Mercurial > emacs
diff lispref/objects.texi @ 25751:467b88fab665
*** empty log message ***
author | Richard M. Stallman <rms@gnu.org> |
---|---|
date | Fri, 17 Sep 1999 06:59:04 +0000 |
parents | 7451b1458af1 |
children | d3cc464b9e87 |
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--- a/lispref/objects.texi Fri Sep 17 06:53:20 1999 +0000 +++ b/lispref/objects.texi Fri Sep 17 06:59:04 1999 +0000 @@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ which all other types are constructed, are called @dfn{primitive types}. Each object belongs to one and only one primitive type. These types include @dfn{integer}, @dfn{float}, @dfn{cons}, @dfn{symbol}, -@dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{subr}, @dfn{byte-code function}, plus +@dfn{string}, @dfn{vector}, @dfn{subr}, and @dfn{byte-code function}, plus several special types, such as @dfn{buffer}, that are related to editing. (@xref{Editing Types}.) @@ -52,6 +52,7 @@ * Comments:: Comments and their formatting conventions. * Programming Types:: Types found in all Lisp systems. * Editing Types:: Types specific to Emacs. +* Circular Objects:: Read syntax for circular structure. * Type Predicates:: Tests related to types. * Equality Predicates:: Tests of equality between any two objects. @end menu @@ -146,6 +147,7 @@ * Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays. * Char-Table Type:: One-dimensional sparse arrays indexed by characters. * Bool-Vector Type:: One-dimensional arrays of @code{t} or @code{nil}. +* Hash Table Type:: Super-fast lookup tables. * Function Type:: A piece of executable code you can call from elsewhere. * Macro Type:: A method of expanding an expression into another expression, more fundamental but less pretty. @@ -164,14 +166,14 @@ -2**27 @end ifinfo @tex -$-2^{27}$ +@math{-2^{27}} @end tex to @ifinfo 2**27 - 1) @end ifinfo @tex -$2^{28}-1$) +@math{2^{28}-1}) @end tex on most machines. (Some machines may provide a wider range.) It is important to note that the Emacs Lisp arithmetic functions do not check @@ -187,7 +189,7 @@ @group -1 ; @r{The integer -1.} 1 ; @r{The integer 1.} -1. ; @r{Also The integer 1.} +1. ; @r{Also the integer 1.} +1 ; @r{Also the integer 1.} 268435457 ; @r{Also the integer 1 on a 28-bit implementation.} @end group @@ -212,7 +214,7 @@ @node Character Type @subsection Character Type -@cindex @sc{ASCII} character codes +@cindex @sc{ascii} character codes A @dfn{character} in Emacs Lisp is nothing more than an integer. In other words, characters are represented by their character codes. For @@ -290,6 +292,7 @@ ?\r @result{} 13 ; @r{carriage return, @key{RET}, @kbd{C-m}} ?\e @result{} 27 ; @r{escape character, @key{ESC}, @kbd{C-[}} ?\\ @result{} 92 ; @r{backslash character, @kbd{\}} +?\d @result{} 127 ; @r{delete character, @key{DEL}} @end example @cindex escape sequence @@ -312,17 +315,17 @@ @end example In strings and buffers, the only control characters allowed are those -that exist in @sc{ASCII}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn +that exist in @sc{ascii}; but for keyboard input purposes, you can turn any character into a control character with @samp{C-}. The character -codes for these non-@sc{ASCII} control characters include the +codes for these non-@sc{ascii} control characters include the @tex -$2^{26}$ +@math{2^{26}} @end tex @ifinfo 2**26 @end ifinfo bit as well as the code for the corresponding non-control -character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ASCII} +character. Ordinary terminals have no way of generating non-@sc{ascii} control characters, but you can generate them straightforwardly using X and other window systems. @@ -349,7 +352,7 @@ A @dfn{meta character} is a character typed with the @key{META} modifier key. The integer that represents such a character has the @tex -$2^{27}$ +@math{2^{27}} @end tex @ifinfo 2**27 @@ -360,14 +363,14 @@ In a string, the @tex -$2^{7}$ +@math{2^{7}} @end tex @ifinfo 2**7 @end ifinfo bit attached to an ASCII character indicates a meta character; thus, the meta characters that can fit in a string have codes in the range from -128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ASCII} +128 to 255, and are the meta versions of the ordinary @sc{ascii} characters. (In Emacs versions 18 and older, this convention was used for characters outside of strings as well.) @@ -379,11 +382,11 @@ @samp{?\M-\C-b}, @samp{?\C-\M-b}, or @samp{?\M-\002}. The case of a graphic character is indicated by its character code; -for example, @sc{ASCII} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} -and @samp{A}. But @sc{ASCII} has no way to represent whether a control +for example, @sc{ascii} distinguishes between the characters @samp{a} +and @samp{A}. But @sc{ascii} has no way to represent whether a control character is upper case or lower case. Emacs uses the @tex -$2^{25}$ +@math{2^{25}} @end tex @ifinfo 2**25 @@ -405,7 +408,7 @@ @kbd{Alt-Hyper-Meta-x}. @tex Numerically, the -bit values are $2^{22}$ for alt, $2^{23}$ for super and $2^{24}$ for hyper. +bit values are @math{2^{22}} for alt, @math{2^{23}} for super and @math{2^{24}} for hyper. @end tex @ifinfo Numerically, the @@ -420,9 +423,9 @@ mark followed by a backslash and the octal character code (up to three octal digits); thus, @samp{?\101} for the character @kbd{A}, @samp{?\001} for the character @kbd{C-a}, and @code{?\002} for the -character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ASCII} +character @kbd{C-b}. Although this syntax can represent any @sc{ascii} character, it is preferred only when the precise octal value is more -important than the @sc{ASCII} representation. +important than the @sc{ascii} representation. @example @group @@ -520,6 +523,11 @@ @end group @end example +@cindex @samp{#:} read syntax + Normally the Lisp reader interns all symbols (@pxref{Creating +Symbols}). To prevent interning, you can write @samp{#:} before the +name of the symbol. + @node Sequence Type @subsection Sequence Types @@ -559,7 +567,7 @@ A @dfn{cons cell} is an object that consists of two slots, called the @sc{car} slot and the @sc{cdr} slot. Each slot can @dfn{hold} or -@dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that the ``the @sc{car} of +@dfn{refer to} any Lisp object. We also say that ``the @sc{car} of this cons cell is'' whatever object its @sc{car} slot currently holds, and likewise for the @sc{cdr}. @@ -794,7 +802,8 @@ first element, @code{rose} is the key and @code{red} is the value. @xref{Association Lists}, for a further explanation of alists and for -functions that work on alists. +functions that work on alists. @xref{Hash Tables}, for another kind of +lookup table, which is much faster for handling a large number of keys. @node Array Type @subsection Array Type @@ -884,9 +893,9 @@ @node Non-ASCII in Strings @subsubsection Non-ASCII Characters in Strings - You can include a non-@sc{ASCII} international character in a string + You can include a non-@sc{ascii} international character in a string constant by writing it literally. There are two text representations -for non-@sc{ASCII} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte +for non-@sc{ascii} characters in Emacs strings (and in buffers): unibyte and multibyte. If the string constant is read from a multibyte source, such as a multibyte buffer or string, or a file that would be visited as multibyte, then the character is read as a multibyte character, and that @@ -895,7 +904,7 @@ string unibyte. You can also represent a multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character with its -character code, using a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many +character code: use a hex escape, @samp{\x@var{nnnnnnn}}, with as many digits as necessary. (Multibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character codes are all greater than 256.) Any character which is not a valid hex digit terminates this construct. If the next character in the string could be @@ -906,7 +915,7 @@ character to the string, but it does terminate the preceding hex escape. Using a multibyte hex escape forces the string to multibyte. You can -represent a unibyte non-@sc{ASCII} character with its character code, +represent a unibyte non-@sc{ascii} character with its character code, which must be in the range from 128 (0200 octal) to 255 (0377 octal). This forces a unibyte string. @@ -925,16 +934,16 @@ However, not all of the characters you can write with backslash escape-sequences are valid in strings. The only control characters that -a string can hold are the @sc{ASCII} control characters. Strings do not -distinguish case in @sc{ASCII} control characters. +a string can hold are the @sc{ascii} control characters. Strings do not +distinguish case in @sc{ascii} control characters. Properly speaking, strings cannot hold meta characters; but when a string is to be used as a key sequence, there is a special convention -that provides a way to represent meta versions of @sc{ASCII} characters in a +that provides a way to represent meta versions of @sc{ascii} characters in a string. If you use the @samp{\M-} syntax to indicate a meta character in a string constant, this sets the @tex -$2^{7}$ +@math{2^{7}} @end tex @ifinfo 2**7 @@ -1043,7 +1052,7 @@ A @dfn{bool-vector} is a one-dimensional array of elements that must be @code{t} or @code{nil}. - The printed representation of a Bool-vector is like a string, except + The printed representation of a bool-vector is like a string, except that it begins with @samp{#&} followed by the length. The string constant that follows actually specifies the contents of the bool-vector as a bitmap---each ``character'' in the string contains 8 bits, which @@ -1063,6 +1072,19 @@ @result{} t @end example +@node Hash Table Type +@subsection Hash Table Type + + A hash table is a very fast kind of lookup table, somewhat like an +alist in that it maps keys to corresponding values, but much faster. +Hash tables are a new feature in Emacs 21; they have no read syntax, and +print using hash notation. @xref{Hash Tables}. + +@example +(make-hash-table) + @result{} #<hash-table 'eql nil 0/65 0x83af980> +@end example + @node Function Type @subsection Function Type @@ -1156,11 +1178,11 @@ @subsection Autoload Type An @dfn{autoload object} is a list whose first element is the symbol -@code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol as -a placeholder for the real definition; it says that the real definition -is found in a file of Lisp code that should be loaded when necessary. -The autoload object contains the name of the file, plus some other -information about the real definition. +@code{autoload}. It is stored as the function definition of a symbol, +where it serves as a placeholder for the real definition. The autoload +object says that the real definition is found in a file of Lisp code +that should be loaded when necessary. It contains the name of the file, +plus some other information about the real definition. After the file has been loaded, the symbol should have a new function definition that is not an autoload object. The new definition is then @@ -1207,9 +1229,9 @@ The contents of a buffer are much like a string, but buffers are not used like strings in Emacs Lisp, and the available operations are different. For example, you can insert text efficiently into an -existing buffer, whereas ``inserting'' text into a string requires -concatenating substrings, and the result is an entirely new string -object. +existing buffer, altering the buffer's contents, whereas ``inserting'' +text into a string requires concatenating substrings, and the result is +an entirely new string object. Each buffer has a designated position called @dfn{point} (@pxref{Positions}). At any time, one buffer is the @dfn{current @@ -1431,6 +1453,69 @@ @xref{Overlays}, for how to create and use overlays. +@node Circular Objects +@section Read Syntax for Circular Objects +@cindex circular structure, read syntax +@cindex shared structure, read syntax +@cindex @samp{#@var{n}=} read syntax +@cindex @samp{#@var{n}#} read syntax + + In Emacs 21, to represent shared or circular structure within a +complex of Lisp objects, you can use the reader constructs +@samp{#@var{n}=} and @samp{#@var{n}#}. + + Use @code{#@var{n}=} before an object to label it for later reference; +subsequently, you can use @code{#@var{n}#} to refer the same object in +another place. Here, @var{n} is some integer. For example, here is how +to make a list in which the first element recurs as the third element: + +@example +(#1=(a) b #1#) +@end example + +@noindent +This differs from ordinary syntax such as this + +@example +((a) b (a)) +@end example + +@noindent +which would result in a list whose first and third elements +look alike but are not the same Lisp object. This shows the difference: + +@example +(prog1 nil + (setq x '(#1=(a) b #1#))) +(eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) + @result{} t +(setq x '((a) b (a))) +(eq (nth 0 x) (nth 2 x)) + @result{} nil +@end example + + You can also use the same syntax to make a circular structure, which +appears as an ``element'' within itself. Here is an example: + +@example +#1=(a #1#) +@end example + +@noindent +This makes a list whose second element is the list itself. +Here's how you can see that it really works: + +@example +(prog1 nil + (setq x '#1=(a #1#))) +(eq x (cadr x)) + @result{} t +@end example + + The Lisp printer can produce this syntax to record circular and shared +structure in a Lisp object, if you bind the variable @code{print-circle} +to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{Output Variables}. + @node Type Predicates @section Type Predicates @cindex predicates @@ -1764,7 +1849,7 @@ Comparison of strings is case-sensitive, but does not take account of text properties---it compares only the characters in the strings. A unibyte string never equals a multibyte string unless the -contents are entirely @sc{ASCII} (@pxref{Text Representations}). +contents are entirely @sc{ascii} (@pxref{Text Representations}). @example @group