Mercurial > emacs
diff man/mule.texi @ 25829:ac7e9e5e2ccb
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author | Dave Love <fx@gnu.org> |
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date | Wed, 29 Sep 1999 15:17:24 +0000 |
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children | 068f7ad41d40 |
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--- /dev/null Thu Jan 01 00:00:00 1970 +0000 +++ b/man/mule.texi Wed Sep 29 15:17:24 1999 +0000 @@ -0,0 +1,1004 @@ +@c This is part of the Emacs manual. +@c Copyright (C) 1997, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc. +@c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions. +@node International, Major Modes, Frames, Top +@chapter International Character Set Support +@cindex MULE +@cindex international scripts +@cindex multibyte characters +@cindex encoding of characters + +@cindex Chinese +@cindex Devanagari +@cindex Hindi +@cindex Marathi +@cindex Ethiopian +@cindex Greek +@cindex IPA +@cindex Japanese +@cindex Korean +@cindex Lao +@cindex Russian +@cindex Thai +@cindex Tibetan +@cindex Vietnamese + Emacs supports a wide variety of international character sets, +including European variants of the Latin alphabet, as well as Chinese, +Devanagari (Hindi and Marathi), Ethiopian, Greek, IPA, Japanese, Korean, +Lao, Russian, Thai, Tibetan, and Vietnamese scripts. These features +have been merged from the modified version of Emacs known as MULE (for +``MULti-lingual Enhancement to GNU Emacs'') + +@menu +* International Intro:: Basic concepts of multibyte characters. +* Enabling Multibyte:: Controlling whether to use multibyte characters. +* Language Environments:: Setting things up for the language you use. +* Input Methods:: Entering text characters not on your keyboard. +* Select Input Method:: Specifying your choice of input methods. +* Multibyte Conversion:: How single-byte characters convert to multibyte. +* Coding Systems:: Character set conversion when you read and + write files, and so on. +* Recognize Coding:: How Emacs figures out which conversion to use. +* Specify Coding:: Various ways to choose which conversion to use. +* Fontsets:: Fontsets are collections of fonts + that cover the whole spectrum of characters. +* Defining Fontsets:: Defining a new fontset. +* Single-Byte European Support:: + You can pick one European character set + to use without multibyte characters. +@end menu + +@node International Intro +@section Introduction to International Character Sets + + The users of these scripts have established many more-or-less standard +coding systems for storing files. Emacs internally uses a single +multibyte character encoding, so that it can intermix characters from +all these scripts in a single buffer or string. This encoding +represents each non-ASCII character as a sequence of bytes in the range +0200 through 0377. Emacs translates between the multibyte character +encoding and various other coding systems when reading and writing +files, when exchanging data with subprocesses, and (in some cases) in +the @kbd{C-q} command (@pxref{Multibyte Conversion}). + +@kindex C-h h +@findex view-hello-file + The command @kbd{C-h h} (@code{view-hello-file}) displays the file +@file{etc/HELLO}, which shows how to say ``hello'' in many languages. +This illustrates various scripts. + + Keyboards, even in the countries where these character sets are used, +generally don't have keys for all the characters in them. So Emacs +supports various @dfn{input methods}, typically one for each script or +language, to make it convenient to type them. + +@kindex C-x RET + The prefix key @kbd{C-x @key{RET}} is used for commands that pertain +to multibyte characters, coding systems, and input methods. + +@node Enabling Multibyte +@section Enabling Multibyte Characters + + You can enable or disable multibyte character support, either for +Emacs as a whole, or for a single buffer. When multibyte characters are +disabled in a buffer, then each byte in that buffer represents a +character, even codes 0200 through 0377. The old features for +supporting the European character sets, ISO Latin-1 and ISO Latin-2, +work as they did in Emacs 19 and also work for the other ISO 8859 +character sets. + + However, there is no need to turn off multibyte character support to +use ISO Latin; the Emacs multibyte character set includes all the +characters in these character sets, and Emacs can translate +automatically to and from the ISO codes. + + To edit a particular file in unibyte representation, visit it using +@code{find-file-literally}. @xref{Visiting}. To convert a buffer in +multibyte representation into a single-byte representation of the same +characters, the easiest way is to save the contents in a file, kill the +buffer, and find the file again with @code{find-file-literally}. You +can also use @kbd{C-x @key{RET} c} +(@code{universal-coding-system-argument}) and specify @samp{raw-text} as +the coding system with which to find or save a file. @xref{Specify +Coding}. Finding a file as @samp{raw-text} doesn't disable format +conversion, uncompression and auto mode selection as +@code{find-file-literally} does. + +@vindex enable-multibyte-characters +@vindex default-enable-multibyte-characters + To turn off multibyte character support by default, start Emacs with +the @samp{--unibyte} option (@pxref{Initial Options}), or set the +environment variable @samp{EMACS_UNIBYTE}. You can also customize +@code{enable-multibyte-characters} or, equivalently, directly set the +variable @code{default-enable-multibyte-characters} in your init file to +have basically the same effect as @samp{--unibyte}. + + Multibyte strings are not created during initialization from the +values of environment variables, @file{/etc/passwd} entries etc.@: that +contain non-ASCII 8-bit characters. However, the initialization file is +normally read as multibyte---like Lisp files in general---even with +@samp{--unibyte}. To avoid multibyte strings being generated by +non-ASCII characters in it, put @samp{-*-unibyte: t;-*-} in a comment on +the first line. Do the same for initialization files for packages like +Gnus. + + The mode line indicates whether multibyte character support is enabled +in the current buffer. If it is, there are two or more characters (most +often two dashes) before the colon near the beginning of the mode line. +When multibyte characters are not enabled, just one dash precedes the +colon. + +@node Language Environments +@section Language Environments +@cindex language environments + + All supported character sets are supported in Emacs buffers whenever +multibyte characters are enabled; there is no need to select a +particular language in order to display its characters in an Emacs +buffer. However, it is important to select a @dfn{language environment} +in order to set various defaults. The language environment really +represents a choice of preferred script (more or less) rather than a +choice of language. + + The language environment controls which coding systems to recognize +when reading text (@pxref{Recognize Coding}). This applies to files, +incoming mail, netnews, and any other text you read into Emacs. It may +also specify the default coding system to use when you create a file. +Each language environment also specifies a default input method. + +@findex set-language-environment + The way to select a language environment is with the command @kbd{M-x +set-language-environment}. It makes no difference which buffer is +current when you use this command, because the effects apply globally to +the Emacs session. The supported language environments include: + +@quotation +Chinese-BIG5, Chinese-CNS, Chinese-GB, Cyrillic-Alternativnyj, +Cyrillic-ISO, Cyrillic-KOI8, Devanagari, English, Ethiopic, Greek, +Hebrew, Japanese, Korean, Lao, Latin-1, Latin-2, Latin-3, Latin-4, +Latin-5, Thai, Tibetan, and Vietnamese. +@end quotation + + Some operating systems let you specify the language you are using by +setting locale environment variables. Emacs handles one common special +case of this: if your locale name for character types contains the +string @samp{8859-@var{n}}, Emacs automatically selects the +corresponding language environment. + +@kindex C-h L +@findex describe-language-environment + To display information about the effects of a certain language +environment @var{lang-env}, use the command @kbd{C-h L @var{lang-env} +@key{RET}} (@code{describe-language-environment}). This tells you which +languages this language environment is useful for, and lists the +character sets, coding systems, and input methods that go with it. It +also shows some sample text to illustrate scripts used in this language +environment. By default, this command describes the chosen language +environment. + +@vindex set-language-environment-hook + You can customize any language environment with the normal hook +@code{set-language-environment-hook}. The command +@code{set-language-environment} runs that hook after setting up the new +language environment. The hook functions can test for a specific +language environment by checking the variable +@code{current-language-environment}. + +@vindex exit-language-environment-hook + Before it starts to set up the new language environment, +@code{set-language-environment} first runs the hook +@code{exit-language-environment-hook}. This hook is useful for undoing +customizations that were made with @code{set-language-environment-hook}. +For instance, if you set up a special key binding in a specific language +environment using @code{set-language-environment-hook}, you should set +up @code{exit-language-environment-hook} to restore the normal binding +for that key. + +@node Input Methods +@section Input Methods + +@cindex input methods + An @dfn{input method} is a kind of character conversion designed +specifically for interactive input. In Emacs, typically each language +has its own input method; sometimes several languages which use the same +characters can share one input method. A few languages support several +input methods. + + The simplest kind of input method works by mapping ASCII letters into +another alphabet. This is how the Greek and Russian input methods work. + + A more powerful technique is composition: converting sequences of +characters into one letter. Many European input methods use composition +to produce a single non-ASCII letter from a sequence that consists of a +letter followed by accent characters (or vice versa). For example, some +methods convert the sequence @kbd{a'} into a single accented letter. +These input methods have no special commands of their own; all they do +is compose sequences of printing characters. + + The input methods for syllabic scripts typically use mapping followed +by composition. The input methods for Thai and Korean work this way. +First, letters are mapped into symbols for particular sounds or tone +marks; then, sequences of these which make up a whole syllable are +mapped into one syllable sign. + + Chinese and Japanese require more complex methods. In Chinese input +methods, first you enter the phonetic spelling of a Chinese word (in +input method @code{chinese-py}, among others), or a sequence of portions +of the character (input methods @code{chinese-4corner} and +@code{chinese-sw}, and others). Since one phonetic spelling typically +corresponds to many different Chinese characters, you must select one of +the alternatives using special Emacs commands. Keys such as @kbd{C-f}, +@kbd{C-b}, @kbd{C-n}, @kbd{C-p}, and digits have special definitions in +this situation, used for selecting among the alternatives. @key{TAB} +displays a buffer showing all the possibilities. + + In Japanese input methods, first you input a whole word using +phonetic spelling; then, after the word is in the buffer, Emacs converts +it into one or more characters using a large dictionary. One phonetic +spelling corresponds to many differently written Japanese words, so you +must select one of them; use @kbd{C-n} and @kbd{C-p} to cycle through +the alternatives. + + Sometimes it is useful to cut off input method processing so that the +characters you have just entered will not combine with subsequent +characters. For example, in input method @code{latin-1-postfix}, the +sequence @kbd{e '} combines to form an @samp{e} with an accent. What if +you want to enter them as separate characters? + + One way is to type the accent twice; that is a special feature for +entering the separate letter and accent. For example, @kbd{e ' '} gives +you the two characters @samp{e'}. Another way is to type another letter +after the @kbd{e}---something that won't combine with that---and +immediately delete it. For example, you could type @kbd{e e @key{DEL} +'} to get separate @samp{e} and @samp{'}. + + Another method, more general but not quite as easy to type, is to use +@kbd{C-\ C-\} between two characters to stop them from combining. This +is the command @kbd{C-\} (@code{toggle-input-method}) used twice. +@ifinfo +@xref{Select Input Method}. +@end ifinfo + + @kbd{C-\ C-\} is especially useful inside an incremental search, +because it stops waiting for more characters to combine, and starts +searching for what you have already entered. + +@vindex input-method-verbose-flag +@vindex input-method-highlight-flag + The variables @code{input-method-highlight-flag} and +@code{input-method-verbose-flag} control how input methods explain what +is happening. If @code{input-method-highlight-flag} is non-@code{nil}, +the partial sequence is highlighted in the buffer. If +@code{input-method-verbose-flag} is non-@code{nil}, the list of possible +characters to type next is displayed in the echo area (but not when you +are in the minibuffer). + +@node Select Input Method +@section Selecting an Input Method + +@table @kbd +@item C-\ +Enable or disable use of the selected input method. + +@item C-x @key{RET} C-\ @var{method} @key{RET} +Select a new input method for the current buffer. + +@item C-h I @var{method} @key{RET} +@itemx C-h C-\ @var{method} @key{RET} +@findex describe-input-method +@kindex C-h I +@kindex C-h C-\ +Describe the input method @var{method} (@code{describe-input-method}). +By default, it describes the current input method (if any). +This description should give you the full details of how to +use any particular input method. + +@item M-x list-input-methods +Display a list of all the supported input methods. +@end table + +@findex set-input-method +@vindex current-input-method +@kindex C-x RET C-\ + To choose an input method for the current buffer, use @kbd{C-x +@key{RET} C-\} (@code{set-input-method}). This command reads the +input method name with the minibuffer; the name normally starts with the +language environment that it is meant to be used with. The variable +@code{current-input-method} records which input method is selected. + +@findex toggle-input-method +@kindex C-\ + Input methods use various sequences of ASCII characters to stand for +non-ASCII characters. Sometimes it is useful to turn off the input +method temporarily. To do this, type @kbd{C-\} +(@code{toggle-input-method}). To reenable the input method, type +@kbd{C-\} again. + + If you type @kbd{C-\} and you have not yet selected an input method, +it prompts for you to specify one. This has the same effect as using +@kbd{C-x @key{RET} C-\} to specify an input method. + +@vindex default-input-method + Selecting a language environment specifies a default input method for +use in various buffers. When you have a default input method, you can +select it in the current buffer by typing @kbd{C-\}. The variable +@code{default-input-method} specifies the default input method +(@code{nil} means there is none). + +@findex quail-set-keyboard-layout + Some input methods for alphabetic scripts work by (in effect) +remapping the keyboard to emulate various keyboard layouts commonly used +for those scripts. How to do this remapping properly depends on your +actual keyboard layout. To specify which layout your keyboard has, use +the command @kbd{M-x quail-set-keyboard-layout}. + +@findex list-input-methods + To display a list of all the supported input methods, type @kbd{M-x +list-input-methods}. The list gives information about each input +method, including the string that stands for it in the mode line. + +@node Multibyte Conversion +@section Unibyte and Multibyte Non-ASCII characters + + When multibyte characters are enabled, character codes 0240 (octal) +through 0377 (octal) are not really legitimate in the buffer. The valid +non-ASCII printing characters have codes that start from 0400. + + If you type a self-inserting character in the invalid range 0240 +through 0377, Emacs assumes you intended to use one of the ISO +Latin-@var{n} character sets, and converts it to the Emacs code +representing that Latin-@var{n} character. You select @emph{which} ISO +Latin character set to use through your choice of language environment +@iftex +(see above). +@end iftex +@ifinfo +(@pxref{Language Environments}). +@end ifinfo +If you do not specify a choice, the default is Latin-1. + + The same thing happens when you use @kbd{C-q} to enter an octal code +in this range. + +@node Coding Systems +@section Coding Systems +@cindex coding systems + + Users of various languages have established many more-or-less standard +coding systems for representing them. Emacs does not use these coding +systems internally; instead, it converts from various coding systems to +its own system when reading data, and converts the internal coding +system to other coding systems when writing data. Conversion is +possible in reading or writing files, in sending or receiving from the +terminal, and in exchanging data with subprocesses. + + Emacs assigns a name to each coding system. Most coding systems are +used for one language, and the name of the coding system starts with the +language name. Some coding systems are used for several languages; +their names usually start with @samp{iso}. There are also special +coding systems @code{no-conversion}, @code{raw-text} and +@code{emacs-mule} which do not convert printing characters at all. + +@cindex end-of-line conversion + In addition to converting various representations of non-ASCII +characters, a coding system can perform end-of-line conversion. Emacs +handles three different conventions for how to separate lines in a file: +newline, carriage-return linefeed, and just carriage-return. + +@table @kbd +@item C-h C @var{coding} @key{RET} +Describe coding system @var{coding}. + +@item C-h C @key{RET} +Describe the coding systems currently in use. + +@item M-x list-coding-systems +Display a list of all the supported coding systems. +@end table + +@kindex C-h C +@findex describe-coding-system + The command @kbd{C-h C} (@code{describe-coding-system}) displays +information about particular coding systems. You can specify a coding +system name as argument; alternatively, with an empty argument, it +describes the coding systems currently selected for various purposes, +both in the current buffer and as the defaults, and the priority list +for recognizing coding systems (@pxref{Recognize Coding}). + +@findex list-coding-systems + To display a list of all the supported coding systems, type @kbd{M-x +list-coding-systems}. The list gives information about each coding +system, including the letter that stands for it in the mode line +(@pxref{Mode Line}). + +@cindex end-of-line conversion +@cindex MS-DOS end-of-line conversion +@cindex Macintosh end-of-line conversion + Each of the coding systems that appear in this list---except for +@code{no-conversion}, which means no conversion of any kind---specifies +how and whether to convert printing characters, but leaves the choice of +end-of-line conversion to be decided based on the contents of each file. +For example, if the file appears to use the sequence carriage-return +linefeed to separate lines, DOS end-of-line conversion will be used. + + Each of the listed coding systems has three variants which specify +exactly what to do for end-of-line conversion: + +@table @code +@item @dots{}-unix +Don't do any end-of-line conversion; assume the file uses +newline to separate lines. (This is the convention normally used +on Unix and GNU systems.) + +@item @dots{}-dos +Assume the file uses carriage-return linefeed to separate lines, and do +the appropriate conversion. (This is the convention normally used on +Microsoft systems.@footnote{It is also specified for MIME `text/*' +bodies and in other network transport contexts. It is different +from the SGML reference syntax record-start/record-end format which +Emacs doesn't support directly.}) + +@item @dots{}-mac +Assume the file uses carriage-return to separate lines, and do the +appropriate conversion. (This is the convention normally used on the +Macintosh system.) +@end table + + These variant coding systems are omitted from the +@code{list-coding-systems} display for brevity, since they are entirely +predictable. For example, the coding system @code{iso-latin-1} has +variants @code{iso-latin-1-unix}, @code{iso-latin-1-dos} and +@code{iso-latin-1-mac}. + + The coding system @code{raw-text} is good for a file which is mainly +ASCII text, but may contain byte values above 127 which are not meant to +encode non-ASCII characters. With @code{raw-text}, Emacs copies those +byte values unchanged, and sets @code{enable-multibyte-characters} to +@code{nil} in the current buffer so that they will be interpreted +properly. @code{raw-text} handles end-of-line conversion in the usual +way, based on the data encountered, and has the usual three variants to +specify the kind of end-of-line conversion to use. + + In contrast, the coding system @code{no-conversion} specifies no +character code conversion at all---none for non-ASCII byte values and +none for end of line. This is useful for reading or writing binary +files, tar files, and other files that must be examined verbatim. It, +too, sets @code{enable-multibyte-characters} to @code{nil}. + + The easiest way to edit a file with no conversion of any kind is with +the @kbd{M-x find-file-literally} command. This uses +@code{no-conversion}, and also suppresses other Emacs features that +might convert the file contents before you see them. @xref{Visiting}. + + The coding system @code{emacs-mule} means that the file contains +non-ASCII characters stored with the internal Emacs encoding. It +handles end-of-line conversion based on the data encountered, and has +the usual three variants to specify the kind of end-of-line conversion. + +@node Recognize Coding +@section Recognizing Coding Systems + + Most of the time, Emacs can recognize which coding system to use for +any given file---once you have specified your preferences. + + Some coding systems can be recognized or distinguished by which byte +sequences appear in the data. However, there are coding systems that +cannot be distinguished, not even potentially. For example, there is no +way to distinguish between Latin-1 and Latin-2; they use the same byte +values with different meanings. + + Emacs handles this situation by means of a priority list of coding +systems. Whenever Emacs reads a file, if you do not specify the coding +system to use, Emacs checks the data against each coding system, +starting with the first in priority and working down the list, until it +finds a coding system that fits the data. Then it converts the file +contents assuming that they are represented in this coding system. + + The priority list of coding systems depends on the selected language +environment (@pxref{Language Environments}). For example, if you use +French, you probably want Emacs to prefer Latin-1 to Latin-2; if you use +Czech, you probably want Latin-2 to be preferred. This is one of the +reasons to specify a language environment. + +@findex prefer-coding-system + However, you can alter the priority list in detail with the command +@kbd{M-x prefer-coding-system}. This command reads the name of a coding +system from the minibuffer, and adds it to the front of the priority +list, so that it is preferred to all others. If you use this command +several times, each use adds one element to the front of the priority +list. + + If you use a coding system that specifies the end-of-line conversion +type, such as @code{iso-8859-1-dos}, what that means is that Emacs +should attempt to recognize @code{iso-8859-1} with priority, and should +use DOS end-of-line conversion in case it recognizes @code{iso-8859-1}. + +@vindex file-coding-system-alist + Sometimes a file name indicates which coding system to use for the +file. The variable @code{file-coding-system-alist} specifies this +correspondence. There is a special function +@code{modify-coding-system-alist} for adding elements to this list. For +example, to read and write all @samp{.txt} files using the coding system +@code{china-iso-8bit}, you can execute this Lisp expression: + +@smallexample +(modify-coding-system-alist 'file "\\.txt\\'" 'china-iso-8bit) +@end smallexample + +@noindent +The first argument should be @code{file}, the second argument should be +a regular expression that determines which files this applies to, and +the third argument says which coding system to use for these files. + +@vindex inhibit-eol-conversion + Emacs recognizes which kind of end-of-line conversion to use based on +the contents of the file: if it sees only carriage-returns, or only +carriage-return linefeed sequences, then it chooses the end-of-line +conversion accordingly. You can inhibit the automatic use of +end-of-line conversion by setting the variable @code{inhibit-eol-conversion} +to non-@code{nil}. + +@vindex coding + You can specify the coding system for a particular file using the +@samp{-*-@dots{}-*-} construct at the beginning of a file, or a local +variables list at the end (@pxref{File Variables}). You do this by +defining a value for the ``variable'' named @code{coding}. Emacs does +not really have a variable @code{coding}; instead of setting a variable, +it uses the specified coding system for the file. For example, +@samp{-*-mode: C; coding: latin-1;-*-} specifies use of the Latin-1 +coding system, as well as C mode. If you specify the coding explicitly +in the file, that overrides @code{file-coding-system-alist}. + +@vindex auto-coding-alist + The variable @code{auto-coding-alist} is the strongest way to specify +the coding system for certain patterns of file names; this variable even +overrides @samp{-*-coding:-*-} tags in the file itself. Emacs uses this +feature for tar and archive files, to prevent Emacs from being confused +by a @samp{-*-coding:-*-} tag in a member of the archive and thinking it +applies to the archive file as a whole. + +@vindex buffer-file-coding-system + Once Emacs has chosen a coding system for a buffer, it stores that +coding system in @code{buffer-file-coding-system} and uses that coding +system, by default, for operations that write from this buffer into a +file. This includes the commands @code{save-buffer} and +@code{write-region}. If you want to write files from this buffer using +a different coding system, you can specify a different coding system for +the buffer using @code{set-buffer-file-coding-system} (@pxref{Specify +Coding}). + +@vindex sendmail-coding-system + When you send a message with Mail mode (@pxref{Sending Mail}), Emacs has +four different ways to determine the coding system to use for encoding +the message text. It tries the buffer's own value of +@code{buffer-file-coding-system}, if that is non-@code{nil}. Otherwise, +it uses the value of @code{sendmail-coding-system}, if that is +non-@code{nil}. The third way is to use the default coding system for +new files, which is controlled by your choice of language environment, +if that is non-@code{nil}. If all of these three values are @code{nil}, +Emacs encodes outgoing mail using the Latin-1 coding system. + +@vindex rmail-decode-mime-charset + When you get new mail in Rmail, each message is translated +automatically from the coding system it is written in---as if it were a +separate file. This uses the priority list of coding systems that you +have specified. If a MIME message specifies a character set, Rmail +obeys that specification, unless @code{rmail-decode-mime-charset} is +@code{nil}. + +@vindex rmail-file-coding-system + For reading and saving Rmail files themselves, Emacs uses the coding +system specified by the variable @code{rmail-file-coding-system}. The +default value is @code{nil}, which means that Rmail files are not +translated (they are read and written in the Emacs internal character +code). + +@node Specify Coding +@section Specifying a Coding System + + In cases where Emacs does not automatically choose the right coding +system, you can use these commands to specify one: + +@table @kbd +@item C-x @key{RET} f @var{coding} @key{RET} +Use coding system @var{coding} for the visited file +in the current buffer. + +@item C-x @key{RET} c @var{coding} @key{RET} +Specify coding system @var{coding} for the immediately following +command. + +@item C-x @key{RET} k @var{coding} @key{RET} +Use coding system @var{coding} for keyboard input. + +@item C-x @key{RET} t @var{coding} @key{RET} +Use coding system @var{coding} for terminal output. + +@item C-x @key{RET} p @var{input-coding} @key{RET} @var{output-coding} @key{RET} +Use coding systems @var{input-coding} and @var{output-coding} for +subprocess input and output in the current buffer. + +@item C-x @key{RET} x @var{coding} @key{RET} +Use coding system @var{coding} for transferring selections to and from +other programs through the window system. + +@item C-x @key{RET} X @var{coding} @key{RET} +Use coding system @var{coding} for transferring @emph{one} +selection---the next one---to or from the window system. +@end table + +@kindex C-x RET f +@findex set-buffer-file-coding-system + The command @kbd{C-x @key{RET} f} (@code{set-buffer-file-coding-system}) +specifies the file coding system for the current buffer---in other +words, which coding system to use when saving or rereading the visited +file. You specify which coding system using the minibuffer. Since this +command applies to a file you have already visited, it affects only the +way the file is saved. + +@kindex C-x RET c +@findex universal-coding-system-argument + Another way to specify the coding system for a file is when you visit +the file. First use the command @kbd{C-x @key{RET} c} +(@code{universal-coding-system-argument}); this command uses the +minibuffer to read a coding system name. After you exit the minibuffer, +the specified coding system is used for @emph{the immediately following +command}. + + So if the immediately following command is @kbd{C-x C-f}, for example, +it reads the file using that coding system (and records the coding +system for when the file is saved). Or if the immediately following +command is @kbd{C-x C-w}, it writes the file using that coding system. +Other file commands affected by a specified coding system include +@kbd{C-x C-i} and @kbd{C-x C-v}, as well as the other-window variants of +@kbd{C-x C-f}. + + @kbd{C-x @key{RET} c} also affects commands that start subprocesses, +including @kbd{M-x shell} (@pxref{Shell}). + + However, if the immediately following command does not use the coding +system, then @kbd{C-x @key{RET} c} ultimately has no effect. + + An easy way to visit a file with no conversion is with the @kbd{M-x +find-file-literally} command. @xref{Visiting}. + +@vindex default-buffer-file-coding-system + The variable @code{default-buffer-file-coding-system} specifies the +choice of coding system to use when you create a new file. It applies +when you find a new file, and when you create a buffer and then save it +in a file. Selecting a language environment typically sets this +variable to a good choice of default coding system for that language +environment. + +@kindex C-x RET t +@findex set-terminal-coding-system + The command @kbd{C-x @key{RET} t} (@code{set-terminal-coding-system}) +specifies the coding system for terminal output. If you specify a +character code for terminal output, all characters output to the +terminal are translated into that coding system. + + This feature is useful for certain character-only terminals built to +support specific languages or character sets---for example, European +terminals that support one of the ISO Latin character sets. You need to +specify the terminal coding system when using multibyte text, so that +Emacs knows which characters the terminal can actually handle. + + By default, output to the terminal is not translated at all, unless +Emacs can deduce the proper coding system from your terminal type. + +@kindex C-x RET k +@findex set-keyboard-coding-system + The command @kbd{C-x @key{RET} k} (@code{set-keyboard-coding-system}) +specifies the coding system for keyboard input. Character-code +translation of keyboard input is useful for terminals with keys that +send non-ASCII graphic characters---for example, some terminals designed +for ISO Latin-1 or subsets of it. + + By default, keyboard input is not translated at all. + + There is a similarity between using a coding system translation for +keyboard input, and using an input method: both define sequences of +keyboard input that translate into single characters. However, input +methods are designed to be convenient for interactive use by humans, and +the sequences that are translated are typically sequences of ASCII +printing characters. Coding systems typically translate sequences of +non-graphic characters. + +@kindex C-x RET x +@kindex C-x RET X +@findex set-selection-coding-system +@findex set-next-selection-coding-system + The command @kbd{C-x @key{RET} x} (@code{set-selection-coding-system}) +specifies the coding system for sending selected text to the window +system, and for receiving the text of selections made in other +applications. This command applies to all subsequent selections, until +you override it by using the command again. The command @kbd{C-x +@key{RET} X} (@code{set-next-selection-coding-system}) specifies the +coding system for the next selection made in Emacs or read by Emacs. + +@kindex C-x RET p +@findex set-buffer-process-coding-system + The command @kbd{C-x @key{RET} p} (@code{set-buffer-process-coding-system}) +specifies the coding system for input and output to a subprocess. This +command applies to the current buffer; normally, each subprocess has its +own buffer, and thus you can use this command to specify translation to +and from a particular subprocess by giving the command in the +corresponding buffer. + + By default, process input and output are not translated at all. + +@vindex file-name-coding-system + The variable @code{file-name-coding-system} specifies a coding system +to use for encoding file names. If you set the variable to a coding +system name (as a Lisp symbol or a string), Emacs encodes file names +using that coding system for all file operations. This makes it +possible to use non-ASCII characters in file names---or, at least, those +non-ASCII characters which the specified coding system can encode. + + If @code{file-name-coding-system} is @code{nil}, Emacs uses a default +coding system determined by the selected language environment. In the +default language environment, any non-ASCII characters in file names are +not encoded specially; they appear in the file system using the internal +Emacs representation. + + @strong{Warning:} if you change @code{file-name-coding-system} (or the +language environment) in the middle of an Emacs session, problems can +result if you have already visited files whose names were encoded using +the earlier coding system and cannot be encoded (or are encoded +differently) under the new coding system. If you try to save one of +these buffers under the visited file name, saving may use the wrong file +name, or it may get an error. If such a problem happens, use @kbd{C-x +C-w} to specify a new file name for that buffer. + +@node Fontsets +@section Fontsets +@cindex fontsets + + A font for X Windows typically defines shapes for one alphabet or +script. Therefore, displaying the entire range of scripts that Emacs +supports requires a collection of many fonts. In Emacs, such a +collection is called a @dfn{fontset}. A fontset is defined by a list of +fonts, each assigned to handle a range of character codes. + + Each fontset has a name, like a font. The available X fonts are +defined by the X server; fontsets, however, are defined within Emacs +itself. Once you have defined a fontset, you can use it within Emacs by +specifying its name, anywhere that you could use a single font. Of +course, Emacs fontsets can use only the fonts that the X server +supports; if certain characters appear on the screen as hollow boxes, +this means that the fontset in use for them has no font for those +characters. + + Emacs creates two fontsets automatically: the @dfn{standard fontset} +and the @dfn{startup fontset}. The standard fontset is most likely to +have fonts for a wide variety of non-ASCII characters; however, this is +not the default for Emacs to use. (By default, Emacs tries to find a +font which has bold and italic variants.) You can specify use of the +standard fontset with the @samp{-fn} option, or with the @samp{Font} X +resource (@pxref{Font X}). For example, + +@example +emacs -fn fontset-standard +@end example + + A fontset does not necessarily specify a font for every character +code. If a fontset specifies no font for a certain character, or if it +specifies a font that does not exist on your system, then it cannot +display that character properly. It will display that character as an +empty box instead. + +@vindex highlight-wrong-size-font + The fontset height and width are determined by the ASCII characters +(that is, by the font used for ASCII characters in that fontset). If +another font in the fontset has a different height, or a different +width, then characters assigned to that font are clipped to the +fontset's size. If @code{highlight-wrong-size-font} is non-@code{nil}, +a box is displayed around these wrong-size characters as well. + +@node Defining Fontsets +@section Defining fontsets + +@vindex standard-fontset-spec +@cindex standard fontset + Emacs creates a standard fontset automatically according to the value +of @code{standard-fontset-spec}. This fontset's name is + +@example +-*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-16-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-standard +@end example + +@noindent +or just @samp{fontset-standard} for short. + + Bold, italic, and bold-italic variants of the standard fontset are +created automatically. Their names have @samp{bold} instead of +@samp{medium}, or @samp{i} instead of @samp{r}, or both. + +@cindex startup fontset + If you specify a default ASCII font with the @samp{Font} resource or +the @samp{-fn} argument, Emacs generates a fontset from it +automatically. This is the @dfn{startup fontset} and its name is +@code{fontset-startup}. It does this by replacing the @var{foundry}, +@var{family}, @var{add_style}, and @var{average_width} fields of the +font name with @samp{*}, replacing @var{charset_registry} field with +@samp{fontset}, and replacing @var{charset_encoding} field with +@samp{startup}, then using the resulting string to specify a fontset. + + For instance, if you start Emacs this way, + +@example +emacs -fn "*courier-medium-r-normal--14-140-*-iso8859-1" +@end example + +@noindent +Emacs generates the following fontset and uses it for the initial X +window frame: + +@example +-*-*-medium-r-normal-*-14-140-*-*-*-*-fontset-startup +@end example + + With the X resource @samp{Emacs.Font}, you can specify a fontset name +just like an actual font name. But be careful not to specify a fontset +name in a wildcard resource like @samp{Emacs*Font}---that wildcard +specification applies to various other purposes, such as menus, and +menus cannot handle fontsets. + + You can specify additional fontsets using X resources named +@samp{Fontset-@var{n}}, where @var{n} is an integer starting from 0. +The resource value should have this form: + +@smallexample +@var{fontpattern}, @r{[}@var{charsetname}:@var{fontname}@r{]@dots{}} +@end smallexample + +@noindent +@var{fontpattern} should have the form of a standard X font name, except +for the last two fields. They should have the form +@samp{fontset-@var{alias}}. + + The fontset has two names, one long and one short. The long name is +@var{fontpattern}. The short name is @samp{fontset-@var{alias}}. You +can refer to the fontset by either name. + + The construct @samp{@var{charset}:@var{font}} specifies which font to +use (in this fontset) for one particular character set. Here, +@var{charset} is the name of a character set, and @var{font} is the +font to use for that character set. You can use this construct any +number of times in defining one fontset. + + For the other character sets, Emacs chooses a font based on +@var{fontpattern}. It replaces @samp{fontset-@var{alias}} with values +that describe the character set. For the ASCII character font, +@samp{fontset-@var{alias}} is replaced with @samp{ISO8859-1}. + + In addition, when several consecutive fields are wildcards, Emacs +collapses them into a single wildcard. This is to prevent use of +auto-scaled fonts. Fonts made by scaling larger fonts are not usable +for editing, and scaling a smaller font is not useful because it is +better to use the smaller font in its own size, which Emacs does. + + Thus if @var{fontpattern} is this, + +@example +-*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-24 +@end example + +@noindent +the font specification for ASCII characters would be this: + +@example +-*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-ISO8859-1 +@end example + +@noindent +and the font specification for Chinese GB2312 characters would be this: + +@example +-*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-gb2312*-* +@end example + + You may not have any Chinese font matching the above font +specification. Most X distributions include only Chinese fonts that +have @samp{song ti} or @samp{fangsong ti} in @var{family} field. In +such a case, @samp{Fontset-@var{n}} can be specified as below: + +@smallexample +Emacs.Fontset-0: -*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-24,\ + chinese-gb2312:-*-*-medium-r-normal-*-24-*-gb2312*-* +@end smallexample + +@noindent +Then, the font specifications for all but Chinese GB2312 characters have +@samp{fixed} in the @var{family} field, and the font specification for +Chinese GB2312 characters has a wild card @samp{*} in the @var{family} +field. + +@findex create-fontset-from-fontset-spec + The function that processes the fontset resource value to create the +fontset is called @code{create-fontset-from-fontset-spec}. You can also +call this function explicitly to create a fontset. + + @xref{Font X}, for more information about font naming in X. + +@node Single-Byte European Support +@section Single-byte European Character Support + +@cindex European character sets +@cindex accented characters +@cindex ISO Latin character sets +@cindex Unibyte operation +@vindex enable-multibyte-characters + The ISO 8859 Latin-@var{n} character sets define character codes in +the range 160 to 255 to handle the accented letters and punctuation +needed by various European languages. If you disable multibyte +characters, Emacs can still handle @emph{one} of these character codes +at a time. To specify @emph{which} of these codes to use, invoke +@kbd{M-x set-language-environment} and specify a suitable language +environment such as @samp{Latin-@var{n}}. + + For more information about unibyte operation, see @ref{Enabling +Multibyte}. Note particularly that you probably want to ensure that +your initialization files are read as unibyte if they contain non-ASCII +characters. + +@vindex unibyte-display-via-language-environment + Emacs can also display those characters, provided the terminal or font +in use supports them. This works automatically. Alternatively, if you +are using a window system, Emacs can also display single-byte characters +through fontsets, in effect by displaying the equivalent multibyte +characters according to the current language environment. To request +this, set the variable @code{unibyte-display-via-language-environment} +to a non-@code{nil} value. + +@cindex @code{iso-ascii} library + If your terminal does not support display of the Latin-1 character +set, Emacs can display these characters as ASCII sequences which at +least give you a clear idea of what the characters are. To do this, +load the library @code{iso-ascii}. Similar libraries for other +Latin-@var{n} character sets could be implemented, but we don't have +them yet. + +@findex standard-display-8bit +@cindex 8-bit display + Normally non-ISO-8859 characters (between characters 128 and 159 +inclusive) are displayed as octal escapes. You can change this for +non-standard `extended' versions of ISO-8859 character sets by using the +function @code{standard-display-8bit} in the @code{disp-table} library. + + There are three different ways you can input single-byte non-ASCII +characters: + +@itemize @bullet +@item +If your keyboard can generate character codes 128 and up, representing +non-ASCII characters, execute the following expression to enable Emacs to +understand them: + +@example +(set-input-mode (car (current-input-mode)) + (nth 1 (current-input-mode)) + 0) +@end example + +@item +You can use an input method for the selected language environment. +@xref{Input Methods}. When you use an input method in a unibyte buffer, +the non-ASCII character you specify with it is converted to unibyte. + +@kindex C-x 8 +@cindex @code{iso-transl} library +@item +For Latin-1 only, you can use the +key @kbd{C-x 8} as a ``compose character'' prefix for entry of +non-ASCII Latin-1 printing characters. @kbd{C-x 8} is good for +insertion (in the minibuffer as well as other buffers), for searching, +and in any other context where a key sequence is allowed. + +@kbd{C-x 8} works by loading the @code{iso-transl} library. Once that +library is loaded, the @key{ALT} modifier key, if you have one, serves +the same purpose as @kbd{C-x 8}; use @key{ALT} together with an accent +character to modify the following letter. In addition, if you have keys +for the Latin-1 ``dead accent characters'', they too are defined to +compose with the following character, once @code{iso-transl} is loaded. +@end itemize