@c -*-texinfo-*-@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001@c Free Software Foundation, Inc. @c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.@setfilename ../info/text@node Text, Non-ASCII Characters, Markers, Top@chapter Text@cindex text This chapter describes the functions that deal with the text in abuffer. Most examine, insert, or delete text in the current buffer,often operating at point or on text adjacent to point. Many areinteractive. All the functions that change the text provide for undoingthe changes (@pxref{Undo}). Many text-related functions operate on a region of text defined by twobuffer positions passed in arguments named @var{start} and @var{end}.These arguments should be either markers (@pxref{Markers}) or numericcharacter positions (@pxref{Positions}). The order of these argumentsdoes not matter; it is all right for @var{start} to be the end of theregion and @var{end} the beginning. For example, @code{(delete-region 110)} and @code{(delete-region 10 1)} are equivalent. An@code{args-out-of-range} error is signaled if either @var{start} or@var{end} is outside the accessible portion of the buffer. In aninteractive call, point and the mark are used for these arguments.@cindex buffer contents Throughout this chapter, ``text'' refers to the characters in thebuffer, together with their properties (when relevant). Keep in mindthat point is always between two characters, and the cursor appears onthe character after point.@menu* Near Point:: Examining text in the vicinity of point.* Buffer Contents:: Examining text in a general fashion.* Comparing Text:: Comparing substrings of buffers.* Insertion:: Adding new text to a buffer.* Commands for Insertion:: User-level commands to insert text.* Deletion:: Removing text from a buffer.* User-Level Deletion:: User-level commands to delete text.* The Kill Ring:: Where removed text sometimes is saved for later use.* Undo:: Undoing changes to the text of a buffer.* Maintaining Undo:: How to enable and disable undo information. How to control how much information is kept.* Filling:: Functions for explicit filling.* Margins:: How to specify margins for filling commands.* Adaptive Fill:: Adaptive Fill mode chooses a fill prefix from context.* Auto Filling:: How auto-fill mode is implemented to break lines.* Sorting:: Functions for sorting parts of the buffer.* Columns:: Computing horizontal positions, and using them.* Indentation:: Functions to insert or adjust indentation.* Case Changes:: Case conversion of parts of the buffer.* Text Properties:: Assigning Lisp property lists to text characters.* Substitution:: Replacing a given character wherever it appears.* Transposition:: Swapping two portions of a buffer.* Registers:: How registers are implemented. Accessing the text or position stored in a register.* Base 64:: Conversion to or from base 64 encoding.* MD5 Checksum:: Compute the MD5 ``message digest''/``checksum''.* Change Hooks:: Supplying functions to be run when text is changed.@end menu@node Near Point@section Examining Text Near Point Many functions are provided to look at the characters around point.Several simple functions are described here. See also @code{looking-at}in @ref{Regexp Search}.@defun char-after &optional positionThis function returns the character in the current buffer at (i.e.,immediately after) position @var{position}. If @var{position} is out ofrange for this purpose, either before the beginning of the buffer, or ator beyond the end, then the value is @code{nil}. The default for@var{position} is point.In the following example, assume that the first character in thebuffer is @samp{@@}:@example@group(char-to-string (char-after 1)) @result{} "@@"@end group@end example@end defun@defun char-before &optional positionThis function returns the character in the current buffer immediatelybefore position @var{position}. If @var{position} is out of range forthis purpose, either before the beginning of the buffer, or at or beyondthe end, then the value is @code{nil}. The default for@var{position} is point.@end defun@defun following-charThis function returns the character following point in the currentbuffer. This is similar to @code{(char-after (point))}. However, ifpoint is at the end of the buffer, then @code{following-char} returns 0.Remember that point is always between characters, and the terminalcursor normally appears over the character following point. Therefore,the character returned by @code{following-char} is the character thecursor is over.In this example, point is between the @samp{a} and the @samp{c}.@example@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------Gentlemen may cry ``Pea@point{}ce! Peace!,''but there is no peace.---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@group(char-to-string (preceding-char)) @result{} "a"(char-to-string (following-char)) @result{} "c"@end group@end example@end defun@defun preceding-charThis function returns the character preceding point in the currentbuffer. See above, under @code{following-char}, for an example. Ifpoint is at the beginning of the buffer, @code{preceding-char} returns0.@end defun@defun bobpThis function returns @code{t} if point is at the beginning of thebuffer. If narrowing is in effect, this means the beginning of theaccessible portion of the text. See also @code{point-min} in@ref{Point}.@end defun@defun eobpThis function returns @code{t} if point is at the end of the buffer.If narrowing is in effect, this means the end of accessible portion ofthe text. See also @code{point-max} in @xref{Point}.@end defun@defun bolpThis function returns @code{t} if point is at the beginning of a line.@xref{Text Lines}. The beginning of the buffer (or of its accessibleportion) always counts as the beginning of a line.@end defun@defun eolpThis function returns @code{t} if point is at the end of a line. Theend of the buffer (or of its accessible portion) is always consideredthe end of a line.@end defun@node Buffer Contents@section Examining Buffer Contents This section describes two functions that allow a Lisp program toconvert any portion of the text in the buffer into a string.@defun buffer-substring start endThis function returns a string containing a copy of the text of theregion defined by positions @var{start} and @var{end} in the currentbuffer. If the arguments are not positions in the accessible portion ofthe buffer, @code{buffer-substring} signals an @code{args-out-of-range}error.It is not necessary for @var{start} to be less than @var{end}; thearguments can be given in either order. But most often the smallerargument is written first.If the text being copied has any text properties, these are copied intothe string along with the characters they belong to. @xref{TextProperties}. However, overlays (@pxref{Overlays}) in the buffer andtheir properties are ignored, not copied.@example@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------This is the contents of buffer foo---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@group(buffer-substring 1 10)@result{} "This is t"@end group@group(buffer-substring (point-max) 10)@result{} "he contents of buffer foo"@end group@end example@end defun@defun buffer-substring-no-properties start endThis is like @code{buffer-substring}, except that it does not copy textproperties, just the characters themselves. @xref{Text Properties}.@end defun@defun buffer-stringThis function returns the contents of the entire accessible portion ofthe current buffer as a string. It is equivalent to@example(buffer-substring (point-min) (point-max))@end example@example@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------This is the contents of buffer foo---------- Buffer: foo ----------(buffer-string) @result{} "This is the contents of buffer foo"@end group@end example@end defun@defun thing-at-point thingReturn the @var{thing} around or next to point, as a string.The argument @var{thing} is a symbol which specifies a kind of syntacticentity. Possibilities include @code{symbol}, @code{list}, @code{sexp},@code{defun}, @code{filename}, @code{url}, @code{word}, @code{sentence},@code{whitespace}, @code{line}, @code{page}, and others.@example---------- Buffer: foo ----------Gentlemen may cry ``Pea@point{}ce! Peace!,''but there is no peace.---------- Buffer: foo ----------(thing-at-point 'word) @result{} "Peace"(thing-at-point 'line) @result{} "Gentlemen may cry ``Peace! Peace!,''\n"(thing-at-point 'whitespace) @result{} nil@end example@end defun@node Comparing Text@section Comparing Text@cindex comparing buffer text This function lets you compare portions of the text in a buffer, withoutcopying them into strings first.@defun compare-buffer-substrings buffer1 start1 end1 buffer2 start2 end2This function lets you compare two substrings of the same buffer or twodifferent buffers. The first three arguments specify one substring,giving a buffer and two positions within the buffer. The last threearguments specify the other substring in the same way. You can use@code{nil} for @var{buffer1}, @var{buffer2}, or both to stand for thecurrent buffer.The value is negative if the first substring is less, positive if thefirst is greater, and zero if they are equal. The absolute value ofthe result is one plus the index of the first differing characterswithin the substrings.This function ignores case when comparing charactersif @code{case-fold-search} is non-@code{nil}. It always ignorestext properties.Suppose the current buffer contains the text @samp{foobarbarhaha!rara!}; then in this example the two substrings are @samp{rbar }and @samp{rara!}. The value is 2 because the first substring is greaterat the second character.@example(compare-buffer-substrings nil 6 11 nil 16 21) @result{} 2@end example@end defun@node Insertion@section Inserting Text@cindex insertion of text@cindex text insertion@cindex insertion before point@cindex before point, insertion @dfn{Insertion} means adding new text to a buffer. The inserted textgoes at point---between the character before point and the characterafter point. Some insertion functions leave point before the insertedtext, while other functions leave it after. We call the formerinsertion @dfn{after point} and the latter insertion @dfn{before point}. Insertion relocates markers that point at positions after theinsertion point, so that they stay with the surrounding text(@pxref{Markers}). When a marker points at the place of insertion,insertion may or may not relocate the marker, depending on the marker'sinsertion type (@pxref{Marker Insertion Types}). Certain specialfunctions such as @code{insert-before-markers} relocate all such markersto point after the inserted text, regardless of the markers' insertiontype. Insertion functions signal an error if the current buffer isread-only or if they insert within read-only text. These functions copy text characters from strings and buffers alongwith their properties. The inserted characters have exactly the sameproperties as the characters they were copied from. By contrast,characters specified as separate arguments, not part of a string orbuffer, inherit their text properties from the neighboring text. The insertion functions convert text from unibyte to multibyte inorder to insert in a multibyte buffer, and vice versa---if the textcomes from a string or from a buffer. However, they do not convertunibyte character codes 128 through 255 to multibyte characters, noteven if the current buffer is a multibyte buffer. @xref{ConvertingRepresentations}.@defun insert &rest argsThis function inserts the strings and/or characters @var{args} into thecurrent buffer, at point, moving point forward. In other words, itinserts the text before point. An error is signaled unless all@var{args} are either strings or characters. The value is @code{nil}.@end defun@defun insert-before-markers &rest argsThis function inserts the strings and/or characters @var{args} into thecurrent buffer, at point, moving point forward. An error is signaledunless all @var{args} are either strings or characters. The value is@code{nil}.This function is unlike the other insertion functions in that itrelocates markers initially pointing at the insertion point, to pointafter the inserted text. If an overlay begins the insertion point, theinserted text falls outside the overlay; if a nonempty overlay ends atthe insertion point, the inserted text falls inside that overlay.@end defun@defun insert-char character &optional count inheritThis function inserts @var{count} instances of @var{character} into thecurrent buffer before point. The argument @var{count} should be anumber (@code{nil} means 1), and @var{character} must be a character.The value is @code{nil}.This function does not convert unibyte character codes 128 through 255to multibyte characters, not even if the current buffer is a multibytebuffer. @xref{Converting Representations}.If @var{inherit} is non-@code{nil}, then the inserted characters inheritsticky text properties from the two characters before and after theinsertion point. @xref{Sticky Properties}.@end defun@defun insert-buffer-substring from-buffer-or-name &optional start endThis function inserts a portion of buffer @var{from-buffer-or-name}(which must already exist) into the current buffer before point. Thetext inserted is the region from @var{start} and @var{end}. (Thesearguments default to the beginning and end of the accessible portion ofthat buffer.) This function returns @code{nil}.In this example, the form is executed with buffer @samp{bar} as thecurrent buffer. We assume that buffer @samp{bar} is initially empty.@example@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@group(insert-buffer-substring "foo" 1 20) @result{} nil---------- Buffer: bar ----------We hold these truth@point{}---------- Buffer: bar ----------@end group@end example@end defun @xref{Sticky Properties}, for other insertion functions that inherittext properties from the nearby text in addition to inserting it.Whitespace inserted by indentation functions also inherits textproperties.@node Commands for Insertion@section User-Level Insertion Commands This section describes higher-level commands for inserting text,commands intended primarily for the user but useful also in Lispprograms.@deffn Command insert-buffer from-buffer-or-nameThis command inserts the entire contents of @var{from-buffer-or-name}(which must exist) into the current buffer after point. It leavesthe mark after the inserted text. The value is @code{nil}.@end deffn@deffn Command self-insert-command count@cindex character insertion@cindex self-insertionThis command inserts the last character typed; it does so @var{count}times, before point, and returns @code{nil}. Most printing charactersare bound to this command. In routine use, @code{self-insert-command}is the most frequently called function in Emacs, but programs rarely useit except to install it on a keymap.In an interactive call, @var{count} is the numeric prefix argument.This command calls @code{auto-fill-function} whenever that isnon-@code{nil} and the character inserted is in the table@code{auto-fill-chars} (@pxref{Auto Filling}).@c Cross refs reworded to prevent overfull hbox. --rjc 15mar92This command performs abbrev expansion if Abbrev mode is enabled andthe inserted character does not have word-constituentsyntax. (@xref{Abbrevs}, and @ref{Syntax Class Table}.)This is also responsible for calling @code{blink-paren-function} whenthe inserted character has close parenthesis syntax (@pxref{Blinking}).Do not try substituting your own definition of@code{self-insert-command} for the standard one. The editor commandloop handles this function specially.@end deffn@deffn Command newline &optional number-of-newlines This command inserts newlines into the current buffer before point.If @var{number-of-newlines} is supplied, that many newline charactersare inserted.@cindex newline and Auto Fill modeThis function calls @code{auto-fill-function} if the current columnnumber is greater than the value of @code{fill-column} and@var{number-of-newlines} is @code{nil}. Typically what@code{auto-fill-function} does is insert a newline; thus, the overallresult in this case is to insert two newlines at different places: oneat point, and another earlier in the line. @code{newline} does notauto-fill if @var{number-of-newlines} is non-@code{nil}.This command indents to the left margin if that is not zero.@xref{Margins}.The value returned is @code{nil}. In an interactive call, @var{count}is the numeric prefix argument.@end deffn@deffn Command split-lineThis command splits the current line, moving the portion of the lineafter point down vertically so that it is on the next line directlybelow where it was before. Whitespace is inserted as needed at thebeginning of the lower line, using the @code{indent-to} function.@code{split-line} returns the position of point.Programs hardly ever use this function.@end deffn@defvar overwrite-modeThis variable controls whether overwrite mode is in effect. The valueshould be @code{overwrite-mode-textual}, @code{overwrite-mode-binary},or @code{nil}. @code{overwrite-mode-textual} specifies textualoverwrite mode (treats newlines and tabs specially), and@code{overwrite-mode-binary} specifies binary overwrite mode (treatsnewlines and tabs like any other characters).@end defvar@node Deletion@section Deleting Text@cindex deletion vs killing Deletion means removing part of the text in a buffer, without savingit in the kill ring (@pxref{The Kill Ring}). Deleted text can't beyanked, but can be reinserted using the undo mechanism (@pxref{Undo}).Some deletion functions do save text in the kill ring in some specialcases. All of the deletion functions operate on the current buffer, and allreturn a value of @code{nil}.@deffn Command erase-bufferThis function deletes the entire text of the current buffer, leaving itempty. If the buffer is read-only, it signals a @code{buffer-read-only}error; if some of the text in it is read-only, it signals a@code{text-read-only} error. Otherwise, it deletes the text withoutasking for any confirmation. It returns @code{nil}.Normally, deleting a large amount of text from a buffer inhibits furtherauto-saving of that buffer ``because it has shrunk''. However,@code{erase-buffer} does not do this, the idea being that the futuretext is not really related to the former text, and its size should notbe compared with that of the former text.@end deffn@deffn Command delete-region start endThis command deletes the text between positions @var{start} and@var{end} in the current buffer, and returns @code{nil}. If point wasinside the deleted region, its value afterward is @var{start}.Otherwise, point relocates with the surrounding text, as markers do.@end deffn@defun delete-and-extract-region start end@tindex delete-and-extract-regionThis function deletes the text between positions @var{start} and@var{end} in the current buffer, and returns a string containing thetext just deleted.If point was inside the deleted region, its value afterward is@var{start}. Otherwise, point relocates with the surrounding text, asmarkers do.@end defun@deffn Command delete-char count &optional killpThis command deletes @var{count} characters directly after point, orbefore point if @var{count} is negative. If @var{killp} isnon-@code{nil}, then it saves the deleted characters in the kill ring.In an interactive call, @var{count} is the numeric prefix argument, and@var{killp} is the unprocessed prefix argument. Therefore, if a prefixargument is supplied, the text is saved in the kill ring. If no prefixargument is supplied, then one character is deleted, but not saved inthe kill ring.The value returned is always @code{nil}.@end deffn@deffn Command delete-backward-char count &optional killp@cindex delete previous charThis command deletes @var{count} characters directly before point, orafter point if @var{count} is negative. If @var{killp} isnon-@code{nil}, then it saves the deleted characters in the kill ring.In an interactive call, @var{count} is the numeric prefix argument, and@var{killp} is the unprocessed prefix argument. Therefore, if a prefixargument is supplied, the text is saved in the kill ring. If no prefixargument is supplied, then one character is deleted, but not saved inthe kill ring.The value returned is always @code{nil}.@end deffn@deffn Command backward-delete-char-untabify count &optional killp@cindex tab deletionThis command deletes @var{count} characters backward, changing tabsinto spaces. When the next character to be deleted is a tab, it isfirst replaced with the proper number of spaces to preserve alignmentand then one of those spaces is deleted instead of the tab. If@var{killp} is non-@code{nil}, then the command saves the deletedcharacters in the kill ring.Conversion of tabs to spaces happens only if @var{count} is positive.If it is negative, exactly @minus{}@var{count} characters after pointare deleted.In an interactive call, @var{count} is the numeric prefix argument, and@var{killp} is the unprocessed prefix argument. Therefore, if a prefixargument is supplied, the text is saved in the kill ring. If no prefixargument is supplied, then one character is deleted, but not saved inthe kill ring.The value returned is always @code{nil}.@end deffn@defopt backward-delete-char-untabify-methodThis option specifies how @code{backward-delete-char-untabify} shoulddeal with whitespace. Possible values include @code{untabify}, thedefault, meaning convert a tab to many spaces and delete one;@code{hungry}, meaning delete all the whitespace characters before pointwith one command, and @code{nil}, meaning do nothing special forwhitespace characters.@end defopt@node User-Level Deletion@section User-Level Deletion Commands This section describes higher-level commands for deleting text,commands intended primarily for the user but useful also in Lispprograms.@deffn Command delete-horizontal-space@cindex deleting whitespaceThis function deletes all spaces and tabs around point. It returns@code{nil}.In the following examples, we call @code{delete-horizontal-space} fourtimes, once on each line, with point between the second and thirdcharacters on the line each time.@example@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------I @point{}thoughtI @point{} thoughtWe@point{} thoughtYo@point{}u thought---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@group(delete-horizontal-space) ; @r{Four times.} @result{} nil---------- Buffer: foo ----------IthoughtIthoughtWethoughtYou thought---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@end example@end deffn@deffn Command delete-indentation &optional join-following-p This function joins the line point is on to the previous line, deletingany whitespace at the join and in some cases replacing it with onespace. If @var{join-following-p} is non-@code{nil},@code{delete-indentation} joins this line to the following lineinstead. The function returns @code{nil}.If there is a fill prefix, and the second of the lines being joinedstarts with the prefix, then @code{delete-indentation} deletes thefill prefix before joining the lines. @xref{Margins}.In the example below, point is located on the line starting@samp{events}, and it makes no difference if there are trailing spacesin the preceding line.@smallexample@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------When in the course of human@point{} events, it becomes necessary---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group(delete-indentation) @result{} nil@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------When in the course of human@point{} events, it becomes necessary---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@end smallexampleAfter the lines are joined, the function @code{fixup-whitespace} isresponsible for deciding whether to leave a space at the junction.@end deffn@defun fixup-whitespaceThis function replaces all the whitespace surrounding point with eitherone space or no space, according to the context. It returns @code{nil}.At the beginning or end of a line, the appropriate amount of space isnone. Before a character with close parenthesis syntax, or after acharacter with open parenthesis or expression-prefix syntax, no space isalso appropriate. Otherwise, one space is appropriate. @xref{SyntaxClass Table}.In the example below, @code{fixup-whitespace} is called the first timewith point before the word @samp{spaces} in the first line. For thesecond invocation, point is directly after the @samp{(}.@smallexample@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------This has too many @point{}spacesThis has too many spaces at the start of (@point{} this list)---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@group(fixup-whitespace) @result{} nil(fixup-whitespace) @result{} nil@end group@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------This has too many spacesThis has too many spaces at the start of (this list)---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@end smallexample@end defun@deffn Command just-one-space@comment !!SourceFile simple.elThis command replaces any spaces and tabs around point with a singlespace. It returns @code{nil}.@end deffn@deffn Command delete-blank-linesThis function deletes blank lines surrounding point. If point is on ablank line with one or more blank lines before or after it, then all butone of them are deleted. If point is on an isolated blank line, then itis deleted. If point is on a nonblank line, the command deletes allblank lines following it.A blank line is defined as a line containing only tabs and spaces.@code{delete-blank-lines} returns @code{nil}.@end deffn@node The Kill Ring@section The Kill Ring@cindex kill ring @dfn{Kill functions} delete text like the deletion functions, but saveit so that the user can reinsert it by @dfn{yanking}. Most of thesefunctions have @samp{kill-} in their name. By contrast, the functionswhose names start with @samp{delete-} normally do not save text foryanking (though they can still be undone); these are ``deletion''functions. Most of the kill commands are primarily for interactive use, and arenot described here. What we do describe are the functions provided foruse in writing such commands. You can use these functions to writecommands for killing text. When you need to delete text for internalpurposes within a Lisp function, you should normally use deletionfunctions, so as not to disturb the kill ring contents.@xref{Deletion}. Killed text is saved for later yanking in the @dfn{kill ring}. Thisis a list that holds a number of recent kills, not just the last textkill. We call this a ``ring'' because yanking treats it as havingelements in a cyclic order. The list is kept in the variable@code{kill-ring}, and can be operated on with the usual functions forlists; there are also specialized functions, described in this section,that treat it as a ring. Some people think this use of the word ``kill'' is unfortunate, sinceit refers to operations that specifically @emph{do not} destroy theentities ``killed''. This is in sharp contrast to ordinary life, inwhich death is permanent and ``killed'' entities do not come back tolife. Therefore, other metaphors have been proposed. For example, theterm ``cut ring'' makes sense to people who, in pre-computer days, usedscissors and paste to cut up and rearrange manuscripts. However, itwould be difficult to change the terminology now.@menu* Kill Ring Concepts:: What text looks like in the kill ring.* Kill Functions:: Functions that kill text.* Yank Commands:: Commands that access the kill ring.* Low-Level Kill Ring:: Functions and variables for kill ring access.* Internals of Kill Ring:: Variables that hold kill-ring data.@end menu@node Kill Ring Concepts@comment node-name, next, previous, up@subsection Kill Ring Concepts The kill ring records killed text as strings in a list, most recentfirst. A short kill ring, for example, might look like this:@example("some text" "a different piece of text" "even older text")@end example@noindentWhen the list reaches @code{kill-ring-max} entries in length, adding anew entry automatically deletes the last entry. When kill commands are interwoven with other commands, each killcommand makes a new entry in the kill ring. Multiple kill commands insuccession build up a single kill-ring entry, which would be yanked as aunit; the second and subsequent consecutive kill commands add text tothe entry made by the first one. For yanking, one entry in the kill ring is designated the ``front'' ofthe ring. Some yank commands ``rotate'' the ring by designating adifferent element as the ``front.'' But this virtual rotation doesn'tchange the list itself---the most recent entry always comes first in thelist.@node Kill Functions@comment node-name, next, previous, up@subsection Functions for Killing @code{kill-region} is the usual subroutine for killing text. Anycommand that calls this function is a ``kill command'' (and shouldprobably have @samp{kill} in its name). @code{kill-region} puts thenewly killed text in a new element at the beginning of the kill ring oradds it to the most recent element. It determines automatically (using@code{last-command}) whether the previous command was a kill command,and if so appends the killed text to the most recent entry.@deffn Command kill-region start endThis function kills the text in the region defined by @var{start} and@var{end}. The text is deleted but saved in the kill ring, along withits text properties. The value is always @code{nil}.In an interactive call, @var{start} and @var{end} are point andthe mark.@c Emacs 19 featureIf the buffer or text is read-only, @code{kill-region} modifies the killring just the same, then signals an error without modifying the buffer.This is convenient because it lets the user use a series of killcommands to copy text from a read-only buffer into the kill ring.@end deffn@defopt kill-read-only-okIf this option is non-@code{nil}, @code{kill-region} does not signal anerror if the buffer or text is read-only. Instead, it simply returns,updating the kill ring but not changing the buffer.@end defopt@deffn Command copy-region-as-kill start endThis command saves the region defined by @var{start} and @var{end} onthe kill ring (including text properties), but does not delete the textfrom the buffer. It returns @code{nil}. It also indicates the extentof the text copied by moving the cursor momentarily, or by displaying amessage in the echo area.The command does not set @code{this-command} to @code{kill-region}, so asubsequent kill command does not append to the same kill ring entry.Don't call @code{copy-region-as-kill} in Lisp programs unless you aim tosupport Emacs 18. For newer Emacs versions, it is better to use@code{kill-new} or @code{kill-append} instead. @xref{Low-Level KillRing}.@end deffn@node Yank Commands@comment node-name, next, previous, up@subsection Functions for Yanking @dfn{Yanking} means reinserting an entry of previously killed textfrom the kill ring. The text properties are copied too.@deffn Command yank &optional arg@cindex inserting killed textThis command inserts before point the text in the first entry in thekill ring. It positions the mark at the beginning of that text, andpoint at the end.If @var{arg} is a list (which occurs interactively when the usertypes @kbd{C-u} with no digits), then @code{yank} inserts the text asdescribed above, but puts point before the yanked text and puts the markafter it.If @var{arg} is a number, then @code{yank} inserts the @var{arg}th mostrecently killed text---the @var{arg}th element of the kill ring list.@code{yank} does not alter the contents of the kill ring or rotate it.It returns @code{nil}.@end deffn@deffn Command yank-pop argThis command replaces the just-yanked entry from the kill ring with adifferent entry from the kill ring.This is allowed only immediately after a @code{yank} or another@code{yank-pop}. At such a time, the region contains text that was justinserted by yanking. @code{yank-pop} deletes that text and inserts inits place a different piece of killed text. It does not add the deletedtext to the kill ring, since it is already in the kill ring somewhere.If @var{arg} is @code{nil}, then the replacement text is the previouselement of the kill ring. If @var{arg} is numeric, the replacement isthe @var{arg}th previous kill. If @var{arg} is negative, a more recentkill is the replacement.The sequence of kills in the kill ring wraps around, so that after theoldest one comes the newest one, and before the newest one goes theoldest.The return value is always @code{nil}.@end deffn@node Low-Level Kill Ring@subsection Low-Level Kill Ring These functions and variables provide access to the kill ring at alower level, but still convenient for use in Lisp programs, because theytake care of interaction with window system selections(@pxref{Window System Selections}).@defun current-kill n &optional do-not-moveThe function @code{current-kill} rotates the yanking pointer, whichdesignates the ``front'' of the kill ring, by @var{n} places (from newerkills to older ones), and returns the text at that place in the ring.If the optional second argument @var{do-not-move} is non-@code{nil},then @code{current-kill} doesn't alter the yanking pointer; it justreturns the @var{n}th kill, counting from the current yanking pointer.If @var{n} is zero, indicating a request for the latest kill,@code{current-kill} calls the value of@code{interprogram-paste-function} (documented below) before consultingthe kill ring.@end defun@defun kill-new stringThis function puts the text @var{string} into the kill ring as a newentry at the front of the ring. It discards the oldest entry ifappropriate. It also invokes the value of@code{interprogram-cut-function} (see below).@end defun@defun kill-append string before-pThis function appends the text @var{string} to the first entry in thekill ring. Normally @var{string} goes at the end of the entry, but if@var{before-p} is non-@code{nil}, it goes at the beginning. Thisfunction also invokes the value of @code{interprogram-cut-function} (seebelow).@end defun@defvar interprogram-paste-functionThis variable provides a way of transferring killed text from otherprograms, when you are using a window system. Its value should be@code{nil} or a function of no arguments.If the value is a function, @code{current-kill} calls it to get the``most recent kill''. If the function returns a non-@code{nil} value,then that value is used as the ``most recent kill''. If it returns@code{nil}, then the first element of @code{kill-ring} is used.The normal use of this hook is to get the window system's primaryselection as the most recent kill, even if the selection belongs toanother application. @xref{Window System Selections}.@end defvar@defvar interprogram-cut-functionThis variable provides a way of communicating killed text to otherprograms, when you are using a window system. Its value should be@code{nil} or a function of one argument.If the value is a function, @code{kill-new} and @code{kill-append} callit with the new first element of the kill ring as an argument.The normal use of this hook is to set the window system's primaryselection from the newly killed text. @xref{Window System Selections}.@end defvar@node Internals of Kill Ring@comment node-name, next, previous, up@subsection Internals of the Kill Ring The variable @code{kill-ring} holds the kill ring contents, in theform of a list of strings. The most recent kill is always at the frontof the list. The @code{kill-ring-yank-pointer} variable points to a link in thekill ring list, whose @sc{car} is the text to yank next. We say itidentifies the ``front'' of the ring. Moving@code{kill-ring-yank-pointer} to a different link is called@dfn{rotating the kill ring}. We call the kill ring a ``ring'' becausethe functions that move the yank pointer wrap around from the end of thelist to the beginning, or vice-versa. Rotation of the kill ring isvirtual; it does not change the value of @code{kill-ring}. Both @code{kill-ring} and @code{kill-ring-yank-pointer} are Lispvariables whose values are normally lists. The word ``pointer'' in thename of the @code{kill-ring-yank-pointer} indicates that the variable'spurpose is to identify one element of the list for use by the next yankcommand. The value of @code{kill-ring-yank-pointer} is always @code{eq} to oneof the links in the kill ring list. The element it identifies is the@sc{car} of that link. Kill commands, which change the kill ring, alsoset this variable to the value of @code{kill-ring}. The effect is torotate the ring so that the newly killed text is at the front. Here is a diagram that shows the variable @code{kill-ring-yank-pointer}pointing to the second entry in the kill ring @code{("some text" "adifferent piece of text" "yet older text")}. @example@groupkill-ring ---- kill-ring-yank-pointer | | | v | --- --- --- --- --- --- --> | | |------> | | |--> | | |--> nil --- --- --- --- --- --- | | | | | | | | -->"yet older text" | | | --> "a different piece of text" | --> "some text"@end group@end example@noindentThis state of affairs might occur after @kbd{C-y} (@code{yank})immediately followed by @kbd{M-y} (@code{yank-pop}).@defvar kill-ringThis variable holds the list of killed text sequences, most recentlykilled first.@end defvar@defvar kill-ring-yank-pointerThis variable's value indicates which element of the kill ring is at the``front'' of the ring for yanking. More precisely, the value is a tailof the value of @code{kill-ring}, and its @sc{car} is the kill stringthat @kbd{C-y} should yank.@end defvar@defopt kill-ring-maxThe value of this variable is the maximum length to which the killring can grow, before elements are thrown away at the end. The defaultvalue for @code{kill-ring-max} is 30.@end defopt@node Undo@comment node-name, next, previous, up@section Undo@cindex redo Most buffers have an @dfn{undo list}, which records all changes madeto the buffer's text so that they can be undone. (The buffers thatdon't have one are usually special-purpose buffers for which Emacsassumes that undoing is not useful.) All the primitives that modify thetext in the buffer automatically add elements to the front of the undolist, which is in the variable @code{buffer-undo-list}.@defvar buffer-undo-listThis variable's value is the undo list of the current buffer.A value of @code{t} disables the recording of undo information.@end defvarHere are the kinds of elements an undo list can have:@table @code@item @var{position}This kind of element records a previous value of point; undoing thiselement moves point to @var{position}. Ordinary cursor motion does notmake any sort of undo record, but deletion operations use these entriesto record where point was before the command.@item (@var{beg} . @var{end})This kind of element indicates how to delete text that was inserted.Upon insertion, the text occupied the range @var{beg}--@var{end} in the buffer.@item (@var{text} . @var{position})This kind of element indicates how to reinsert text that was deleted.The deleted text itself is the string @var{text}. The place toreinsert it is @code{(abs @var{position})}.@item (t @var{high} . @var{low})This kind of element indicates that an unmodified buffer becamemodified. The elements @var{high} and @var{low} are two integers, eachrecording 16 bits of the visited file's modification time as of when itwas previously visited or saved. @code{primitive-undo} uses thosevalues to determine whether to mark the buffer as unmodified once again;it does so only if the file's modification time matches those numbers.@item (nil @var{property} @var{value} @var{beg} . @var{end})This kind of element records a change in a text property.Here's how you might undo the change:@example(put-text-property @var{beg} @var{end} @var{property} @var{value})@end example@item (@var{marker} . @var{adjustment})This kind of element records the fact that the marker @var{marker} wasrelocated due to deletion of surrounding text, and that it moved@var{adjustment} character positions. Undoing this element moves@var{marker} @minus{} @var{adjustment} characters.@item nilThis element is a boundary. The elements between two boundaries arecalled a @dfn{change group}; normally, each change group corresponds toone keyboard command, and undo commands normally undo an entire group asa unit.@end table@defun undo-boundaryThis function places a boundary element in the undo list. The undocommand stops at such a boundary, and successive undo commands undoto earlier and earlier boundaries. This function returns @code{nil}.The editor command loop automatically creates an undo boundary beforeeach key sequence is executed. Thus, each undo normally undoes theeffects of one command. Self-inserting input characters are anexception. The command loop makes a boundary for the first suchcharacter; the next 19 consecutive self-inserting input characters donot make boundaries, and then the 20th does, and so on as long asself-inserting characters continue.All buffer modifications add a boundary whenever the previous undoablechange was made in some other buffer. This is to ensure thateach command makes a boundary in each buffer where it makes changes.Calling this function explicitly is useful for splitting the effects ofa command into more than one unit. For example, @code{query-replace}calls @code{undo-boundary} after each replacement, so that the user canundo individual replacements one by one.@end defun@defun primitive-undo count listThis is the basic function for undoing elements of an undo list.It undoes the first @var{count} elements of @var{list}, returningthe rest of @var{list}. You could write this function in Lisp,but it is convenient to have it in C.@code{primitive-undo} adds elements to the buffer's undo list when itchanges the buffer. Undo commands avoid confusion by saving the undolist value at the beginning of a sequence of undo operations. Then theundo operations use and update the saved value. The new elements addedby undoing are not part of this saved value, so they don't interfere withcontinuing to undo.@end defun@node Maintaining Undo@section Maintaining Undo Lists This section describes how to enable and disable undo information fora given buffer. It also explains how the undo list is truncatedautomatically so it doesn't get too big. Recording of undo information in a newly created buffer is normallyenabled to start with; but if the buffer name starts with a space, theundo recording is initially disabled. You can explicitly enable ordisable undo recording with the following two functions, or by setting@code{buffer-undo-list} yourself.@deffn Command buffer-enable-undo &optional buffer-or-nameThis command enables recording undo information for buffer@var{buffer-or-name}, so that subsequent changes can be undone. If noargument is supplied, then the current buffer is used. This functiondoes nothing if undo recording is already enabled in the buffer. Itreturns @code{nil}.In an interactive call, @var{buffer-or-name} is the current buffer.You cannot specify any other buffer.@end deffn@deffn Command buffer-disable-undo &optional buffer@deffnx Command buffer-flush-undo &optional buffer@cindex disable undoThis function discards the undo list of @var{buffer}, and disablesfurther recording of undo information. As a result, it is no longerpossible to undo either previous changes or any subsequent changes. Ifthe undo list of @var{buffer} is already disabled, this functionhas no effect.This function returns @code{nil}.The name @code{buffer-flush-undo} is not considered obsolete, but thepreferred name is @code{buffer-disable-undo}.@end deffn As editing continues, undo lists get longer and longer. To preventthem from using up all available memory space, garbage collection trimsthem back to size limits you can set. (For this purpose, the ``size''of an undo list measures the cons cells that make up the list, plus thestrings of deleted text.) Two variables control the range of acceptablesizes: @code{undo-limit} and @code{undo-strong-limit}.@defvar undo-limitThis is the soft limit for the acceptable size of an undo list. Thechange group at which this size is exceeded is the last one kept.@end defvar@defvar undo-strong-limitThis is the upper limit for the acceptable size of an undo list. Thechange group at which this size is exceeded is discarded itself (alongwith all older change groups). There is one exception: the very latestchange group is never discarded no matter how big it is.@end defvar@node Filling@comment node-name, next, previous, up@section Filling@cindex filling, explicit @dfn{Filling} means adjusting the lengths of lines (by moving the linebreaks) so that they are nearly (but no greater than) a specifiedmaximum width. Additionally, lines can be @dfn{justified}, which meansinserting spaces to make the left and/or right margins line upprecisely. The width is controlled by the variable @code{fill-column}.For ease of reading, lines should be no longer than 70 or so columns. You can use Auto Fill mode (@pxref{Auto Filling}) to fill textautomatically as you insert it, but changes to existing text may leaveit improperly filled. Then you must fill the text explicitly. Most of the commands in this section return values that are notmeaningful. All the functions that do filling take note of the currentleft margin, current right margin, and current justification style(@pxref{Margins}). If the current justification style is@code{none}, the filling functions don't actually do anything. Several of the filling functions have an argument @var{justify}.If it is non-@code{nil}, that requests some kind of justification. Itcan be @code{left}, @code{right}, @code{full}, or @code{center}, torequest a specific style of justification. If it is @code{t}, thatmeans to use the current justification style for this part of the text(see @code{current-justification}, below). Any other value is treatedas @code{full}. When you call the filling functions interactively, using a prefixargument implies the value @code{full} for @var{justify}.@deffn Command fill-paragraph justify@cindex filling a paragraphThis command fills the paragraph at or after point. If@var{justify} is non-@code{nil}, each line is justified as well.It uses the ordinary paragraph motion commands to find paragraphboundaries. @xref{Paragraphs,,, emacs, The GNU Emacs Manual}.@end deffn@deffn Command fill-region start end &optional justify nosqueeze to-eopThis command fills each of the paragraphs in the region from @var{start}to @var{end}. It justifies as well if @var{justify} isnon-@code{nil}.If @var{nosqueeze} is non-@code{nil}, that means to leave whitespaceother than line breaks untouched. If @var{to-eop} is non-@code{nil},that means to keep filling to the end of the paragraph---or the next hardnewline, if @code{use-hard-newlines} is enabled (see below).The variable @code{paragraph-separate} controls how to distinguishparagraphs. @xref{Standard Regexps}.@end deffn@deffn Command fill-individual-paragraphs start end &optional justify citation-regexpThis command fills each paragraph in the region according to itsindividual fill prefix. Thus, if the lines of a paragraph were indentedwith spaces, the filled paragraph will remain indented in the samefashion.The first two arguments, @var{start} and @var{end}, are the beginningand end of the region to be filled. The third and fourth arguments,@var{justify} and @var{citation-regexp}, are optional. If@var{justify} is non-@code{nil}, the paragraphs are justified aswell as filled. If @var{citation-regexp} is non-@code{nil}, it means thefunction is operating on a mail message and therefore should not fillthe header lines. If @var{citation-regexp} is a string, it is used asa regular expression; if it matches the beginning of a line, that lineis treated as a citation marker.Ordinarily, @code{fill-individual-paragraphs} regards each change inindentation as starting a new paragraph. If@code{fill-individual-varying-indent} is non-@code{nil}, then onlyseparator lines separate paragraphs. That mode can handle indentedparagraphs with additional indentation on the first line.@end deffn@defopt fill-individual-varying-indentThis variable alters the action of @code{fill-individual-paragraphs} asdescribed above.@end defopt@deffn Command fill-region-as-paragraph start end &optional justify nosqueeze squeeze-afterThis command considers a region of text as a single paragraph and fillsit. If the region was made up of many paragraphs, the blank linesbetween paragraphs are removed. This function justifies as well asfilling when @var{justify} is non-@code{nil}.In an interactive call, any prefix argument requests justification.If @var{nosqueeze} is non-@code{nil}, that means to leave whitespaceother than line breaks untouched. If @var{squeeze-after} isnon-@code{nil}, it specifies a position in the region, and means don'tcanonicalize spaces before that position.In Adaptive Fill mode, this command calls @code{fill-context-prefix} tochoose a fill prefix by default. @xref{Adaptive Fill}.@end deffn@deffn Command justify-current-line &optional how eop nosqueezeThis command inserts spaces between the words of the current line sothat the line ends exactly at @code{fill-column}. It returns@code{nil}.The argument @var{how}, if non-@code{nil} specifies explicitly the styleof justification. It can be @code{left}, @code{right}, @code{full},@code{center}, or @code{none}. If it is @code{t}, that means to dofollow specified justification style (see @code{current-justification},below). @code{nil} means to do full justification.If @var{eop} is non-@code{nil}, that means do left-justification if@code{current-justification} specifies full justification. This is usedfor the last line of a paragraph; even if the paragraph as a whole isfully justified, the last line should not be.If @var{nosqueeze} is non-@code{nil}, that means do not change interiorwhitespace.@end deffn@defopt default-justificationThis variable's value specifies the style of justification to use fortext that doesn't specify a style with a text property. The possiblevalues are @code{left}, @code{right}, @code{full}, @code{center}, or@code{none}. The default value is @code{left}.@end defopt@defun current-justificationThis function returns the proper justification style to use for fillingthe text around point.@end defun@defopt sentence-end-double-spaceIf this variable is non-@code{nil}, a period followed by just one spacedoes not count as the end of a sentence, and the filling functionsavoid breaking the line at such a place.@end defopt@defvar fill-paragraph-functionThis variable provides a way for major modes to override the filling ofparagraphs. If the value is non-@code{nil}, @code{fill-paragraph} callsthis function to do the work. If the function returns a non-@code{nil}value, @code{fill-paragraph} assumes the job is done, and immediatelyreturns that value.The usual use of this feature is to fill comments in programminglanguage modes. If the function needs to fill a paragraph in the usualway, it can do so as follows:@example(let ((fill-paragraph-function nil)) (fill-paragraph arg))@end example@end defvar@defvar use-hard-newlinesIf this variable is non-@code{nil}, the filling functions do not deletenewlines that have the @code{hard} text property. These ``hardnewlines'' act as paragraph separators.@end defvar@node Margins@section Margins for Filling@defopt fill-prefixThis buffer-local variable specifies a string of text that appears atthe beginningof normal text lines and should be disregarded when filling them. Anyline that fails to start with the fill prefix is considered the start ofa paragraph; so is any line that starts with the fill prefix followed byadditional whitespace. Lines that start with the fill prefix but noadditional whitespace are ordinary text lines that can be filledtogether. The resulting filled lines also start with the fill prefix.The fill prefix follows the left margin whitespace, if any.@end defopt@defopt fill-columnThis buffer-local variable specifies the maximum width of filled lines.Its value should be an integer, which is a number of columns. All thefilling, justification, and centering commands are affected by thisvariable, including Auto Fill mode (@pxref{Auto Filling}).As a practical matter, if you are writing text for other people toread, you should set @code{fill-column} to no more than 70. Otherwisethe line will be too long for people to read comfortably, and this canmake the text seem clumsy.@end defopt@defvar default-fill-columnThe value of this variable is the default value for @code{fill-column} inbuffers that do not override it. This is the same as@code{(default-value 'fill-column)}.The default value for @code{default-fill-column} is 70.@end defvar@deffn Command set-left-margin from to marginThis sets the @code{left-margin} property on the text from @var{from} to@var{to} to the value @var{margin}. If Auto Fill mode is enabled, thiscommand also refills the region to fit the new margin.@end deffn@deffn Command set-right-margin from to marginThis sets the @code{right-margin} property on the text from @var{from}to @var{to} to the value @var{margin}. If Auto Fill mode is enabled,this command also refills the region to fit the new margin.@end deffn@defun current-left-marginThis function returns the proper left margin value to use for fillingthe text around point. The value is the sum of the @code{left-margin}property of the character at the start of the current line (or zero ifnone), and the value of the variable @code{left-margin}.@end defun@defun current-fill-columnThis function returns the proper fill column value to use for fillingthe text around point. The value is the value of the @code{fill-column}variable, minus the value of the @code{right-margin} property of thecharacter after point.@end defun@deffn Command move-to-left-margin &optional n forceThis function moves point to the left margin of the current line. Thecolumn moved to is determined by calling the function@code{current-left-margin}. If the argument @var{n} is non-@code{nil},@code{move-to-left-margin} moves forward @var{n}@minus{}1 lines first.If @var{force} is non-@code{nil}, that says to fix the line'sindentation if that doesn't match the left margin value.@end deffn@defun delete-to-left-margin &optional from toThis function removes left margin indentation from the text between@var{from} and @var{to}. The amount of indentation to delete isdetermined by calling @code{current-left-margin}. In no case does thisfunction delete non-whitespace. If @var{from} and @var{to} are omitted,they default to the whole buffer.@end defun@defun indent-to-left-marginThis is the default @code{indent-line-function}, used in Fundamentalmode, Text mode, etc. Its effect is to adjust the indentation at thebeginning of the current line to the value specified by the variable@code{left-margin}. This may involve either inserting or deletingwhitespace.@end defun@defvar left-marginThis variable specifies the base left margin column. In Fundamentalmode, @kbd{C-j} indents to this column. This variable automaticallybecomes buffer-local when set in any fashion.@end defvar@defvar fill-nobreak-predicateThis variable gives major modes a way to specify not to break a line atcertain places. Its value should be a function. This function iscalled during filling, with no arguments and with point located at theplace where a break is being considered. If the function returnsnon-@code{nil}, then the line won't be broken there.@end defvar@node Adaptive Fill@section Adaptive Fill Mode@cindex Adaptive Fill mode Adaptive Fill mode chooses a fill prefix automatically from the textin each paragraph being filled.@defopt adaptive-fill-modeAdaptive Fill mode is enabled when this variable is non-@code{nil}.It is @code{t} by default.@end defopt@defun fill-context-prefix from toThis function implements the heart of Adaptive Fill mode; it chooses afill prefix based on the text between @var{from} and @var{to}. It doesthis by looking at the first two lines of the paragraph, based on thevariables described below.@c The optional argument first-line-regexp is not documented@c because it exists for internal purposes and might be eliminated@c in the future.@end defun@defopt adaptive-fill-regexpThis variable holds a regular expression to control Adaptive Fill mode.Adaptive Fill mode matches this regular expression against the textstarting after the left margin whitespace (if any) on a line; thecharacters it matches are that line's candidate for the fill prefix.@end defopt@defopt adaptive-fill-first-line-regexpIn a one-line paragraph, if the candidate fill prefix matches thisregular expression, or if it matches @code{comment-start-skip}, then itis used---otherwise, spaces amounting to the same width are usedinstead.However, the fill prefix is never taken from a one-line paragraphif it would act as a paragraph starter on subsequent lines.@end defopt@defopt adaptive-fill-functionYou can specify more complex ways of choosing a fill prefixautomatically by setting this variable to a function. The function iscalled when @code{adaptive-fill-regexp} does not match, with point afterthe left margin of a line, and it should return the appropriate fillprefix based on that line. If it returns @code{nil}, that means it seesno fill prefix in that line.@end defopt@node Auto Filling@comment node-name, next, previous, up@section Auto Filling@cindex filling, automatic@cindex Auto Fill mode Auto Fill mode is a minor mode that fills lines automatically as textis inserted. This section describes the hook used by Auto Fill mode.For a description of functions that you can call explicitly to fill andjustify existing text, see @ref{Filling}. Auto Fill mode also enables the functions that change the margins andjustification style to refill portions of the text. @xref{Margins}.@defvar auto-fill-functionThe value of this variable should be a function (of no arguments) to becalled after self-inserting a character from the table@code{auto-fill-chars}. It may be @code{nil}, in which case nothingspecial is done in that case.The value of @code{auto-fill-function} is @code{do-auto-fill} whenAuto-Fill mode is enabled. That is a function whose sole purpose is toimplement the usual strategy for breaking a line.@quotationIn older Emacs versions, this variable was named @code{auto-fill-hook},but since it is not called with the standard convention for hooks, itwas renamed to @code{auto-fill-function} in version 19.@end quotation@end defvar@defvar normal-auto-fill-functionThis variable specifies the function to use for@code{auto-fill-function}, if and when Auto Fill is turned on. Majormodes can set buffer-local values for this variable to alter how AutoFill works.@end defvar@defvar auto-fill-charsA char table of characters which invoke @code{auto-fill-function} whenself-inserted---space and newline in most language environments. Theyhave an entry @code{t} in the table.@end defvar@node Sorting@section Sorting Text@cindex sorting text The sorting functions described in this section all rearrange text ina buffer. This is in contrast to the function @code{sort}, whichrearranges the order of the elements of a list (@pxref{Rearrangement}).The values returned by these functions are not meaningful.@defun sort-subr reverse nextrecfun endrecfun &optional startkeyfun endkeyfunThis function is the general text-sorting routine that subdivides abuffer into records and then sorts them. Most of the commands in thissection use this function.To understand how @code{sort-subr} works, consider the whole accessibleportion of the buffer as being divided into disjoint pieces called@dfn{sort records}. The records may or may not be contiguous, but theymust not overlap. A portion of each sort record (perhaps all of it) isdesignated as the sort key. Sorting rearranges the records in order bytheir sort keys.Usually, the records are rearranged in order of ascending sort key.If the first argument to the @code{sort-subr} function, @var{reverse},is non-@code{nil}, the sort records are rearranged in order ofdescending sort key.The next four arguments to @code{sort-subr} are functions that arecalled to move point across a sort record. They are called many timesfrom within @code{sort-subr}.@enumerate@item@var{nextrecfun} is called with point at the end of a record. Thisfunction moves point to the start of the next record. The first recordis assumed to start at the position of point when @code{sort-subr} iscalled. Therefore, you should usually move point to the beginning ofthe buffer before calling @code{sort-subr}.This function can indicate there are no more sort records by leavingpoint at the end of the buffer.@item@var{endrecfun} is called with point within a record. It moves point tothe end of the record.@item@var{startkeyfun} is called to move point from the start of a record tothe start of the sort key. This argument is optional; if it is omitted,the whole record is the sort key. If supplied, the function shouldeither return a non-@code{nil} value to be used as the sort key, orreturn @code{nil} to indicate that the sort key is in the bufferstarting at point. In the latter case, @var{endkeyfun} is called tofind the end of the sort key.@item@var{endkeyfun} is called to move point from the start of the sort keyto the end of the sort key. This argument is optional. If@var{startkeyfun} returns @code{nil} and this argument is omitted (or@code{nil}), then the sort key extends to the end of the record. Thereis no need for @var{endkeyfun} if @var{startkeyfun} returns anon-@code{nil} value.@end enumerateAs an example of @code{sort-subr}, here is the complete functiondefinition for @code{sort-lines}:@example@group;; @r{Note that the first two lines of doc string};; @r{are effectively one line when viewed by a user.}(defun sort-lines (reverse beg end) "Sort lines in region alphabetically;\ argument means descending order.Called from a program, there are three arguments:@end group@groupREVERSE (non-nil means reverse order),\ BEG and END (region to sort).The variable `sort-fold-case' determines\ whether alphabetic case affectsthe sort order.@end group@group (interactive "P\nr") (save-excursion (save-restriction (narrow-to-region beg end) (goto-char (point-min)) (sort-subr reverse 'forward-line 'end-of-line))))@end group@end exampleHere @code{forward-line} moves point to the start of the next record,and @code{end-of-line} moves point to the end of record. We do not passthe arguments @var{startkeyfun} and @var{endkeyfun}, because the entirerecord is used as the sort key.The @code{sort-paragraphs} function is very much the same, except thatits @code{sort-subr} call looks like this:@example@group(sort-subr reverse (function (lambda () (while (and (not (eobp)) (looking-at paragraph-separate)) (forward-line 1)))) 'forward-paragraph)@end group@end exampleMarkers pointing into any sort records are left with no usefulposition after @code{sort-subr} returns.@end defun@defopt sort-fold-caseIf this variable is non-@code{nil}, @code{sort-subr} and the otherbuffer sorting functions ignore case when comparing strings.@end defopt@deffn Command sort-regexp-fields reverse record-regexp key-regexp start endThis command sorts the region between @var{start} and @var{end}alphabetically as specified by @var{record-regexp} and @var{key-regexp}.If @var{reverse} is a negative integer, then sorting is in reverseorder.Alphabetical sorting means that two sort keys are compared bycomparing the first characters of each, the second characters of each,and so on. If a mismatch is found, it means that the sort keys areunequal; the sort key whose character is less at the point of firstmismatch is the lesser sort key. The individual characters are comparedaccording to their numerical character codes in the Emacs character set.The value of the @var{record-regexp} argument specifies how to dividethe buffer into sort records. At the end of each record, a search isdone for this regular expression, and the text that matches it is takenas the next record. For example, the regular expression @samp{^.+$},which matches lines with at least one character besides a newline, wouldmake each such line into a sort record. @xref{Regular Expressions}, fora description of the syntax and meaning of regular expressions.The value of the @var{key-regexp} argument specifies what part of eachrecord is the sort key. The @var{key-regexp} could match the wholerecord, or only a part. In the latter case, the rest of the record hasno effect on the sorted order of records, but it is carried along whenthe record moves to its new position.The @var{key-regexp} argument can refer to the text matched by asubexpression of @var{record-regexp}, or it can be a regular expressionon its own.If @var{key-regexp} is:@table @asis@item @samp{\@var{digit}}then the text matched by the @var{digit}th @samp{\(...\)} parenthesisgrouping in @var{record-regexp} is the sort key.@item @samp{\&}then the whole record is the sort key.@item a regular expressionthen @code{sort-regexp-fields} searches for a match for the regularexpression within the record. If such a match is found, it is the sortkey. If there is no match for @var{key-regexp} within a record thenthat record is ignored, which means its position in the buffer is notchanged. (The other records may move around it.)@end tableFor example, if you plan to sort all the lines in the region by thefirst word on each line starting with the letter @samp{f}, you shouldset @var{record-regexp} to @samp{^.*$} and set @var{key-regexp} to@samp{\<f\w*\>}. The resulting expression looks like this:@example@group(sort-regexp-fields nil "^.*$" "\\<f\\w*\\>" (region-beginning) (region-end))@end group@end exampleIf you call @code{sort-regexp-fields} interactively, it prompts for@var{record-regexp} and @var{key-regexp} in the minibuffer.@end deffn@deffn Command sort-lines reverse start endThis command alphabetically sorts lines in the region between@var{start} and @var{end}. If @var{reverse} is non-@code{nil}, the sortis in reverse order.@end deffn@deffn Command sort-paragraphs reverse start endThis command alphabetically sorts paragraphs in the region between@var{start} and @var{end}. If @var{reverse} is non-@code{nil}, the sortis in reverse order.@end deffn@deffn Command sort-pages reverse start endThis command alphabetically sorts pages in the region between@var{start} and @var{end}. If @var{reverse} is non-@code{nil}, the sortis in reverse order.@end deffn@deffn Command sort-fields field start endThis command sorts lines in the region between @var{start} and@var{end}, comparing them alphabetically by the @var{field}th fieldof each line. Fields are separated by whitespace and numbered startingfrom 1. If @var{field} is negative, sorting is by the@w{@minus{}@var{field}th} field from the end of the line. This commandis useful for sorting tables.@end deffn@deffn Command sort-numeric-fields field start endThis command sorts lines in the region between @var{start} and@var{end}, comparing them numerically by the @var{field}th field of eachline. The specified field must contain a number in each line of theregion. Fields are separated by whitespace and numbered starting from1. If @var{field} is negative, sorting is by the@w{@minus{}@var{field}th} field from the end of the line. This commandis useful for sorting tables.@end deffn@deffn Command sort-columns reverse &optional beg endThis command sorts the lines in the region between @var{beg} and@var{end}, comparing them alphabetically by a certain range of columns.The column positions of @var{beg} and @var{end} bound the range ofcolumns to sort on.If @var{reverse} is non-@code{nil}, the sort is in reverse order.One unusual thing about this command is that the entire linecontaining position @var{beg}, and the entire line containing position@var{end}, are included in the region sorted.Note that @code{sort-columns} uses the @code{sort} utility program,and so cannot work properly on text containing tab characters. Use@kbd{M-x untabify} to convert tabs to spaces before sorting.@end deffn@node Columns@comment node-name, next, previous, up@section Counting Columns@cindex columns@cindex counting columns@cindex horizontal position The column functions convert between a character position (countingcharacters from the beginning of the buffer) and a column position(counting screen characters from the beginning of a line). These functions count each character according to the number ofcolumns it occupies on the screen. This means control characters countas occupying 2 or 4 columns, depending upon the value of@code{ctl-arrow}, and tabs count as occupying a number of columns thatdepends on the value of @code{tab-width} and on the column where the tabbegins. @xref{Usual Display}. Column number computations ignore the width of the window and theamount of horizontal scrolling. Consequently, a column value can bearbitrarily high. The first (or leftmost) column is numbered 0.@defun current-columnThis function returns the horizontal position of point, measured incolumns, counting from 0 at the left margin. The column position is thesum of the widths of all the displayed representations of the charactersbetween the start of the current line and point.For an example of using @code{current-column}, see the description of@code{count-lines} in @ref{Text Lines}.@end defun@defun move-to-column column &optional forceThis function moves point to @var{column} in the current line. Thecalculation of @var{column} takes into account the widths of thedisplayed representations of the characters between the start of theline and point.If column @var{column} is beyond the end of the line, point moves to theend of the line. If @var{column} is negative, point moves to thebeginning of the line.If it is impossible to move to column @var{column} because that is inthe middle of a multicolumn character such as a tab, point moves to theend of that character. However, if @var{force} is non-@code{nil}, and@var{column} is in the middle of a tab, then @code{move-to-column}converts the tab into spaces so that it can move precisely to column@var{column}. Other multicolumn characters can cause anomalies despite@var{force}, since there is no way to split them.The argument @var{force} also has an effect if the line isn't longenough to reach column @var{column}; if it is @code{t}, that means toadd whitespace at the end of the line to reach that column.If @var{column} is not an integer, an error is signaled.The return value is the column number actually moved to.@end defun@node Indentation@section Indentation@cindex indentation The indentation functions are used to examine, move to, and changewhitespace that is at the beginning of a line. Some of the functionscan also change whitespace elsewhere on a line. Columns and indentationcount from zero at the left margin.@menu* Primitive Indent:: Functions used to count and insert indentation.* Mode-Specific Indent:: Customize indentation for different modes.* Region Indent:: Indent all the lines in a region.* Relative Indent:: Indent the current line based on previous lines.* Indent Tabs:: Adjustable, typewriter-like tab stops.* Motion by Indent:: Move to first non-blank character.@end menu@node Primitive Indent@subsection Indentation Primitives This section describes the primitive functions used to count andinsert indentation. The functions in the following sections use theseprimitives. @xref{Width}, for related functions.@defun current-indentation@comment !!Type Primitive Function@comment !!SourceFile indent.cThis function returns the indentation of the current line, which isthe horizontal position of the first nonblank character. If thecontents are entirely blank, then this is the horizontal position of theend of the line.@end defun@deffn Command indent-to column &optional minimum@comment !!Type Primitive Function@comment !!SourceFile indent.cThis function indents from point with tabs and spaces until @var{column}is reached. If @var{minimum} is specified and non-@code{nil}, then atleast that many spaces are inserted even if this requires going beyond@var{column}. Otherwise the function does nothing if point is alreadybeyond @var{column}. The value is the column at which the insertedindentation ends.The inserted whitespace characters inherit text properties from thesurrounding text (usually, from the preceding text only). @xref{StickyProperties}.@end deffn@defopt indent-tabs-mode@comment !!SourceFile indent.cIf this variable is non-@code{nil}, indentation functions can inserttabs as well as spaces. Otherwise, they insert only spaces. Settingthis variable automatically makes it buffer-local in the current buffer.@end defopt@node Mode-Specific Indent@subsection Indentation Controlled by Major Mode An important function of each major mode is to customize the @key{TAB}key to indent properly for the language being edited. This sectiondescribes the mechanism of the @key{TAB} key and how to control it.The functions in this section return unpredictable values.@defvar indent-line-functionThis variable's value is the function to be used by @key{TAB} (andvarious commands) to indent the current line. The command@code{indent-according-to-mode} does no more than call this function.In Lisp mode, the value is the symbol @code{lisp-indent-line}; in Cmode, @code{c-indent-line}; in Fortran mode, @code{fortran-indent-line}.In Fundamental mode, Text mode, and many other modes with no standardfor indentation, the value is @code{indent-to-left-margin} (which is thedefault value).@end defvar@deffn Command indent-according-to-modeThis command calls the function in @code{indent-line-function} toindent the current line in a way appropriate for the current major mode.@end deffn@deffn Command indent-for-tab-commandThis command calls the function in @code{indent-line-function} to indentthe current line; however, if that function is@code{indent-to-left-margin}, @code{insert-tab} is called instead. (Thatis a trivial command that inserts a tab character.)@end deffn@deffn Command newline-and-indent@comment !!SourceFile simple.elThis function inserts a newline, then indents the new line (the onefollowing the newline just inserted) according to the major mode.It does indentation by calling the current @code{indent-line-function}.In programming language modes, this is the same thing @key{TAB} does,but in some text modes, where @key{TAB} inserts a tab,@code{newline-and-indent} indents to the column specified by@code{left-margin}.@end deffn@deffn Command reindent-then-newline-and-indent@comment !!SourceFile simple.elThis command reindents the current line, inserts a newline at point,and then indents the new line (the one following the newline justinserted).This command does indentation on both lines according to the currentmajor mode, by calling the current value of @code{indent-line-function}.In programming language modes, this is the same thing @key{TAB} does,but in some text modes, where @key{TAB} inserts a tab,@code{reindent-then-newline-and-indent} indents to the column specifiedby @code{left-margin}.@end deffn@node Region Indent@subsection Indenting an Entire Region This section describes commands that indent all the lines in theregion. They return unpredictable values.@deffn Command indent-region start end to-columnThis command indents each nonblank line starting between @var{start}(inclusive) and @var{end} (exclusive). If @var{to-column} is@code{nil}, @code{indent-region} indents each nonblank line by callingthe current mode's indentation function, the value of@code{indent-line-function}.If @var{to-column} is non-@code{nil}, it should be an integerspecifying the number of columns of indentation; then this functiongives each line exactly that much indentation, by either adding ordeleting whitespace.If there is a fill prefix, @code{indent-region} indents each lineby making it start with the fill prefix.@end deffn@defvar indent-region-functionThe value of this variable is a function that can be used by@code{indent-region} as a short cut. It should take two arguments, thestart and end of the region. You should design the function sothat it will produce the same results as indenting the lines of theregion one by one, but presumably faster.If the value is @code{nil}, there is no short cut, and@code{indent-region} actually works line by line.A short-cut function is useful in modes such as C mode and Lisp mode,where the @code{indent-line-function} must scan from the beginning ofthe function definition: applying it to each line would be quadratic intime. The short cut can update the scan information as it moves throughthe lines indenting them; this takes linear time. In a mode whereindenting a line individually is fast, there is no need for a short cut.@code{indent-region} with a non-@code{nil} argument @var{to-column} hasa different meaning and does not use this variable.@end defvar@deffn Command indent-rigidly start end count@comment !!SourceFile indent.elThis command indents all lines starting between @var{start}(inclusive) and @var{end} (exclusive) sideways by @var{count} columns.This ``preserves the shape'' of the affected region, moving it as arigid unit. Consequently, this command is useful not only for indentingregions of unindented text, but also for indenting regions of formattedcode.For example, if @var{count} is 3, this command adds 3 columns ofindentation to each of the lines beginning in the region specified.In Mail mode, @kbd{C-c C-y} (@code{mail-yank-original}) uses@code{indent-rigidly} to indent the text copied from the message beingreplied to.@end deffn@defun indent-code-rigidly start end columns &optional nochange-regexpThis is like @code{indent-rigidly}, except that it doesn't alter linesthat start within strings or comments.In addition, it doesn't alter a line if @var{nochange-regexp} matches atthe beginning of the line (if @var{nochange-regexp} is non-@code{nil}).@end defun@node Relative Indent@subsection Indentation Relative to Previous Lines This section describes two commands that indent the current linebased on the contents of previous lines.@deffn Command indent-relative &optional unindented-okThis command inserts whitespace at point, extending to the samecolumn as the next @dfn{indent point} of the previous nonblank line. Anindent point is a non-whitespace character following whitespace. Thenext indent point is the first one at a column greater than the currentcolumn of point. For example, if point is underneath and to the left ofthe first non-blank character of a line of text, it moves to that columnby inserting whitespace.If the previous nonblank line has no next indent point (i.e., none at agreat enough column position), @code{indent-relative} either doesnothing (if @var{unindented-ok} is non-@code{nil}) or calls@code{tab-to-tab-stop}. Thus, if point is underneath and to the rightof the last column of a short line of text, this command ordinarilymoves point to the next tab stop by inserting whitespace.The return value of @code{indent-relative} is unpredictable.In the following example, point is at the beginning of the secondline:@example@group This line is indented twelve spaces.@point{}The quick brown fox jumped.@end group@end example@noindentEvaluation of the expression @code{(indent-relative nil)} produces thefollowing:@example@group This line is indented twelve spaces. @point{}The quick brown fox jumped.@end group@end example In this next example, point is between the @samp{m} and @samp{p} of@samp{jumped}:@example@group This line is indented twelve spaces.The quick brown fox jum@point{}ped.@end group@end example@noindentEvaluation of the expression @code{(indent-relative nil)} produces thefollowing:@example@group This line is indented twelve spaces.The quick brown fox jum @point{}ped.@end group@end example@end deffn@deffn Command indent-relative-maybe@comment !!SourceFile indent.elThis command indents the current line like the previous nonblank line,by calling @code{indent-relative} with @code{t} as the@var{unindented-ok} argument. The return value is unpredictable.If the previous nonblank line has no indent points beyond the currentcolumn, this command does nothing.@end deffn@node Indent Tabs@comment node-name, next, previous, up@subsection Adjustable ``Tab Stops''@cindex tabs stops for indentation This section explains the mechanism for user-specified ``tab stops''and the mechanisms that use and set them. The name ``tab stops'' isused because the feature is similar to that of the tab stops on atypewriter. The feature works by inserting an appropriate number ofspaces and tab characters to reach the next tab stop column; it does notaffect the display of tab characters in the buffer (@pxref{UsualDisplay}). Note that the @key{TAB} character as input uses this tabstop feature only in a few major modes, such as Text mode.@deffn Command tab-to-tab-stopThis command inserts spaces or tabs before point, up to the next tabstop column defined by @code{tab-stop-list}. It searches the list foran element greater than the current column number, and uses that elementas the column to indent to. It does nothing if no such element isfound.@end deffn@defopt tab-stop-listThis variable is the list of tab stop columns used by@code{tab-to-tab-stops}. The elements should be integers in increasingorder. The tab stop columns need not be evenly spaced.Use @kbd{M-x edit-tab-stops} to edit the location of tab stopsinteractively.@end defopt@node Motion by Indent@subsection Indentation-Based Motion Commands These commands, primarily for interactive use, act based on theindentation in the text.@deffn Command back-to-indentation @comment !!SourceFile simple.elThis command moves point to the first non-whitespace character in thecurrent line (which is the line in which point is located). It returns@code{nil}.@end deffn@deffn Command backward-to-indentation arg@comment !!SourceFile simple.elThis command moves point backward @var{arg} lines and then to thefirst nonblank character on that line. It returns @code{nil}.@end deffn@deffn Command forward-to-indentation arg@comment !!SourceFile simple.elThis command moves point forward @var{arg} lines and then to the firstnonblank character on that line. It returns @code{nil}.@end deffn@node Case Changes@comment node-name, next, previous, up@section Case Changes@cindex case conversion in buffers The case change commands described here work on text in the currentbuffer. @xref{Case Conversion}, for case conversion functions that workon strings and characters. @xref{Case Tables}, for how to customizewhich characters are upper or lower case and how to convert them.@deffn Command capitalize-region start endThis function capitalizes all words in the region defined by@var{start} and @var{end}. To capitalize means to convert each word'sfirst character to upper case and convert the rest of each word to lowercase. The function returns @code{nil}.If one end of the region is in the middle of a word, the part of theword within the region is treated as an entire word.When @code{capitalize-region} is called interactively, @var{start} and@var{end} are point and the mark, with the smallest first.@example@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------This is the contents of the 5th foo.---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@group(capitalize-region 1 44)@result{} nil---------- Buffer: foo ----------This Is The Contents Of The 5th Foo.---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@end example@end deffn@deffn Command downcase-region start endThis function converts all of the letters in the region defined by@var{start} and @var{end} to lower case. The function returns@code{nil}.When @code{downcase-region} is called interactively, @var{start} and@var{end} are point and the mark, with the smallest first.@end deffn@deffn Command upcase-region start endThis function converts all of the letters in the region defined by@var{start} and @var{end} to upper case. The function returns@code{nil}.When @code{upcase-region} is called interactively, @var{start} and@var{end} are point and the mark, with the smallest first.@end deffn@deffn Command capitalize-word countThis function capitalizes @var{count} words after point, moving pointover as it does. To capitalize means to convert each word's firstcharacter to upper case and convert the rest of each word to lower case.If @var{count} is negative, the function capitalizes the@minus{}@var{count} previous words but does not move point. The valueis @code{nil}.If point is in the middle of a word, the part of the word before pointis ignored when moving forward. The rest is treated as an entire word.When @code{capitalize-word} is called interactively, @var{count} isset to the numeric prefix argument.@end deffn@deffn Command downcase-word countThis function converts the @var{count} words after point to all lowercase, moving point over as it does. If @var{count} is negative, itconverts the @minus{}@var{count} previous words but does not move point.The value is @code{nil}.When @code{downcase-word} is called interactively, @var{count} is setto the numeric prefix argument.@end deffn@deffn Command upcase-word countThis function converts the @var{count} words after point to all uppercase, moving point over as it does. If @var{count} is negative, itconverts the @minus{}@var{count} previous words but does not move point.The value is @code{nil}.When @code{upcase-word} is called interactively, @var{count} is set tothe numeric prefix argument.@end deffn@node Text Properties@section Text Properties@cindex text properties@cindex attributes of text@cindex properties of text Each character position in a buffer or a string can have a @dfn{textproperty list}, much like the property list of a symbol (@pxref{PropertyLists}). The properties belong to a particular character at aparticular place, such as, the letter @samp{T} at the beginning of thissentence or the first @samp{o} in @samp{foo}---if the same characteroccurs in two different places, the two occurrences generally havedifferent properties. Each property has a name and a value. Both of these can be any Lispobject, but the name is normally a symbol. The usual way to access theproperty list is to specify a name and ask what value corresponds to it. If a character has a @code{category} property, we call it the@dfn{category} of the character. It should be a symbol. The propertiesof the symbol serve as defaults for the properties of the character. Copying text between strings and buffers preserves the propertiesalong with the characters; this includes such diverse functions as@code{substring}, @code{insert}, and @code{buffer-substring}.@menu* Examining Properties:: Looking at the properties of one character.* Changing Properties:: Setting the properties of a range of text.* Property Search:: Searching for where a property changes value.* Special Properties:: Particular properties with special meanings.* Format Properties:: Properties for representing formatting of text.* Sticky Properties:: How inserted text gets properties from neighboring text.* Saving Properties:: Saving text properties in files, and reading them back.* Lazy Properties:: Computing text properties in a lazy fashion only when text is examined.* Clickable Text:: Using text properties to make regions of text do something when you click on them.* Fields:: The @code{field} property defines fields within the buffer.* Not Intervals:: Why text properties do not use Lisp-visible text intervals.@end menu@node Examining Properties@subsection Examining Text Properties The simplest way to examine text properties is to ask for the value ofa particular property of a particular character. For that, use@code{get-text-property}. Use @code{text-properties-at} to get theentire property list of a character. @xref{Property Search}, forfunctions to examine the properties of a number of characters at once. These functions handle both strings and buffers. Keep in mind thatpositions in a string start from 0, whereas positions in a buffer startfrom 1.@defun get-text-property pos prop &optional objectThis function returns the value of the @var{prop} property of thecharacter after position @var{pos} in @var{object} (a buffer orstring). The argument @var{object} is optional and defaults to thecurrent buffer.If there is no @var{prop} property strictly speaking, but the characterhas a category that is a symbol, then @code{get-text-property} returnsthe @var{prop} property of that symbol.@end defun@defun get-char-property pos prop &optional objectThis function is like @code{get-text-property}, except that it checksoverlays first and then text properties. @xref{Overlays}.The argument @var{object} may be a string, a buffer, or a window. If itis a window, then the buffer displayed in that window is used for textproperties and overlays, but only the overlays active for that windoware considered. If @var{object} is a buffer, then all overlays in thatbuffer are considered, as well as text properties. If @var{object} is astring, only text properties are considered, since strings never haveoverlays.@end defun@defun text-properties-at position &optional objectThis function returns the entire property list of the character at@var{position} in the string or buffer @var{object}. If @var{object} is@code{nil}, it defaults to the current buffer.@end defun@defvar default-text-propertiesThis variable holds a property list giving default values for textproperties. Whenever a character does not specify a value for aproperty, neither directly nor through a category symbol, the valuestored in this list is used instead. Here is an example:@example(setq default-text-properties '(foo 69));; @r{Make sure character 1 has no properties of its own.}(set-text-properties 1 2 nil);; @r{What we get, when we ask, is the default value.}(get-text-property 1 'foo) @result{} 69@end example@end defvar@node Changing Properties@subsection Changing Text Properties The primitives for changing properties apply to a specified range oftext in a buffer or string. The function @code{set-text-properties}(see end of section) sets the entire property list of the text in thatrange; more often, it is useful to add, change, or delete just certainproperties specified by name. Since text properties are considered part of the contents of thebuffer (or string), and can affect how a buffer looks on the screen, anychange in buffer text properties marks the buffer as modified. Buffertext property changes are undoable also (@pxref{Undo}).@defun put-text-property start end prop value &optional objectThis function sets the @var{prop} property to @var{value} for the textbetween @var{start} and @var{end} in the string or buffer @var{object}.If @var{object} is @code{nil}, it defaults to the current buffer.@end defun@defun add-text-properties start end props &optional objectThis function adds or overrides text properties for the text between@var{start} and @var{end} in the string or buffer @var{object}. If@var{object} is @code{nil}, it defaults to the current buffer.The argument @var{props} specifies which properties to add. It shouldhave the form of a property list (@pxref{Property Lists}): a list whoseelements include the property names followed alternately by thecorresponding values.The return value is @code{t} if the function actually changed someproperty's value; @code{nil} otherwise (if @var{props} is @code{nil} orits values agree with those in the text).For example, here is how to set the @code{comment} and @code{face}properties of a range of text:@example(add-text-properties @var{start} @var{end} '(comment t face highlight))@end example@end defun@defun remove-text-properties start end props &optional objectThis function deletes specified text properties from the text between@var{start} and @var{end} in the string or buffer @var{object}. If@var{object} is @code{nil}, it defaults to the current buffer.The argument @var{props} specifies which properties to delete. Itshould have the form of a property list (@pxref{Property Lists}): a listwhose elements are property names alternating with corresponding values.But only the names matter---the values that accompany them are ignored.For example, here's how to remove the @code{face} property.@example(remove-text-properties @var{start} @var{end} '(face nil))@end exampleThe return value is @code{t} if the function actually changed someproperty's value; @code{nil} otherwise (if @var{props} is @code{nil} orif no character in the specified text had any of those properties).To remove all text properties from certain text, use@code{set-text-properties} and specify @code{nil} for the new propertylist.@end defun@defun set-text-properties start end props &optional objectThis function completely replaces the text property list for the textbetween @var{start} and @var{end} in the string or buffer @var{object}.If @var{object} is @code{nil}, it defaults to the current buffer.The argument @var{props} is the new property list. It should be a listwhose elements are property names alternating with corresponding values.After @code{set-text-properties} returns, all the characters in thespecified range have identical properties.If @var{props} is @code{nil}, the effect is to get rid of all propertiesfrom the specified range of text. Here's an example:@example(set-text-properties @var{start} @var{end} nil)@end example@end defun The easiest way to make a string with text propertiesis with @code{propertize}:@defun propertize string &rest properties@tindex propertizeThis function returns a copy of @var{string} which has the textproperties @var{properties}. These properties apply to all thecharacters in the string that is returned. Here is an example thatconstructs a string with a @code{face} property and a @code{mouse-face}property:@smallexample(propertize "foo" 'face 'italic 'mouse-face 'bold-italic) @result{} #("foo" 0 3 (mouse-face bold-italic face italic))@end smallexampleTo put different properties on various parts of a string, you canconstruct each part with @code{propertize} and then combine them with@code{concat}:@smallexample(concat (propertize "foo" 'face 'italic 'mouse-face 'bold-italic) " and " (propertize "bar" 'face 'italic 'mouse-face 'bold-italic)) @result{} #("foo and bar" 0 3 (face italic mouse-face bold-italic) 3 8 nil 8 11 (face italic mouse-face bold-italic))@end smallexample@end defun See also the function @code{buffer-substring-no-properties}(@pxref{Buffer Contents}) which copies text from the bufferbut does not copy its properties.@node Property Search@subsection Text Property Search Functions In typical use of text properties, most of the time several or manyconsecutive characters have the same value for a property. Rather thanwriting your programs to examine characters one by one, it is muchfaster to process chunks of text that have the same property value. Here are functions you can use to do this. They use @code{eq} forcomparing property values. In all cases, @var{object} defaults to thecurrent buffer. For high performance, it's very important to use the @var{limit}argument to these functions, especially the ones that search for asingle property---otherwise, they may spend a long time scanning to theend of the buffer, if the property you are interested in does not change. These functions do not move point; instead, they return a position (or@code{nil}). Remember that a position is always between two characters;the position returned by these functions is between two characters withdifferent properties.@defun next-property-change pos &optional object limitThe function scans the text forward from position @var{pos} in thestring or buffer @var{object} till it finds a change in some textproperty, then returns the position of the change. In other words, itreturns the position of the first character beyond @var{pos} whoseproperties are not identical to those of the character just after@var{pos}.If @var{limit} is non-@code{nil}, then the scan ends at position@var{limit}. If there is no property change before that point, @code{next-property-change} returns @var{limit}.The value is @code{nil} if the properties remain unchanged all the wayto the end of @var{object} and @var{limit} is @code{nil}. If the valueis non-@code{nil}, it is a position greater than or equal to @var{pos}.The value equals @var{pos} only when @var{limit} equals @var{pos}.Here is an example of how to scan the buffer by chunks of text withinwhich all properties are constant:@smallexample(while (not (eobp)) (let ((plist (text-properties-at (point))) (next-change (or (next-property-change (point) (current-buffer)) (point-max)))) @r{Process text from point to @var{next-change}@dots{}} (goto-char next-change)))@end smallexample@end defun@defun next-single-property-change pos prop &optional object limitThe function scans the text forward from position @var{pos} in thestring or buffer @var{object} till it finds a change in the @var{prop}property, then returns the position of the change. In other words, itreturns the position of the first character beyond @var{pos} whose@var{prop} property differs from that of the character just after@var{pos}.If @var{limit} is non-@code{nil}, then the scan ends at position@var{limit}. If there is no property change before that point, @code{next-single-property-change} returns @var{limit}.The value is @code{nil} if the property remains unchanged all the way tothe end of @var{object} and @var{limit} is @code{nil}. If the value isnon-@code{nil}, it is a position greater than or equal to @var{pos}; itequals @var{pos} only if @var{limit} equals @var{pos}.@end defun@defun previous-property-change pos &optional object limitThis is like @code{next-property-change}, but scans back from @var{pos}instead of forward. If the value is non-@code{nil}, it is a positionless than or equal to @var{pos}; it equals @var{pos} only if @var{limit}equals @var{pos}.@end defun@defun previous-single-property-change pos prop &optional object limitThis is like @code{next-single-property-change}, but scans back from@var{pos} instead of forward. If the value is non-@code{nil}, it is aposition less than or equal to @var{pos}; it equals @var{pos} only if@var{limit} equals @var{pos}.@end defun@defun next-char-property-change pos &optional limitThis is like @code{next-property-change} except that it considersoverlay properties as well as text properties, and if no change isfound before the end of the buffer, it returns the maximum bufferposition rather than @code{nil} (in this sense, it resembles thecorresponding overlay function @code{next-overlay-change}, rather than@code{next-property-change}). There is no @var{object} operandbecause this function operates only on the current buffer. It returnsthe next address at which either kind of property changes.@end defun@defun previous-char-property-change pos &optional limitThis is like @code{next-char-property-change}, but scans back from@var{pos} instead of forward, and returns the minimum bufferposition if no change is found.@end defun@defun next-single-char-property-change pos prop &optional object limit@tindex next-single-char-property-changeThis is like @code{next-single-property-change} except that itconsiders overlay properties as well as text properties, and if nochange is found before the end of the @var{object}, it returns themaximum valid position in @var{object} rather than @code{nil}. Unlike@code{next-char-property-change}, this function @emph{does} have an@var{object} operand; if @var{object} is not a buffer, onlytext-properties are considered.@end defun@defun previous-single-char-property-change pos prop &optional object limit@tindex previous-single-char-property-changeThis is like @code{next-single-char-property-change}, but scans backfrom @var{pos} instead of forward, and returns the minimum validposition in @var{object} if no change is found.@end defun@defun text-property-any start end prop value &optional objectThis function returns non-@code{nil} if at least one character between@var{start} and @var{end} has a property @var{prop} whose value is@var{value}. More precisely, it returns the position of the first suchcharacter. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.The optional fifth argument, @var{object}, specifies the string orbuffer to scan. Positions are relative to @var{object}. The defaultfor @var{object} is the current buffer.@end defun@defun text-property-not-all start end prop value &optional objectThis function returns non-@code{nil} if at least one character between@var{start} and @var{end} does not have a property @var{prop} with value@var{value}. More precisely, it returns the position of the first suchcharacter. Otherwise, it returns @code{nil}.The optional fifth argument, @var{object}, specifies the string orbuffer to scan. Positions are relative to @var{object}. The defaultfor @var{object} is the current buffer.@end defun@node Special Properties@subsection Properties with Special Meanings Here is a table of text property names that have special built-inmeanings. The following sections list a few additional special propertynames that control filling and property inheritance. All other nameshave no standard meaning, and you can use them as you like.@table @code@cindex category of text character@kindex category @r{(text property)}@item categoryIf a character has a @code{category} property, we call it the@dfn{category} of the character. It should be a symbol. The propertiesof the symbol serve as defaults for the properties of the character.@item face@cindex face codes of text@kindex face @r{(text property)}You can use the property @code{face} to control the font and color oftext. @xref{Faces}, for more information.In the simplest case, the value is a face name. It can also be a list;then each element can be any of these possibilities;@itemize @bullet@itemA face name (a symbol or string).@itemStarting in Emacs 21, a property list of face attributes. This has theform (@var{keyword} @var{value} @dots{}), where each @var{keyword} is aface attribute name and @var{value} is a meaningful value for thatattribute. With this feature, you do not need to create a face eachtime you want to specify a particular attribute for certain text.@xref{Face Attributes}.@itemA cons cell of the form @code{(foreground-color . @var{color-name})} or@code{(background-color . @var{color-name})}. These elements specifyjust the foreground color or just the background color.@code{(foreground-color . @var{color-name})} is equivalent to@code{(:foreground @var{color-name})}, and likewise for the background.@end itemize@xref{Font Lock Mode}, for information on how to update @code{face}properties automatically based on the contents of the text.@item mouse-face@kindex mouse-face @r{(text property)}The property @code{mouse-face} is used instead of @code{face} when themouse is on or near the character. For this purpose, ``near'' meansthat all text between the character and where the mouse is have the same@code{mouse-face} property value.@item fontified@kindex fontified @r{(text property)}This property, if non-@code{nil}, says that text in the buffer hashad faces assigned automatically by a feature such as Font-Lock mode.@xref{Auto Faces}.@item display@kindex display @r{(text property)}This property activates various features that change theway text is displayed. For example, it can make text appear talleror shorter, higher or lower, wider or narrow, or replaced with an image.@xref{Display Property}.@item help-echo@kindex help-echo @r{(text property)}@anchor{Text help-echo}If text has a string as its @code{help-echo} property, then when youmove the mouse onto that text, Emacs displays that string in the echoarea, or in the tooltip window.If the value of the @code{help-echo} property is a function, thatfunction is called with three arguments, @var{window}, @var{object} and@var{position} and should return a help string or @var{nil} fornone. The first argument, @var{window} is the window in whichthe help was found. The second, @var{object}, is the buffer, overlay orstring which had the @code{help-echo} property. The @var{position}argument is as follows:@itemize @bullet{}@itemIf @var{object} is a buffer, @var{pos} is the position in the bufferwhere the @code{help-echo} text property was found.@itemIf @var{object} is an overlay, that overlay has a @code{help-echo}property, and @var{pos} is the position in the overlay's buffer underthe mouse.@itemIf @var{object} is a string (an overlay string or a string displayedwith the @code{display} property), @var{pos} is the position in thatstring under the mouse.@end itemizeIf the value of the @code{help-echo} property is neither a function nora string, it is evaluated to obtain a help string.You can alter the way help text is displayed by setting the variable@code{show-help-function} (@pxref{Help display}).This feature is used in the mode line and for other active text. It isavailable starting in Emacs 21.@item local-map@cindex keymap of character@kindex local-map @r{(text property)}You can specify a different keymap for some of the text in a buffer bymeans of the @code{local-map} property. The property's value for thecharacter after point, if non-@code{nil}, is used for key lookup insteadof the buffer's local map. If the property value is a symbol, thesymbol's function definition is used as the keymap. @xref{ActiveKeymaps}.@item keymap@kindex keymap @r{(text property)}The @code{keymap} property is similar to @code{local-map} but overrides thebuffer's local map (and the map specified by the @code{local-map}property) rather than replacing it.@item syntax-tableThe @code{syntax-table} property overrides what the syntax table saysabout this particular character. @xref{Syntax Properties}.@item read-only@cindex read-only character@kindex read-only @r{(text property)}If a character has the property @code{read-only}, then modifying thatcharacter is not allowed. Any command that would do so gets an error,@code{text-read-only}.Insertion next to a read-only character is an error if insertingordinary text there would inherit the @code{read-only} property due tostickiness. Thus, you can control permission to insert next toread-only text by controlling the stickiness. @xref{Sticky Properties}.Since changing properties counts as modifying the buffer, it is notpossible to remove a @code{read-only} property unless you know thespecial trick: bind @code{inhibit-read-only} to a non-@code{nil} valueand then remove the property. @xref{Read Only Buffers}.@item invisible@kindex invisible @r{(text property)}A non-@code{nil} @code{invisible} property can make a character invisibleon the screen. @xref{Invisible Text}, for details.@item intangible@kindex intangible @r{(text property)}If a group of consecutive characters have equal and non-@code{nil}@code{intangible} properties, then you cannot place point between them.If you try to move point forward into the group, point actually moves tothe end of the group. If you try to move point backward into the group,point actually moves to the start of the group.When the variable @code{inhibit-point-motion-hooks} is non-@code{nil},the @code{intangible} property is ignored.@item field@kindex field @r{(text property)}Consecutive characters with the same @code{field} property constitute a@dfn{field}. Some motion functions including @code{forward-word} and@code{beginning-of-line} stop moving at a field boundary.@xref{Fields}.@item modification-hooks@cindex change hooks for a character@cindex hooks for changing a character@kindex modification-hooks @r{(text property)}If a character has the property @code{modification-hooks}, then itsvalue should be a list of functions; modifying that character calls allof those functions. Each function receives two arguments: the beginningand end of the part of the buffer being modified. Note that if aparticular modification hook function appears on several charactersbeing modified by a single primitive, you can't predict how many timesthe function will be called.@item insert-in-front-hooks@itemx insert-behind-hooks@kindex insert-in-front-hooks @r{(text property)}@kindex insert-behind-hooks @r{(text property)}The operation of inserting text in a buffer also calls the functionslisted in the @code{insert-in-front-hooks} property of the followingcharacter and in the @code{insert-behind-hooks} property of thepreceding character. These functions receive two arguments, thebeginning and end of the inserted text. The functions are called@emph{after} the actual insertion takes place.See also @ref{Change Hooks}, for other hooks that are calledwhen you change text in a buffer.@item point-entered@itemx point-left@cindex hooks for motion of point@kindex point-entered @r{(text property)}@kindex point-left @r{(text property)}The special properties @code{point-entered} and @code{point-left}record hook functions that report motion of point. Each time pointmoves, Emacs compares these two property values:@itemize @bullet@itemthe @code{point-left} property of the character after the old location,and@itemthe @code{point-entered} property of the character after the newlocation.@end itemize@noindentIf these two values differ, each of them is called (if not @code{nil})with two arguments: the old value of point, and the new one.The same comparison is made for the characters before the old and newlocations. The result may be to execute two @code{point-left} functions(which may be the same function) and/or two @code{point-entered}functions (which may be the same function). In any case, all the@code{point-left} functions are called first, followed by all the@code{point-entered} functions.It is possible using @code{char-after} to examine characters at variouspositions without moving point to those positions. Only an actualchange in the value of point runs these hook functions.@end table@defvar inhibit-point-motion-hooksWhen this variable is non-@code{nil}, @code{point-left} and@code{point-entered} hooks are not run, and the @code{intangible}property has no effect. Do not set this variable globally; bind it with@code{let}.@end defvar@defvar show-help-function@tindex show-help-function@anchor{Help display} If this variable is non-@code{nil}, it specifies afunction called to display help strings. These may be @code{help-echo}properties, menu help strings (@pxref{Simple Menu Items},@pxref{Extended Menu Items}), or tool bar help strings (@pxref{ToolBar}). The specified function is called with one argument, the helpstring to display. Tooltip mode (@pxref{Tooltips,,, emacs, The GNU EmacsManual}) provides an example.@end defvar@node Format Properties@subsection Formatted Text Properties These text properties affect the behavior of the fill commands. Theyare used for representing formatted text. @xref{Filling}, and@ref{Margins}.@table @code@item hardIf a newline character has this property, it is a ``hard'' newline.The fill commands do not alter hard newlines and do not move wordsacross them. However, this property takes effect only if the variable@code{use-hard-newlines} is non-@code{nil}.@item right-marginThis property specifies an extra right margin for filling this part of thetext.@item left-marginThis property specifies an extra left margin for filling this part of thetext.@item justificationThis property specifies the style of justification for filling this partof the text.@end table@node Sticky Properties@subsection Stickiness of Text Properties@cindex sticky text properties@cindex inheritance of text properties Self-inserting characters normally take on the same properties as thepreceding character. This is called @dfn{inheritance} of properties. In a Lisp program, you can do insertion with inheritance or without,depending on your choice of insertion primitive. The ordinary textinsertion functions such as @code{insert} do not inherit any properties.They insert text with precisely the properties of the string beinginserted, and no others. This is correct for programs that copy textfrom one context to another---for example, into or out of the kill ring.To insert with inheritance, use the special primitives described in thissection. Self-inserting characters inherit properties because they workusing these primitives. When you do insertion with inheritance, @emph{which} properties areinherited, and from where, depends on which properties are @dfn{sticky}.Insertion after a character inherits those of its properties that are@dfn{rear-sticky}. Insertion before a character inherits those of itsproperties that are @dfn{front-sticky}. When both sides offer differentsticky values for the same property, the previous character's valuetakes precedence. By default, a text property is rear-sticky but not front-sticky; thus,the default is to inherit all the properties of the preceding character,and nothing from the following character. You can control the stickiness of various text properties with twospecific text properties, @code{front-sticky} and @code{rear-nonsticky},and with the variable @code{text-property-default-nonsticky}. You canuse the variable to specify a different default for a given property.You can use those two text properties to make any specific propertiessticky or nonsticky in any particular part of the text. If a character's @code{front-sticky} property is @code{t}, then allits properties are front-sticky. If the @code{front-sticky} property isa list, then the sticky properties of the character are those whosenames are in the list. For example, if a character has a@code{front-sticky} property whose value is @code{(face read-only)},then insertion before the character can inherit its @code{face} propertyand its @code{read-only} property, but no others. The @code{rear-nonsticky} property works the opposite way. Mostproperties are rear-sticky by default, so the @code{rear-nonsticky}property says which properties are @emph{not} rear-sticky. If acharacter's @code{rear-nonsticky} property is @code{t}, then none of itsproperties are rear-sticky. If the @code{rear-nonsticky} property is alist, properties are rear-sticky @emph{unless} their names are in thelist.@defvar text-property-default-nonsticky@tindex text-property-default-nonstickyThis variable holds an alist which defines the default rear-stickinessof various text properties. Each element has the form@code{(@var{property} . @var{nonstickiness})}, and it defines thestickiness of a particular text property, @var{property}.If @var{nonstickiness} is non-@code{nil}, this means that the property@var{property} is rear-nonsticky by default. Since all properties arefront-nonsticky by default, this makes @var{property} nonsticky in bothdirections by default.The text properties @code{front-sticky} and @code{rear-nonsticky}, whenused, take precedence over the default @var{nonstickiness} specifed in@code{text-property-default-nonsticky}.@end defvar Here are the functions that insert text with inheritance of properties:@defun insert-and-inherit &rest stringsInsert the strings @var{strings}, just like the function @code{insert},but inherit any sticky properties from the adjoining text.@end defun@defun insert-before-markers-and-inherit &rest stringsInsert the strings @var{strings}, just like the function@code{insert-before-markers}, but inherit any sticky properties from theadjoining text.@end defun @xref{Insertion}, for the ordinary insertion functions which do notinherit.@node Saving Properties@subsection Saving Text Properties in Files@cindex text properties in files@cindex saving text properties You can save text properties in files (along with the text itself),and restore the same text properties when visiting or inserting thefiles, using these two hooks:@defvar write-region-annotate-functionsThis variable's value is a list of functions for @code{write-region} torun to encode text properties in some fashion as annotations to the textbeing written in the file. @xref{Writing to Files}.Each function in the list is called with two arguments: the start andend of the region to be written. These functions should not alter thecontents of the buffer. Instead, they should return lists indicatingannotations to write in the file in addition to the text in thebuffer.Each function should return a list of elements of the form@code{(@var{position} . @var{string})}, where @var{position} is aninteger specifying the relative position within the text to be written,and @var{string} is the annotation to add there.Each list returned by one of these functions must be already sorted inincreasing order by @var{position}. If there is more than one function,@code{write-region} merges the lists destructively into one sorted list.When @code{write-region} actually writes the text from the buffer to thefile, it intermixes the specified annotations at the correspondingpositions. All this takes place without modifying the buffer.@end defvar@defvar after-insert-file-functionsThis variable holds a list of functions for @code{insert-file-contents}to call after inserting a file's contents. These functions should scanthe inserted text for annotations, and convert them to the textproperties they stand for.Each function receives one argument, the length of the inserted text;point indicates the start of that text. The function should scan thattext for annotations, delete them, and create the text properties thatthe annotations specify. The function should return the updated lengthof the inserted text, as it stands after those changes. The valuereturned by one function becomes the argument to the next function.These functions should always return with point at the beginning ofthe inserted text.The intended use of @code{after-insert-file-functions} is for convertingsome sort of textual annotations into actual text properties. But otheruses may be possible.@end defvarWe invite users to write Lisp programs to store and retrieve textproperties in files, using these hooks, and thus to experiment withvarious data formats and find good ones. Eventually we hope users will produce good, general extensions we can install in Emacs.We suggest not trying to handle arbitrary Lisp objects as text propertynames or values---because a program that general is probably difficultto write, and slow. Instead, choose a set of possible data types thatare reasonably flexible, and not too hard to encode.@xref{Format Conversion}, for a related feature.@c ??? In next edition, merge this info Format Conversion.@node Lazy Properties@subsection Lazy Computation of Text Properties Instead of computing text properties for all the text in the buffer,you can arrange to compute the text properties for parts of the textwhen and if something depends on them. The primitive that extracts text from the buffer along with itsproperties is @code{buffer-substring}. Before examining the properties,this function runs the abnormal hook @code{buffer-access-fontify-functions}.@defvar buffer-access-fontify-functionsThis variable holds a list of functions for computing text properties.Before @code{buffer-substring} copies the text and text properties for aportion of the buffer, it calls all the functions in this list. Each ofthe functions receives two arguments that specify the range of thebuffer being accessed. (The buffer itself is always the currentbuffer.)@end defvar The function @code{buffer-substring-no-properties} does not call thesefunctions, since it ignores text properties anyway. In order to prevent the hook functions from being called more thanonce for the same part of the buffer, you can use the variable@code{buffer-access-fontified-property}.@defvar buffer-access-fontified-propertyIf this value's variable is non-@code{nil}, it is a symbol which is usedas a text property name. A non-@code{nil} value for that text propertymeans, ``the other text properties for this character have already beencomputed.''If all the characters in the range specified for @code{buffer-substring}have a non-@code{nil} value for this property, @code{buffer-substring}does not call the @code{buffer-access-fontify-functions} functions. Itassumes these characters already have the right text properties, andjust copies the properties they already have.The normal way to use this feature is that the@code{buffer-access-fontify-functions} functions add this property, aswell as others, to the characters they operate on. That way, they avoidbeing called over and over for the same text.@end defvar@node Clickable Text@subsection Defining Clickable Text@cindex clickable text There are two ways to set up @dfn{clickable text} in a buffer.There are typically two parts of this: to make the text highlightwhen the mouse is over it, and to make a mouse button do somethingwhen you click it on that part of the text. Highlighting is done with the @code{mouse-face} text property.Here is an example of how Dired does it:@smallexample(condition-case nil (if (dired-move-to-filename) (put-text-property (point) (save-excursion (dired-move-to-end-of-filename) (point)) 'mouse-face 'highlight)) (error nil))@end smallexample@noindentThe first two arguments to @code{put-text-property} specify thebeginning and end of the text. The usual way to make the mouse do something when you click iton this text is to define @code{mouse-2} in the major mode'skeymap. The job of checking whether the click was on clickable textis done by the command definition. Here is how Dired does it:@smallexample(defun dired-mouse-find-file-other-window (event) "In dired, visit the file or directory name you click on." (interactive "e") (let (file) (save-excursion (set-buffer (window-buffer (posn-window (event-end event)))) (save-excursion (goto-char (posn-point (event-end event))) (setq file (dired-get-filename)))) (select-window (posn-window (event-end event))) (find-file-other-window (file-name-sans-versions file t))))@end smallexample@noindentThe reason for the outer @code{save-excursion} construct is to avoidchanging the current buffer; the reason for the inner one is to avoidpermanently altering point in the buffer you click on. In this case,Dired uses the function @code{dired-get-filename} to determine whichfile to visit, based on the position found in the event. Instead of defining a mouse command for the major mode, you can definea key binding for the clickable text itself, using the @code{keymap}text property:@example(let ((map (make-sparse-keymap))) (define-key map [mouse-2] 'operate-this-button) (put-text-property (point) (save-excursion (dired-move-to-end-of-filename) (point)) 'keymap map))@end example@noindentThis method makes it possible to define different commands for variousclickable pieces of text. Also, the major mode definition (or theglobal definition) remains available for the rest of the text in thebuffer.@node Fields@subsection Defining and Using Fields@cindex fields A field is a range of consecutive characters in the buffer that areidentified by having the same value (comparing with @code{eq}) of the@code{field} property (either a text-property or an overlay property).This section describes special functions that are available foroperating on fields. You specify a field with a buffer position, @var{pos}. We think ofeach field as containing a range of buffer positions, so the positionyou specify stands for the field containing that position. When the characters before and after @var{pos} are part of the samefield, there is no doubt which field contains @var{pos}: the one thosecharacters both belong to. When @var{pos} is at a boundary betweenfields, which field it belongs to depends on the stickiness of the@code{field} properties of the two surrounding characters (@pxref{StickyProperties}). The field whose property would be inherited by textinserted at @var{pos} is the field that contains @var{pos}. There is an anomalous case where newly inserted text at @var{pos}would not inherit the @code{field} property from either side. Thishappens if the previous character's @code{field} property is notrear-sticky, and the following character's @code{field} property is notfront-sticky. In this case, @var{pos} belongs to neither the precedingfield nor the following field; the field functions treat it as belongingto an empty field whose beginning and end are both at @var{pos}. In all of these functions, if @var{pos} is omitted or @code{nil}, thevalue of point is used by default.@defun field-beginning &optional pos escape-from-edge limit@tindex field-beginningThis function returns the beginning of the field specified by @var{pos}.If @var{pos} is at the beginning of its field, and@var{escape-from-edge} is non-@code{nil}, then the return value isalways the beginning of the preceding field that @emph{ends} at @var{pos},regardless of the stickiness of the @code{field} properties around@var{pos}.If @var{limit} is non-@code{nil}, it is a buffer position; if thebeginning of the field is before @var{limit}, then @var{limit} will bereturned instead.@end defun@defun field-end &optional pos escape-from-edge limit@tindex field-endThis function returns the end of the field specified by @var{pos}.If @var{pos} is at the end of its field, and @var{escape-from-edge} isnon-@code{nil}, then the return value is always the end of the followingfield that @emph{begins} at @var{pos}, regardless of the stickiness ofthe @code{field} properties around @var{pos}.If @var{limit} is non-@code{nil}, it is a buffer position; if the endof the field is after @var{limit}, then @var{limit} will be returnedinstead.@end defun@defun field-string &optional pos@tindex field-stringThis function returns the contents of the field specified by @var{pos},as a string.@end defun@defun field-string-no-properties &optional pos@tindex field-string-no-propertiesThis function returns the contents of the field specified by @var{pos},as a string, discarding text properties.@end defun@defun delete-field &optional pos@tindex delete-fieldThis function deletes the text of the field specified by @var{pos}.@end defun@defun constrain-to-field new-pos old-pos &optional escape-from-edge only-in-line inhibit-capture-property@tindex constrain-to-fieldThis function ``constrains'' @var{new-pos} to the field that@var{old-pos} belongs to---in other words, it returns the positionclosest to @var{new-pos} that is in the same field as @var{old-pos}.If @var{new-pos} is @code{nil}, then @code{constrain-to-field} usesthe value of point instead, and moves point to the resulting position.If @var{old-pos} is at the boundary of two fields, then the acceptablepositions for @var{new-pos} depend on the value of the optional argument@var{escape-from-edge}. If @var{escape-from-edge} is @code{nil}, then@var{new-pos} is constrained to the field that has the same @code{field}property (either a text-property or an overlay property) that newcharacters inserted at @var{old-pos} would get. (This depends on thestickiness of the @code{field} property for the characters before andafter @var{old-pos}.) If @var{escape-from-edge} is non-@code{nil},@var{new-pos} is constrained to the union of the two adjacent fields.Additionally, if two fields are separated by another field with thespecial value @code{boundary}, then any point within this special fieldis also considered to be ``on the boundary.''If the optional argument @var{only-in-line} is non-@code{nil}, andconstraining @var{new-pos} in the usual way would move it to a differentline, @var{new-pos} is returned unconstrained. This used in commandsthat move by line, such as @code{next-line} and@code{beginning-of-line}, so that they respect field boundaries only inthe case where they can still move to the right line.If the optional argument @var{inhibit-capture-property} isnon-@code{nil}, and @var{old-pos} has a non-@code{nil} property of thatname, then any field boundaries are ignored.You can cause @code{constrain-to-field} to ignore all field boundaries(and so never constrain anything) by binding the variable@code{inhibit-field-text-motion} to a non-nil value.@end defun@node Not Intervals@subsection Why Text Properties are not Intervals@cindex intervals Some editors that support adding attributes to text in the buffer doso by letting the user specify ``intervals'' within the text, and addingthe properties to the intervals. Those editors permit the user or theprogrammer to determine where individual intervals start and end. Wedeliberately provided a different sort of interface in Emacs Lisp toavoid certain paradoxical behavior associated with text modification. If the actual subdivision into intervals is meaningful, that means youcan distinguish between a buffer that is just one interval with acertain property, and a buffer containing the same text subdivided intotwo intervals, both of which have that property. Suppose you take the buffer with just one interval and kill part ofthe text. The text remaining in the buffer is one interval, and thecopy in the kill ring (and the undo list) becomes a separate interval.Then if you yank back the killed text, you get two intervals with thesame properties. Thus, editing does not preserve the distinctionbetween one interval and two. Suppose we ``fix'' this problem by coalescing the two intervals whenthe text is inserted. That works fine if the buffer originally was asingle interval. But suppose instead that we have two adjacentintervals with the same properties, and we kill the text of one intervaland yank it back. The same interval-coalescence feature that rescuesthe other case causes trouble in this one: after yanking, we have justone interval. One again, editing does not preserve the distinctionbetween one interval and two. Insertion of text at the border between intervals also raisesquestions that have no satisfactory answer. However, it is easy to arrange for editing to behave consistently forquestions of the form, ``What are the properties of this character?''So we have decided these are the only questions that make sense; we havenot implemented asking questions about where intervals start or end. In practice, you can usually use the text property search functions inplace of explicit interval boundaries. You can think of them as findingthe boundaries of intervals, assuming that intervals are alwayscoalesced whenever possible. @xref{Property Search}. Emacs also provides explicit intervals as a presentation feature; see@ref{Overlays}.@node Substitution@section Substituting for a Character Code The following functions replace characters within a specified regionbased on their character codes.@defun subst-char-in-region start end old-char new-char &optional noundo@cindex replace charactersThis function replaces all occurrences of the character @var{old-char}with the character @var{new-char} in the region of the current bufferdefined by @var{start} and @var{end}.@cindex undo avoidanceIf @var{noundo} is non-@code{nil}, then @code{subst-char-in-region} doesnot record the change for undo and does not mark the buffer as modified.This was useful for controlling the old selective display feature(@pxref{Selective Display}).@code{subst-char-in-region} does not move point and returns@code{nil}.@example@group---------- Buffer: foo ----------This is the contents of the buffer before.---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@group(subst-char-in-region 1 20 ?i ?X) @result{} nil---------- Buffer: foo ----------ThXs Xs the contents of the buffer before.---------- Buffer: foo ----------@end group@end example@end defun@defun translate-region start end tableThis function applies a translation table to the characters in thebuffer between positions @var{start} and @var{end}.The translation table @var{table} is a string; @code{(aref @var{table}@var{ochar})} gives the translated character corresponding to@var{ochar}. If the length of @var{table} is less than 256, anycharacters with codes larger than the length of @var{table} are notaltered by the translation.The return value of @code{translate-region} is the number ofcharacters that were actually changed by the translation. This doesnot count characters that were mapped into themselves in thetranslation table.@end defun@node Registers@section Registers@cindex registers A register is a sort of variable used in Emacs editing that can hold avariety of different kinds of values. Each register is named by asingle character. All @sc{ascii} characters and their meta variants(but with the exception of @kbd{C-g}) can be used to name registers.Thus, there are 255 possible registers. A register is designated inEmacs Lisp by the character that is its name.@defvar register-alistThis variable is an alist of elements of the form @code{(@var{name} .@var{contents})}. Normally, there is one element for each Emacsregister that has been used.The object @var{name} is a character (an integer) identifying theregister.@end defvar The @var{contents} of a register can have several possible types:@table @asis@item a numberA number stands for itself. If @code{insert-register} finds a numberin the register, it converts the number to decimal.@item a markerA marker represents a buffer position to jump to.@item a stringA string is text saved in the register.@item a rectangleA rectangle is represented by a list of strings.@item @code{(@var{window-configuration} @var{position})}This represents a window configuration to restore in one frame, and aposition to jump to in the current buffer.@item @code{(@var{frame-configuration} @var{position})}This represents a frame configuration to restore, and a positionto jump to in the current buffer.@item (file @var{filename})This represents a file to visit; jumping to this value visits file@var{filename}.@item (file-query @var{filename} @var{position})This represents a file to visit and a position in it; jumping to thisvalue visits file @var{filename} and goes to buffer position@var{position}. Restoring this type of position asks the user forconfirmation first.@end table The functions in this section return unpredictable values unlessotherwise stated.@defun get-register regThis function returns the contents of the register@var{reg}, or @code{nil} if it has no contents.@end defun@defun set-register reg valueThis function sets the contents of register @var{reg} to @var{value}.A register can be set to any value, but the other register functionsexpect only certain data types. The return value is @var{value}.@end defun@deffn Command view-register regThis command displays what is contained in register @var{reg}.@end deffn@ignore@deffn Command point-to-register regThis command stores both the current location of point and the currentbuffer in register @var{reg} as a marker.@end deffn@deffn Command jump-to-register reg@deffnx Command register-to-point reg@comment !!SourceFile register.elThis command restores the status recorded in register @var{reg}.If @var{reg} contains a marker, it moves point to the position stored inthe marker. Since both the buffer and the location within the bufferare stored by the @code{point-to-register} function, this command canswitch you to another buffer.If @var{reg} contains a window configuration or a frame configuration.@code{jump-to-register} restores that configuration.@end deffn@end ignore@deffn Command insert-register reg &optional beforepThis command inserts contents of register @var{reg} into the currentbuffer.Normally, this command puts point before the inserted text, and themark after it. However, if the optional second argument @var{beforep}is non-@code{nil}, it puts the mark before and point after.You can pass a non-@code{nil} second argument @var{beforep} to thisfunction interactively by supplying any prefix argument.If the register contains a rectangle, then the rectangle is insertedwith its upper left corner at point. This means that text is insertedin the current line and underneath it on successive lines.If the register contains something other than saved text (a string) ora rectangle (a list), currently useless things happen. This may bechanged in the future.@end deffn@ignore@deffn Command copy-to-register reg start end &optional delete-flagThis command copies the region from @var{start} to @var{end} intoregister @var{reg}. If @var{delete-flag} is non-@code{nil}, it deletesthe region from the buffer after copying it into the register.@end deffn@deffn Command prepend-to-register reg start end &optional delete-flagThis command prepends the region from @var{start} to @var{end} intoregister @var{reg}. If @var{delete-flag} is non-@code{nil}, it deletesthe region from the buffer after copying it to the register.@end deffn@deffn Command append-to-register reg start end &optional delete-flagThis command appends the region from @var{start} to @var{end} to thetext already in register @var{reg}. If @var{delete-flag} isnon-@code{nil}, it deletes the region from the buffer after copying itto the register.@end deffn@deffn Command copy-rectangle-to-register reg start end &optional delete-flagThis command copies a rectangular region from @var{start} to @var{end}into register @var{reg}. If @var{delete-flag} is non-@code{nil}, itdeletes the region from the buffer after copying it to the register.@end deffn@deffn Command window-configuration-to-register regThis function stores the window configuration of the selected frame inregister @var{reg}.@end deffn@deffn Command frame-configuration-to-register regThis function stores the current frame configuration in register@var{reg}.@end deffn@end ignore@node Transposition@section Transposition of Text This subroutine is used by the transposition commands.@defun transpose-regions start1 end1 start2 end2 &optional leave-markersThis function exchanges two nonoverlapping portions of the buffer.Arguments @var{start1} and @var{end1} specify the bounds of one portionand arguments @var{start2} and @var{end2} specify the bounds of theother portion.Normally, @code{transpose-regions} relocates markers with the transposedtext; a marker previously positioned within one of the two transposedportions moves along with that portion, thus remaining between the sametwo characters in their new position. However, if @var{leave-markers}is non-@code{nil}, @code{transpose-regions} does not do this---it leavesall markers unrelocated.@end defun@node Base 64@section Base 64 Encoding@cindex base 64 encoding Base 64 code is used in email to encode a sequence of 8-bit bytes asa longer sequence of @sc{ascii} graphic characters. It is defined inInternet RFC@footnote{An RFC, an acronym for @dfn{Request for Comments}, is a numberedInternet informational document describing a standard. RFCs areusually written by technical experts acting on their own initiative,and are traditionally written in a pragmatic, experience-drivenmanner.}2045. This section describes the functions forconverting to and from this code.@defun base64-encode-region beg end &optional no-line-break@tindex base64-encode-regionThis function converts the region from @var{beg} to @var{end} into base64 code. It returns the length of the encoded text. An error issignaled if a character in the region is multibyte, i.e.@: in amultibyte buffer the region must contain only characters from thecharsets @code{ascii}, @code{eight-bit-control} and@code{eight-bit-graphic}.Normally, this function inserts newline characters into the encodedtext, to avoid overlong lines. However, if the optional argument@var{no-line-break} is non-@code{nil}, these newlines are not added, sothe output is just one long line.@end defun@defun base64-encode-string string &optional no-line-break@tindex base64-encode-stringThis function converts the string @var{string} into base 64 code. Itreturns a string containing the encoded text. As for@code{base64-encode-region}, an error is signaled if a character in thestring is multibyte.Normally, this function inserts newline characters into the encodedtext, to avoid overlong lines. However, if the optional argument@var{no-line-break} is non-@code{nil}, these newlines are not added, sothe result string is just one long line.@end defun@defun base64-decode-region beg end@tindex base64-decode-regionThis function converts the region from @var{beg} to @var{end} from base64 code into the corresponding decoded text. It returns the length ofthe decoded text.The decoding functions ignore newline characters in the encoded text.@end defun@defun base64-decode-string string@tindex base64-decode-stringThis function converts the string @var{string} from base 64 code intothe corresponding decoded text. It returns a string containing thedecoded text.The decoding functions ignore newline characters in the encoded text.@end defun@node MD5 Checksum@section MD5 Checksum@cindex MD5 checksum@cindex message digest computation MD5 cryptographic checksums, or @dfn{message digests}, are 128-bit``fingerprints'' of a document or program. They are used to verifythat you have an exact and unaltered copy of the data. The algorithmto calculate the MD5 message digest is defined in InternetRFC@footnote{For an explanation of what is an RFC, see the footnote in @ref{Base64}.}1321. This section describes the Emacs facilities for computingmessage digests.@defun md5 object &optional start end coding-system noerrorThis function returns the MD5 message digest of @var{object}, whichshould be a buffer or a string.The two optional arguments @var{start} and @var{end} are characterpositions specifying the portion of @var{object} to compute themessage digest for. If they are @code{nil} or omitted, the digest iscomputed for the whole of @var{object}.The function @code{md5} does not compute the message digest directlyfrom the internal Emacs representation of the text (@pxref{TextRepresentations}). Instead, it encodes the text using a codingsystem, and computes the message digest from the encoded text. Theoptional fourth argument @var{coding-system} specifies which codingsystem to use for encoding the text. It should be the same codingsystem that you used to read the text, or that you used or will usewhen saving or sending the text. @xref{Coding Systems}, for moreinformation about coding systems.If @var{coding-system} is @code{nil} or omitted, the default dependson @var{object}. If @var{object} is a buffer, the default for@var{coding-system} is whatever coding system would be chosen bydefault for writing this text into a file. If @var{object} is astring, the user's most preferred coding system (@pxref{RecognizeCoding, prefer-coding-system, the description of@code{prefer-coding-system}, emacs, GNU Emacs Manual}) is used.Normally, @code{md5} signals an error if the text can't be encodedusing the specified or chosen coding system. However, if@var{noerror} is non-@code{nil}, it silently uses @code{raw-text}coding instead.@end defun@node Change Hooks@section Change Hooks@cindex change hooks@cindex hooks for text changes These hook variables let you arrange to take notice of all changes inall buffers (or in a particular buffer, if you make them buffer-local).See also @ref{Special Properties}, for how to detect changes to specificparts of the text. The functions you use in these hooks should save and restore the matchdata if they do anything that uses regular expressions; otherwise, theywill interfere in bizarre ways with the editing operations that callthem.@defvar before-change-functionsThis variable holds a list of functions to call before any buffermodification. Each function gets two arguments, the beginning and endof the region that is about to change, represented as integers. Thebuffer that is about to change is always the current buffer.@end defvar@defvar after-change-functionsThis variable holds a list of functions to call after any buffermodification. Each function receives three arguments: the beginning andend of the region just changed, and the length of the text that existedbefore the change. All three arguments are integers. The buffer that'sabout to change is always the current buffer.The length of the old text is the difference between the buffer positionsbefore and after that text as it was before the change. As for thechanged text, its length is simply the difference between the first twoarguments.@end defvar@defmac combine-after-change-calls body...The macro executes @var{body} normally, but arranges to call theafter-change functions just once for a series of several changes---ifthat seems safe.If a program makes several text changes in the same area of the buffer,using the macro @code{combine-after-change-calls} around that part ofthe program can make it run considerably faster when after-change hooksare in use. When the after-change hooks are ultimately called, thearguments specify a portion of the buffer including all of the changesmade within the @code{combine-after-change-calls} body.@strong{Warning:} You must not alter the values of@code{after-change-functions} withinthe body of a @code{combine-after-change-calls} form.@strong{Note:} If the changes you combine occur in widely scatteredparts of the buffer, this will still work, but it is not advisable,because it may lead to inefficient behavior for some change hookfunctions.@end defmacThe two variables above are temporarily bound to @code{nil} during thetime that any of these functions is running. This means that if one ofthese functions changes the buffer, that change won't run thesefunctions. If you do want a hook function to make changes that runthese functions, make it bind these variables back to their usualvalues.One inconvenient result of this protective feature is that you cannothave a function in @code{after-change-functions} or@code{before-change-functions} which changes the value of that variable.But that's not a real limitation. If you want those functions to changethe list of functions to run, simply add one fixed function to the hook,and code that function to look in another variable for other functionsto call. Here is an example:@example(setq my-own-after-change-functions nil)(defun indirect-after-change-function (beg end len) (let ((list my-own-after-change-functions)) (while list (funcall (car list) beg end len) (setq list (cdr list)))))@group(add-hooks 'after-change-functions 'indirect-after-change-function)@end group@end example@defvar first-change-hookThis variable is a normal hook that is run whenever a buffer is changedthat was previously in the unmodified state.@end defvar@defvar inhibit-modification-hooks@tindex inhibit-modification-hooksIf this variable is non-@code{nil}, all of the change hooks aredisabled; none of them run. This affects all the hook variablesdescribed above in this section, as well as the hooks attached tocertain special text properties (@pxref{Special Properties}) and overlayproperties (@pxref{Overlay Properties}).This variable is available starting in Emacs 21.@end defvar