looks like this:

@example
@group
;; @r{Decimal 268,435,455}
0 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111
@end group
@end example

@noindent
which becomes the following when left shifted:

@example
@group
;; @r{Decimal @minus{}2}
1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1110
@end group
@end example
@end defun

@defun ash integer1 count

@example
@group
(ash -6 -1) @result{} -3
;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal @minus{}3.}
1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1010
     @result{}
1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1101
@end group
@end example

In contrast, shifting the pattern of bits one place to the right with
@code{lsh} looks like this:

@example
@group
(lsh -6 -1) @result{} 268435453
;; @r{Decimal @minus{}6 becomes decimal 268,435,453.}
1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1010
     @result{}
0 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1101
@end group
@end example

Here are other examples:

@c !!! Check if lined up in smallbook format!  XDVI shows problem
@c     with smallbook but not with regular book! --rjc 16mar92
@smallexample
@group
                   ;  @r{             29-bit binary values}

(lsh 5 2)          ;   5  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
     @result{} 20         ;      =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0001 0100}
@end group
@group
(ash 5 2)
     @result{} 20
(lsh -5 2)         ;  -5  =  @r{1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1011}
     @result{} -20        ;      =  @r{1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1110 1100}
(ash -5 2)
     @result{} -20
@end group
@group
(lsh 5 -2)         ;   5  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
     @result{} 1          ;      =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0001}
@end group
@group
(ash 5 -2)
     @result{} 1
@end group
@group
(lsh -5 -2)        ;  -5  =  @r{1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1011}
     @result{} 134217726  ;      =  @r{0 0111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1110}
@end group
@group
(ash -5 -2)        ;  -5  =  @r{1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1011}
     @result{} -2         ;      =  @r{1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1110}
@end group
@end smallexample
@end defun

@defun logand &rest ints-or-markers

because its binary representation consists entirely of ones.  If
@code{logand} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.

@smallexample
@group
                   ; @r{               29-bit binary values}

(logand 14 13)     ; 14  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1110}
                   ; 13  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1101}
     @result{} 12         ; 12  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
@end group

@group
(logand 14 13 4)   ; 14  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1110}
                   ; 13  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1101}
                   ;  4  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0100}
     @result{} 4          ;  4  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0100}
@end group

@group
(logand)
     @result{} -1         ; -1  =  @r{1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111}
@end group
@end smallexample
@end defun

@defun logior &rest ints-or-markers

which is an identity element for this operation.  If @code{logior} is
passed just one argument, it returns that argument.

@smallexample
@group
                   ; @r{              29-bit binary values}

(logior 12 5)      ; 12  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
                   ;  5  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
     @result{} 13         ; 13  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1101}
@end group

@group
(logior 12 5 7)    ; 12  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
                   ;  5  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
                   ;  7  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0111}
     @result{} 15         ; 15  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1111}
@end group
@end smallexample
@end defun

@defun logxor &rest ints-or-markers

result is 0, which is an identity element for this operation.  If
@code{logxor} is passed just one argument, it returns that argument.

@smallexample
@group
                   ; @r{              29-bit binary values}

(logxor 12 5)      ; 12  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
                   ;  5  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
     @result{} 9          ;  9  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1001}
@end group

@group
(logxor 12 5 7)    ; 12  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1100}
                   ;  5  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
                   ;  7  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0111}
     @result{} 14         ; 14  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 1110}
@end group
@end smallexample
@end defun

@defun lognot integer

@var{integer}, and vice-versa.

@example
(lognot 5)
     @result{} -6
;;  5  =  @r{0 0000  0000 0000  0000 0000  0000 0101}
;; @r{becomes}
;; -6  =  @r{1 1111  1111 1111  1111 1111  1111 1010}
@end example
@end defun

@node Math Functions
@section Standard Mathematical Functions

pi/2
@end ifnottex
@tex
@math{\pi/2}
@end tex
(inclusive) whose sine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out of
range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
@end defun

@defun acos arg
The value of @code{(acos @var{arg})} is a number between 0 and
@ifnottex
pi
@end ifnottex
@tex
@math{\pi}
@end tex
(inclusive) whose cosine is @var{arg}; if, however, @var{arg} is out
of range (outside [-1, 1]), it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
@end defun

@defun atan y &optional x
The value of @code{(atan @var{y})} is a number between
@ifnottex

@math{e}
@end tex
@ifnottex
@i{e}
@end ifnottex
is used.  If @var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error}
error.
@end defun

@ignore
@defun expm1 arg
This function returns @code{(1- (exp @var{arg}))}, but it is more

@end defun
@end ignore

@defun log10 arg
This function returns the logarithm of @var{arg}, with base 10.  If
@var{arg} is negative, it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
@code{(log10 @var{x})} @equiv{} @code{(log @var{x} 10)}, at least
approximately.
@end defun

@defun expt x y
This function returns @var{x} raised to power @var{y}.  If both
arguments are integers and @var{y} is positive, the result is an
integer; in this case, overflow causes truncation, so watch out.
@end defun

@defun sqrt arg
This returns the square root of @var{arg}.  If @var{arg} is negative,
it signals a @code{domain-error} error.
@end defun

@node Random Numbers
@section Random Numbers
@cindex random numbers

-1457731, and the second one always returns -7692030.  This
repeatability is helpful for debugging.

If you want random numbers that don't always come out the same, execute
@code{(random t)}.  This chooses a new seed based on the current time of
day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number.

@defun random &optional limit
This function returns a pseudo-random integer.  Repeated calls return a
series of pseudo-random integers.

If @var{limit} is a positive integer, the value is chosen to be
nonnegative and less than @var{limit}.

If @var{limit} is @code{t}, it means to choose a new seed based on the
current time of day and on Emacs's process @acronym{ID} number.
@c "Emacs'" is incorrect usage!

On some machines, any integer representable in Lisp may be the result
of @code{random}.  On other machines, the result can never be larger
than a certain maximum or less than a certain (negative) minimum.
@end defun

@ignore
   arch-tag: 574e8dd2-d513-4616-9844-c9a27869782e
@end ignore