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view doc/emacs/files.texi @ 99611:3f9ebb55e9ff
(Directories): Describe delete-directory in text.
(Misc File Ops): Document use of trash.
author | Chong Yidong <cyd@stupidchicken.com> |
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date | Sun, 16 Nov 2008 07:26:21 +0000 |
parents | 0847a041ddc8 |
children | a5d63b403b74 |
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@c This is part of the Emacs manual. @c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, @c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc. @c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions. @node Files, Buffers, Keyboard Macros, Top @chapter File Handling @cindex files The operating system stores data permanently in named @dfn{files}, so most of the text you edit with Emacs comes from a file and is ultimately stored in a file. To edit a file, you must tell Emacs to read the file and prepare a buffer containing a copy of the file's text. This is called @dfn{visiting} the file. Editing commands apply directly to text in the buffer; that is, to the copy inside Emacs. Your changes appear in the file itself only when you @dfn{save} the buffer back into the file. In addition to visiting and saving files, Emacs can delete, copy, rename, and append to files, keep multiple versions of them, and operate on file directories. @menu * File Names:: How to type and edit file-name arguments. * Visiting:: Visiting a file prepares Emacs to edit the file. * Saving:: Saving makes your changes permanent. * Reverting:: Reverting cancels all the changes not saved. @ifnottex * Autorevert:: Auto Reverting non-file buffers. @end ifnottex * Auto Save:: Auto Save periodically protects against loss of data. * File Aliases:: Handling multiple names for one file. * Directories:: Creating, deleting, and listing file directories. * Comparing Files:: Finding where two files differ. * Diff Mode:: Mode for editing file differences. * Misc File Ops:: Other things you can do on files. * Compressed Files:: Accessing compressed files. * File Archives:: Operating on tar, zip, jar etc. archive files. * Remote Files:: Accessing files on other sites. * Quoted File Names:: Quoting special characters in file names. * File Name Cache:: Completion against a list of files you often use. * File Conveniences:: Convenience Features for Finding Files. * Filesets:: Handling sets of files. @end menu @node File Names @section File Names @cindex file names Many Emacs commands that operate on a file require you to specify the file name, using the minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer}). You can use @dfn{completion} to specify long file names (@pxref{Completion}). Note that file name completion ignores file names whose extensions appear in the variable @code{completion-ignored-extensions} (@pxref{Completion Options}). For most operations, there is a @dfn{default file name} which is used if you type just @key{RET} to enter an empty argument. Normally, the default file name is the name of the file visited in the current buffer. @vindex default-directory @vindex insert-default-directory Each buffer has a @dfn{default directory} which is normally the same as the directory of the file visited in that buffer. For example, if the default file name is @file{/u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks}, the default directory is normally @file{/u/rms/gnu/}. The default directory is kept in the variable @code{default-directory}, which has a separate value in every buffer. When a command reads a file name using the minibuffer, the default directory usually serves as the initial contents of the minibuffer. To inhibit the insertion of the default directory, set the variable @code{insert-default-directory} to @code{nil}. If you enter a file name without a directory, that specifies a file in the default directory. If you specify a directory in a relative fashion, with a name that does not start with a slash, it is interpreted with respect to the default directory. For example, suppose the default directory is @file{/u/rms/gnu/}. Entering just @samp{foo} in the minibuffer, with a directory omitted, specifies the file @file{/u/rms/gnu/foo}; entering @samp{../.login} specifies @file{/u/rms/.login}; and entering @samp{new/foo} specifies @file{/u/rms/gnu/new/foo}. When typing a file name into the minibuffer, you can make use of a couple of shortcuts: a double slash is interpreted as ``ignore everything before the second slash in the pair,'' and @samp{~/} is interpreted as your home directory. @xref{Minibuffer File}, for more information about these shortcuts. @findex cd @findex pwd The command @kbd{M-x pwd} displays the default directory, and the command @kbd{M-x cd} sets it to a value read using the minibuffer. A buffer's default directory changes only when the @code{cd} command is used. A file-visiting buffer's default directory is initialized to the directory of the file it visits. If you create a buffer with @kbd{C-x b}, its default directory is copied from that of the buffer that was current at the time (@pxref{Select Buffer}). @cindex environment variables in file names @cindex expansion of environment variables @cindex @code{$} in file names @anchor{File Names with $}The character @samp{$} is used to substitute an environment variable into a file name. The name of the environment variable consists of all the alphanumeric characters after the @samp{$}; alternatively, it can be enclosed in braces after the @samp{$}. For example, if you have used the shell command @command{export FOO=rms/hacks} to set up an environment variable named @env{FOO}, then both @file{/u/$FOO/test.c} and @file{/u/$@{FOO@}/test.c} are abbreviations for @file{/u/rms/hacks/test.c}. If the environment variable is not defined, no substitution occurs, so that the character @samp{$} stands for itself. Note that environment variables affect Emacs only if they are applied before Emacs is started. To access a file with @samp{$} in its name, if the @samp{$} causes expansion, type @samp{$$}. This pair is converted to a single @samp{$} at the same time that variable substitution is performed for a single @samp{$}. Alternatively, quote the whole file name with @samp{/:} (@pxref{Quoted File Names}). File names which begin with a literal @samp{~} should also be quoted with @samp{/:}. You can include non-@acronym{ASCII} characters in file names if you set the variable @code{file-name-coding-system} to a non-@code{nil} value. @xref{File Name Coding}. @node Visiting @section Visiting Files @cindex visiting files @cindex open file @table @kbd @item C-x C-f Visit a file (@code{find-file}). @item C-x C-r Visit a file for viewing, without allowing changes to it (@code{find-file-read-only}). @item C-x C-v Visit a different file instead of the one visited last (@code{find-alternate-file}). @item C-x 4 f Visit a file, in another window (@code{find-file-other-window}). Don't alter what is displayed in the selected window. @item C-x 5 f Visit a file, in a new frame (@code{find-file-other-frame}). Don't alter what is displayed in the selected frame. @item M-x find-file-literally Visit a file with no conversion of the contents. @end table @cindex files, visiting and saving @cindex saving files @dfn{Visiting} a file means reading its contents into an Emacs buffer so you can edit them. Emacs makes a new buffer for each file that you visit. Emacs normally constructs the buffer name from the file name, omitting the directory name. For example, a file named @file{/usr/rms/emacs.tex} is visited in a buffer named @samp{emacs.tex}. If there is already a buffer with that name, Emacs constructs a unique name; the normal method is to append @samp{<2>}, @samp{<3>}, and so on, but you can select other methods. @xref{Uniquify}. Each window's mode line shows the name of the buffer that is being displayed in that window, so you can always tell what buffer you are editing. @pxref{Mode Line}. The changes you make with editing commands are made in the Emacs buffer. They do not take effect in the file that you visited, or any permanent place, until you @dfn{save} the buffer (@pxref{Saving}). @cindex modified (buffer) If a buffer contains changes that have not been saved, we say the buffer is @dfn{modified}. This implies that some changes will be lost if the buffer is not saved. The mode line displays two stars near the left margin to indicate that the buffer is modified. @kindex C-x C-f @findex find-file To visit a file, type @kbd{C-x C-f} (@code{find-file}) and use the minibuffer to enter the name of the desired file. The usual defaulting and completion behavior is available in this minibuffer (@pxref{Minibuffer File}). Note, also, that completion ignores certain file names (@pxref{Completion Options}). While in the minibuffer, you can abort @kbd{C-x C-f} by typing @kbd{C-g}. Your can tell that @kbd{C-x C-f} has completed successfully by the appearance of new text on the screen and a new buffer name in the mode line. If the specified file does not exist and you could not create it, or exists but you can't read it, an error message is displayed in the echo area. If you visit a file that is already in Emacs, @kbd{C-x C-f} does not make another copy. It selects the existing buffer containing that file. However, before doing so, it checks whether the file itself has changed since you visited or saved it last. If the file has changed, Emacs offers to reread it. @vindex large-file-warning-threshold @cindex maximum buffer size exceeded, error message If you try to visit a file larger than @code{large-file-warning-threshold} (the default is 10000000, which is about 10 megabytes), Emacs asks you for confirmation first. You can answer @kbd{y} to proceed with visiting the file. Note, however, that Emacs cannot visit files that are larger than the maximum Emacs buffer size, which is around 256 megabytes on 32-bit machines (@pxref{Buffers}). If you try, Emacs will display an error message saying that the maximum buffer size has been exceeded. @cindex wildcard characters in file names @vindex find-file-wildcards If the file name you specify contains shell-style wildcard characters, Emacs visits all the files that match it. (On case-insensitive filesystems, Emacs matches the wildcards disregarding the letter case.) Wildcards include @samp{?}, @samp{*}, and @samp{[@dots{}]} sequences. To enter the wild card @samp{?} in a file name in the minibuffer, you need to type @kbd{C-q ?}. @xref{Quoted File Names}, for information on how to visit a file whose name actually contains wildcard characters. You can disable the wildcard feature by customizing @code{find-file-wildcards}. @cindex file selection dialog On graphical displays, there are two additional methods for visiting files. Firstly, when Emacs is built with a suitable GUI toolkit, commands invoked with the mouse (by clicking on the menu bar or tool bar) use the toolkit's standard ``File Selection'' dialog instead of prompting for the file name in the minibuffer. On GNU/Linux and Unix platforms, Emacs does this when built with GTK, LessTif, and Motif toolkits; on MS-Windows and Mac, the GUI version does that by default. For information on how to customize this, see @ref{Dialog Boxes}. Secondly, Emacs supports ``drag and drop'': dropping a file into an ordinary Emacs window visits the file using that window. As an exception, dropping a file into a window displaying a Dired buffer moves or copies the file into the displayed directory. For details, see @ref{Drag and Drop}, and @ref{Misc Dired Features}. @cindex creating files @vindex find-file-confirm-nonexistent-file What if you want to create a new file? Just visit it. Emacs displays @samp{(New file)} in the echo area, but in other respects behaves as if you had visited an existing empty file. If you make changes and save them, the file is created. If you change the variable @code{find-file-confirm-nonexistent-file} to @code{t}, then Emacs prompts you for confirmation before visiting a non-existent file. @kindex C-x C-v @findex find-alternate-file If you visit a nonexistent file unintentionally (because you typed the wrong file name), type @kbd{C-x C-v} (@code{find-alternate-file}) to visit the file you really wanted. @kbd{C-x C-v} is similar to @kbd{C-x C-f}, but it kills the current buffer (after first offering to save it if it is modified). When @kbd{C-x C-v} reads the file name to visit, it inserts the entire default file name in the buffer, with point just after the directory part; this is convenient if you made a slight error in typing the name. @vindex find-file-run-dired If you ``visit'' a file that is actually a directory, Emacs invokes Dired, the Emacs directory browser; this lets you you ``edit'' the contents of the directory. @xref{Dired}. You can disable this behavior by setting the variable @code{find-file-run-dired} to @code{nil}; in that case, it is an error to try to visit a directory. Files which are actually collections of other files, or @dfn{file archives}, are visited in special modes which invoke a Dired-like environment to allow operations on archive members. @xref{File Archives}, for more about these features. If you visit a file that the operating system won't let you modify, or that is marked read-only, Emacs makes the buffer read-only too, so that you won't go ahead and make changes that you'll have trouble saving afterward. You can make the buffer writable with @kbd{C-x C-q} (@code{toggle-read-only}). @xref{Misc Buffer}. @kindex C-x C-r @findex find-file-read-only If you want to visit a file as read-only in order to protect yourself from entering changes accidentally, visit it with the command @kbd{C-x C-r} (@code{find-file-read-only}) instead of @kbd{C-x C-f}. @kindex C-x 4 f @findex find-file-other-window @kbd{C-x 4 f} (@code{find-file-other-window}) is like @kbd{C-x C-f} except that the buffer containing the specified file is selected in another window. The window that was selected before @kbd{C-x 4 f} continues to show the same buffer it was already showing. If this command is used when only one window is being displayed, that window is split in two, with one window showing the same buffer as before, and the other one showing the newly requested file. @xref{Windows}. @kindex C-x 5 f @findex find-file-other-frame @kbd{C-x 5 f} (@code{find-file-other-frame}) is similar, but opens a new frame, or makes visible any existing frame showing the file you seek. This feature is available only when you are using a window system. @xref{Frames}. Emacs recognizes from the contents of a file which end-of-line convention it uses to separate lines---newline (used on GNU/Linux and on Unix), carriage-return linefeed (used on Microsoft systems), or just carriage-return (used on the Macintosh)---and automatically converts the contents to the normal Emacs convention, which is that the newline character separates lines. This is a part of the general feature of coding system conversion (@pxref{Coding Systems}), and makes it possible to edit files imported from different operating systems with equal convenience. If you change the text and save the file, Emacs performs the inverse conversion, changing newlines back into carriage-return linefeed or just carriage-return if appropriate. @findex find-file-literally If you wish to edit a file as a sequence of @acronym{ASCII} characters with no special encoding or conversion, use the @kbd{M-x find-file-literally} command. This visits a file, like @kbd{C-x C-f}, but does not do format conversion (@pxref{Formatted Text}), character code conversion (@pxref{Coding Systems}), or automatic uncompression (@pxref{Compressed Files}), and does not add a final newline because of @code{require-final-newline} (@pxref{Customize Save}). If you have already visited the same file in the usual (non-literal) manner, this command asks you whether to visit it literally instead. @vindex find-file-hook @vindex find-file-not-found-functions Two special hook variables allow extensions to modify the operation of visiting files. Visiting a file that does not exist runs the functions in the list @code{find-file-not-found-functions}; this variable holds a list of functions, and the functions are called one by one (with no arguments) until one of them returns non-@code{nil}. This is not a normal hook, and the name ends in @samp{-functions} rather than @samp{-hook} to indicate that fact. Successful visiting of any file, whether existing or not, calls the functions in the list @code{find-file-hook}, with no arguments. This variable is a normal hook. In the case of a nonexistent file, the @code{find-file-not-found-functions} are run first. @xref{Hooks}. There are several ways to specify automatically the major mode for editing the file (@pxref{Choosing Modes}), and to specify local variables defined for that file (@pxref{File Variables}). @node Saving @section Saving Files @dfn{Saving} a buffer in Emacs means writing its contents back into the file that was visited in the buffer. @menu * Save Commands:: Commands for saving files. * Backup:: How Emacs saves the old version of your file. * Customize Save:: Customizing the saving of files. * Interlocking:: How Emacs protects against simultaneous editing of one file by two users. * Shadowing: File Shadowing. Copying files to "shadows" automatically. * Time Stamps:: Emacs can update time stamps on saved files. @end menu @node Save Commands @subsection Commands for Saving Files These are the commands that relate to saving and writing files. @table @kbd @item C-x C-s Save the current buffer in its visited file on disk (@code{save-buffer}). @item C-x s Save any or all buffers in their visited files (@code{save-some-buffers}). @item M-~ Forget that the current buffer has been changed (@code{not-modified}). With prefix argument (@kbd{C-u}), mark the current buffer as changed. @item C-x C-w Save the current buffer with a specified file name (@code{write-file}). @item M-x set-visited-file-name Change the file name under which the current buffer will be saved. @end table @kindex C-x C-s @findex save-buffer When you wish to save the file and make your changes permanent, type @kbd{C-x C-s} (@code{save-buffer}). After saving is finished, @kbd{C-x C-s} displays a message like this: @example Wrote /u/rms/gnu/gnu.tasks @end example @noindent If the selected buffer is not modified (no changes have been made in it since the buffer was created or last saved), saving is not really done, because it would have no effect. Instead, @kbd{C-x C-s} displays a message like this in the echo area: @example (No changes need to be saved) @end example With a prefix argument, @kbd{C-u C-x C-s}, Emacs also marks the buffer to be backed up when the next save is done. @xref{Backup}. @kindex C-x s @findex save-some-buffers The command @kbd{C-x s} (@code{save-some-buffers}) offers to save any or all modified buffers. It asks you what to do with each buffer. The possible responses are analogous to those of @code{query-replace}: @table @kbd @item y Save this buffer and ask about the rest of the buffers. @item n Don't save this buffer, but ask about the rest of the buffers. @item ! Save this buffer and all the rest with no more questions. @c following generates acceptable underfull hbox @item @key{RET} Terminate @code{save-some-buffers} without any more saving. @item . Save this buffer, then exit @code{save-some-buffers} without even asking about other buffers. @item C-r View the buffer that you are currently being asked about. When you exit View mode, you get back to @code{save-some-buffers}, which asks the question again. @item d Diff the buffer against its corresponding file, so you can see what changes you would be saving. @item C-h Display a help message about these options. @end table @kbd{C-x C-c}, the key sequence to exit Emacs, invokes @code{save-some-buffers} and therefore asks the same questions. @kindex M-~ @findex not-modified If you have changed a buffer but do not wish to save the changes, you should take some action to prevent it. Otherwise, each time you use @kbd{C-x s} or @kbd{C-x C-c}, you are liable to save this buffer by mistake. One thing you can do is type @kbd{M-~} (@code{not-modified}), which clears out the indication that the buffer is modified. If you do this, none of the save commands will believe that the buffer needs to be saved. (@samp{~} is often used as a mathematical symbol for `not'; thus @kbd{M-~} is `not', metafied.) Alternatively, you can cancel all the changes made since the file was visited or saved, by reading the text from the file again. This is called @dfn{reverting}. @xref{Reverting}. (You could also undo all the changes by repeating the undo command @kbd{C-x u} until you have undone all the changes; but reverting is easier.) @findex set-visited-file-name @kbd{M-x set-visited-file-name} alters the name of the file that the current buffer is visiting. It reads the new file name using the minibuffer. Then it marks the buffer as visiting that file name, and changes the buffer name correspondingly. @code{set-visited-file-name} does not save the buffer in the newly visited file; it just alters the records inside Emacs in case you do save later. It also marks the buffer as ``modified'' so that @kbd{C-x C-s} in that buffer @emph{will} save. @kindex C-x C-w @findex write-file If you wish to mark the buffer as visiting a different file and save it right away, use @kbd{C-x C-w} (@code{write-file}). This is equivalent to @code{set-visited-file-name} followed by @kbd{C-x C-s}, except that @kbd{C-x C-w} asks for confirmation if the file exists. @kbd{C-x C-s} used on a buffer that is not visiting a file has the same effect as @kbd{C-x C-w}; that is, it reads a file name, marks the buffer as visiting that file, and saves it there. The default file name in a buffer that is not visiting a file is made by combining the buffer name with the buffer's default directory (@pxref{File Names}). If the new file name implies a major mode, then @kbd{C-x C-w} switches to that major mode, in most cases. The command @code{set-visited-file-name} also does this. @xref{Choosing Modes}. If Emacs is about to save a file and sees that the date of the latest version on disk does not match what Emacs last read or wrote, Emacs notifies you of this fact, because it probably indicates a problem caused by simultaneous editing and requires your immediate attention. @xref{Interlocking,, Simultaneous Editing}. @node Backup @subsection Backup Files @cindex backup file @vindex make-backup-files @vindex vc-make-backup-files On most operating systems, rewriting a file automatically destroys all record of what the file used to contain. Thus, saving a file from Emacs throws away the old contents of the file---or it would, except that Emacs carefully copies the old contents to another file, called the @dfn{backup} file, before actually saving. Emacs makes a backup for a file only the first time the file is saved from a buffer. No matter how many times you subsequently save the file, its backup remains unchanged. However, if you kill the buffer and then visit the file again, a new backup file will be made. For most files, the variable @code{make-backup-files} determines whether to make backup files. On most operating systems, its default value is @code{t}, so that Emacs does write backup files. For files managed by a version control system (@pxref{Version Control}), the variable @code{vc-make-backup-files} determines whether to make backup files. By default it is @code{nil}, since backup files are redundant when you store all the previous versions in a version control system. @iftex @xref{General VC Options,,,emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}. @end iftex @ifnottex @xref{General VC Options}. @end ifnottex At your option, Emacs can keep either a single backup for each file, or make a series of numbered backup files for each file that you edit. @xref{Backup Names}. @vindex backup-enable-predicate @vindex temporary-file-directory @vindex small-temporary-file-directory The default value of the @code{backup-enable-predicate} variable prevents backup files being written for files in the directories used for temporary files, specified by @code{temporary-file-directory} or @code{small-temporary-file-directory}. You can explicitly tell Emacs to make another backup file from a buffer, even though that buffer has been saved before. If you save the buffer with @kbd{C-u C-x C-s}, the version thus saved will be made into a backup file if you save the buffer again. @kbd{C-u C-u C-x C-s} saves the buffer, but first makes the previous file contents into a new backup file. @kbd{C-u C-u C-u C-x C-s} does both things: it makes a backup from the previous contents, and arranges to make another from the newly saved contents if you save again. @menu * Names: Backup Names. How backup files are named. * Deletion: Backup Deletion. Emacs deletes excess numbered backups. * Copying: Backup Copying. Backups can be made by copying or renaming. @end menu @node Backup Names @subsubsection Single or Numbered Backups When Emacs makes a backup file, its name is normally constructed by appending @samp{~} to the file name being edited; thus, the backup file for @file{eval.c} would be @file{eval.c~}. If access control stops Emacs from writing backup files under the usual names, it writes the backup file as @file{%backup%~} in your home directory. Only one such file can exist, so only the most recently made such backup is available. Emacs can also make @dfn{numbered backup files}. Numbered backup file names contain @samp{.~}, the number, and another @samp{~} after the original file name. Thus, the backup files of @file{eval.c} would be called @file{eval.c.~1~}, @file{eval.c.~2~}, and so on, all the way through names like @file{eval.c.~259~} and beyond. @vindex version-control The variable @code{version-control} determines whether to make single backup files or multiple numbered backup files. Its possible values are: @table @code @item nil Make numbered backups for files that have numbered backups already. Otherwise, make single backups. This is the default. @item t Make numbered backups. @item never Never make numbered backups; always make single backups. @end table @noindent The usual way to set this variable is globally, through your @file{.emacs} file or the customization buffer. However, you can set @code{version-control} locally in an individual buffer to control the making of backups for that buffer's file (@pxref{Locals}). You can have Emacs set @code{version-control} locally whenever you visit a given file (@pxref{File Variables}). Some modes, such as Rmail mode, set this variable. @cindex @env{VERSION_CONTROL} environment variable If you set the environment variable @env{VERSION_CONTROL}, to tell various GNU utilities what to do with backup files, Emacs also obeys the environment variable by setting the Lisp variable @code{version-control} accordingly at startup. If the environment variable's value is @samp{t} or @samp{numbered}, then @code{version-control} becomes @code{t}; if the value is @samp{nil} or @samp{existing}, then @code{version-control} becomes @code{nil}; if it is @samp{never} or @samp{simple}, then @code{version-control} becomes @code{never}. @vindex backup-directory-alist You can customize the variable @code{backup-directory-alist} to specify that files matching certain patterns should be backed up in specific directories. This variable applies to both single and numbered backups. A typical use is to add an element @code{("." . @var{dir})} to make all backups in the directory with absolute name @var{dir}; Emacs modifies the backup file names to avoid clashes between files with the same names originating in different directories. Alternatively, adding, @code{("." . ".~")} would make backups in the invisible subdirectory @file{.~} of the original file's directory. Emacs creates the directory, if necessary, to make the backup. @vindex make-backup-file-name-function If you define the variable @code{make-backup-file-name-function} to a suitable Lisp function, that overrides the usual way Emacs constructs backup file names. @node Backup Deletion @subsubsection Automatic Deletion of Backups To prevent excessive consumption of disk space, Emacs can delete numbered backup versions automatically. Generally Emacs keeps the first few backups and the latest few backups, deleting any in between. This happens every time a new backup is made. @vindex kept-old-versions @vindex kept-new-versions The two variables @code{kept-old-versions} and @code{kept-new-versions} control this deletion. Their values are, respectively, the number of oldest (lowest-numbered) backups to keep and the number of newest (highest-numbered) ones to keep, each time a new backup is made. The backups in the middle (excluding those oldest and newest) are the excess middle versions---those backups are deleted. These variables' values are used when it is time to delete excess versions, just after a new backup version is made; the newly made backup is included in the count in @code{kept-new-versions}. By default, both variables are 2. @vindex delete-old-versions If @code{delete-old-versions} is @code{t}, Emacs deletes the excess backup files silently. If it is @code{nil}, the default, Emacs asks you whether it should delete the excess backup versions. If it has any other value, then Emacs never automatically deletes backups. Dired's @kbd{.} (Period) command can also be used to delete old versions. @xref{Dired Deletion}. @node Backup Copying @subsubsection Copying vs.@: Renaming Backup files can be made by copying the old file or by renaming it. This makes a difference when the old file has multiple names (hard links). If the old file is renamed into the backup file, then the alternate names become names for the backup file. If the old file is copied instead, then the alternate names remain names for the file that you are editing, and the contents accessed by those names will be the new contents. The method of making a backup file may also affect the file's owner and group. If copying is used, these do not change. If renaming is used, you become the file's owner, and the file's group becomes the default (different operating systems have different defaults for the group). Having the owner change is usually a good idea, because then the owner always shows who last edited the file. Also, the owners of the backups show who produced those versions. Occasionally there is a file whose owner should not change; it is a good idea for such files to contain local variable lists to set @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} locally (@pxref{File Variables}). @vindex backup-by-copying @vindex backup-by-copying-when-linked @vindex backup-by-copying-when-mismatch @vindex backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch @cindex file ownership, and backup @cindex backup, and user-id The choice of renaming or copying is controlled by four variables. Renaming is the default choice. If the variable @code{backup-by-copying} is non-@code{nil}, copying is used. Otherwise, if the variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-linked} is non-@code{nil}, then copying is used for files that have multiple names, but renaming may still be used when the file being edited has only one name. If the variable @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is non-@code{nil}, then copying is used if renaming would cause the file's owner or group to change. @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} is @code{t} by default if you start Emacs as the superuser. The fourth variable, @code{backup-by-copying-when-privileged-mismatch}, gives the highest numeric user-id for which @code{backup-by-copying-when-mismatch} will be forced on. This is useful when low-numbered user-ids are assigned to special system users, such as @code{root}, @code{bin}, @code{daemon}, etc., which must maintain ownership of files. When a file is managed with a version control system (@pxref{Version Control}), Emacs does not normally make backups in the usual way for that file. But check-in and check-out are similar in some ways to making backups. One unfortunate similarity is that these operations typically break hard links, disconnecting the file name you visited from any alternate names for the same file. This has nothing to do with Emacs---the version control system does it. @node Customize Save @subsection Customizing Saving of Files @vindex require-final-newline If the value of the variable @code{require-final-newline} is @code{t}, saving or writing a file silently puts a newline at the end if there isn't already one there. If the value is @code{visit}, Emacs adds a newline at the end of any file that doesn't have one, just after it visits the file. (This marks the buffer as modified, and you can undo it.) If the value is @code{visit-save}, that means to add newlines both on visiting and on saving. If the value is @code{nil}, Emacs leaves the end of the file unchanged; if it's neither @code{nil} nor @code{t}, Emacs asks you whether to add a newline. The default is @code{nil}. @vindex mode-require-final-newline Many major modes are designed for specific kinds of files that are always supposed to end in newlines. These major modes set the variable @code{require-final-newline} according to @code{mode-require-final-newline}. By setting the latter variable, you can control how these modes handle final newlines. @vindex write-region-inhibit-fsync When Emacs saves a file, it invokes the @code{fsync} system call to force the data immediately out to disk. This is important for safety if the system crashes or in case of power outage. However, it can be disruptive on laptops using power saving, because it requires the disk to spin up each time you save a file. Setting @code{write-region-inhibit-fsync} to a non-@code{nil} value disables this synchronization. Be careful---this means increased risk of data loss. @node Interlocking @subsection Protection against Simultaneous Editing @cindex file dates @cindex simultaneous editing Simultaneous editing occurs when two users visit the same file, both make changes, and then both save them. If nobody were informed that this was happening, whichever user saved first would later find that his changes were lost. On some systems, Emacs notices immediately when the second user starts to change the file, and issues an immediate warning. On all systems, Emacs checks when you save the file, and warns if you are about to overwrite another user's changes. You can prevent loss of the other user's work by taking the proper corrective action instead of saving the file. @findex ask-user-about-lock @cindex locking files When you make the first modification in an Emacs buffer that is visiting a file, Emacs records that the file is @dfn{locked} by you. (It does this by creating a specially-named symbolic link in the same directory.) Emacs removes the lock when you save the changes. The idea is that the file is locked whenever an Emacs buffer visiting it has unsaved changes. @cindex collision If you begin to modify the buffer while the visited file is locked by someone else, this constitutes a @dfn{collision}. When Emacs detects a collision, it asks you what to do, by calling the Lisp function @code{ask-user-about-lock}. You can redefine this function for the sake of customization. The standard definition of this function asks you a question and accepts three possible answers: @table @kbd @item s Steal the lock. Whoever was already changing the file loses the lock, and you gain the lock. @item p Proceed. Go ahead and edit the file despite its being locked by someone else. @item q Quit. This causes an error (@code{file-locked}), and the buffer contents remain unchanged---the modification you were trying to make does not actually take place. @end table Note that locking works on the basis of a file name; if a file has multiple names, Emacs does not realize that the two names are the same file and cannot prevent two users from editing it simultaneously under different names. However, basing locking on names means that Emacs can interlock the editing of new files that will not really exist until they are saved. Some systems are not configured to allow Emacs to make locks, and there are cases where lock files cannot be written. In these cases, Emacs cannot detect trouble in advance, but it still can detect the collision when you try to save a file and overwrite someone else's changes. Every time Emacs saves a buffer, it first checks the last-modification date of the existing file on disk to verify that it has not changed since the file was last visited or saved. If the date does not match, it implies that changes were made in the file in some other way, and these changes are about to be lost if Emacs actually does save. To prevent this, Emacs displays a warning message and asks for confirmation before saving. Occasionally you will know why the file was changed and know that it does not matter; then you can answer @kbd{yes} and proceed. Otherwise, you should cancel the save with @kbd{C-g} and investigate the situation. If Emacs or the operating system crashes, this may leave behind lock files which are stale, so you may occasionally get warnings about spurious collisions. When you determine that the collision is spurious, just use @kbd{p} to tell Emacs to go ahead anyway. The first thing you should do when notified that simultaneous editing has already taken place is to list the directory with @kbd{C-u C-x C-d} (@pxref{Directories}). This shows the file's current author. You should attempt to contact him to warn him not to continue editing. Often the next step is to save the contents of your Emacs buffer under a different name, and use @code{diff} to compare the two files.@refill @node File Shadowing @subsection Shadowing Files @cindex shadow files @cindex file shadows @findex shadow-initialize @table @kbd @item M-x shadow-initialize Set up file shadowing. @item M-x shadow-define-literal-group Declare a single file to be shared between sites. @item M-x shadow-define-regexp-group Make all files that match each of a group of files be shared between hosts. @item M-x shadow-define-cluster @key{RET} @var{name} @key{RET} Define a shadow file cluster @var{name}. @item M-x shadow-copy-files Copy all pending shadow files. @item M-x shadow-cancel Cancel the instruction to shadow some files. @end table You can arrange to keep identical @dfn{shadow} copies of certain files in more than one place---possibly on different machines. To do this, first you must set up a @dfn{shadow file group}, which is a set of identically-named files shared between a list of sites. The file group is permanent and applies to further Emacs sessions as well as the current one. Once the group is set up, every time you exit Emacs, it will copy the file you edited to the other files in its group. You can also do the copying without exiting Emacs, by typing @kbd{M-x shadow-copy-files}. To set up a shadow file group, use @kbd{M-x shadow-define-literal-group} or @kbd{M-x shadow-define-regexp-group}. See their documentation strings for further information. Before copying a file to its shadows, Emacs asks for confirmation. You can answer ``no'' to bypass copying of this file, this time. If you want to cancel the shadowing permanently for a certain file, use @kbd{M-x shadow-cancel} to eliminate or change the shadow file group. A @dfn{shadow cluster} is a group of hosts that share directories, so that copying to or from one of them is sufficient to update the file on all of them. Each shadow cluster has a name, and specifies the network address of a primary host (the one we copy files to), and a regular expression that matches the host names of all the other hosts in the cluster. You can define a shadow cluster with @kbd{M-x shadow-define-cluster}. @node Time Stamps @subsection Updating Time Stamps Automatically @cindex time stamps @cindex modification dates @cindex locale, date format You can arrange to put a time stamp in a file, so that it will be updated automatically each time you edit and save the file. The time stamp has to be in the first eight lines of the file, and you should insert it like this: @example Time-stamp: <> @end example @noindent or like this: @example Time-stamp: " " @end example @findex time-stamp Then add the hook function @code{time-stamp} to the hook @code{before-save-hook}; that hook function will automatically update the time stamp, inserting the current date and time when you save the file. You can also use the command @kbd{M-x time-stamp} to update the time stamp manually. For other customizations, see the Custom group @code{time-stamp}. Note that non-numeric fields in the time stamp are formatted according to your locale setting (@pxref{Environment}). @node Reverting @section Reverting a Buffer @findex revert-buffer @cindex drastic changes @cindex reread a file If you have made extensive changes to a file and then change your mind about them, you can get rid of them by reading in the previous version of the file. To do this, use @kbd{M-x revert-buffer}, which operates on the current buffer. Since reverting a buffer unintentionally could lose a lot of work, you must confirm this command with @kbd{yes}. @code{revert-buffer} tries to position point in such a way that, if the file was edited only slightly, you will be at approximately the same piece of text after reverting as before. However, if you have made drastic changes, point may wind up in a totally different piece of text. Reverting marks the buffer as ``not modified''. Some kinds of buffers that are not associated with files, such as Dired buffers, can also be reverted. For them, reverting means recalculating their contents. Buffers created explicitly with @kbd{C-x b} cannot be reverted; @code{revert-buffer} reports an error if you try. @vindex revert-without-query When you edit a file that changes automatically and frequently---for example, a log of output from a process that continues to run---it may be useful for Emacs to revert the file without querying you. To request this behavior, set the variable @code{revert-without-query} to a list of regular expressions. When a file name matches one of these regular expressions, @code{find-file} and @code{revert-buffer} will revert it automatically if it has changed---provided the buffer itself is not modified. (If you have edited the text, it would be wrong to discard your changes.) @cindex Global Auto-Revert mode @cindex mode, Global Auto-Revert @cindex Auto-Revert mode @cindex mode, Auto-Revert @findex global-auto-revert-mode @findex auto-revert-mode @findex auto-revert-tail-mode @vindex auto-revert-interval In addition, you can tell Emacs to periodically revert a buffer by typing @kbd{M-x auto-revert-mode}. This turns on Auto-Revert mode, a minor mode that makes Emacs automatically revert the current buffer every five seconds. You can change this interval through the variable @code{auto-revert-interval}. Typing @kbd{M-x global-auto-revert-mode} enables Global Auto-Revert mode, which does the same for all file buffers. Auto-Revert mode and Global Auto-Revert modes do not check or revert remote files, because that is usually too slow. One use of Auto-Revert mode is to ``tail'' a file such as a system log, so that changes made to that file by other programs are continuously displayed. To do this, just move the point to the end of the buffer, and it will stay there as the file contents change. However, if you are sure that the file will only change by growing at the end, use Auto-Revert Tail mode instead (@code{auto-revert-tail-mode}). It is more efficient for this. @xref{VC Mode Line}, for Auto Revert peculiarities in buffers that visit files under version control. @ifnottex @include arevert-xtra.texi @end ifnottex @node Auto Save @section Auto-Saving: Protection Against Disasters @cindex Auto Save mode @cindex mode, Auto Save @cindex crashes From time to time, Emacs automatically saves each visited file in a separate file, without altering the file you actually use. This is called @dfn{auto-saving}. It prevents you from losing more than a limited amount of work if the system crashes. When Emacs determines that it is time for auto-saving, it considers each buffer, and each is auto-saved if auto-saving is enabled for it and it has been changed since the last time it was auto-saved. The message @samp{Auto-saving...} is displayed in the echo area during auto-saving, if any files are actually auto-saved. Errors occurring during auto-saving are caught so that they do not interfere with the execution of commands you have been typing. @menu * Files: Auto Save Files. The file where auto-saved changes are actually made until you save the file. * Control: Auto Save Control. Controlling when and how often to auto-save. * Recover:: Recovering text from auto-save files. @end menu @node Auto Save Files @subsection Auto-Save Files Auto-saving does not normally save in the files that you visited, because it can be very undesirable to save a change that you did not want to make permanent. Instead, auto-saving is done in a different file called the @dfn{auto-save file}, and the visited file is changed only when you request saving explicitly (such as with @kbd{C-x C-s}). Normally, the auto-save file name is made by appending @samp{#} to the front and rear of the visited file name. Thus, a buffer visiting file @file{foo.c} is auto-saved in a file @file{#foo.c#}. Most buffers that are not visiting files are auto-saved only if you request it explicitly; when they are auto-saved, the auto-save file name is made by appending @samp{#} to the front and rear of buffer name, then adding digits and letters at the end for uniqueness. For example, the @samp{*mail*} buffer in which you compose messages to be sent might be auto-saved in a file named @file{#*mail*#704juu}. Auto-save file names are made this way unless you reprogram parts of Emacs to do something different (the functions @code{make-auto-save-file-name} and @code{auto-save-file-name-p}). The file name to be used for auto-saving in a buffer is calculated when auto-saving is turned on in that buffer. @cindex auto-save for remote files @vindex auto-save-file-name-transforms The variable @code{auto-save-file-name-transforms} allows a degree of control over the auto-save file name. It lets you specify a series of regular expressions and replacements to transform the auto save file name. The default value puts the auto-save files for remote files (@pxref{Remote Files}) into the temporary file directory on the local machine. When you delete a substantial part of the text in a large buffer, auto save turns off temporarily in that buffer. This is because if you deleted the text unintentionally, you might find the auto-save file more useful if it contains the deleted text. To reenable auto-saving after this happens, save the buffer with @kbd{C-x C-s}, or use @kbd{C-u 1 M-x auto-save-mode}. @vindex auto-save-visited-file-name If you want auto-saving to be done in the visited file rather than in a separate auto-save file, set the variable @code{auto-save-visited-file-name} to a non-@code{nil} value. In this mode, there is no real difference between auto-saving and explicit saving. @vindex delete-auto-save-files A buffer's auto-save file is deleted when you save the buffer in its visited file. (You can inhibit this by setting the variable @code{delete-auto-save-files} to @code{nil}.) Changing the visited file name with @kbd{C-x C-w} or @code{set-visited-file-name} renames any auto-save file to go with the new visited name. @node Auto Save Control @subsection Controlling Auto-Saving @vindex auto-save-default @findex auto-save-mode Each time you visit a file, auto-saving is turned on for that file's buffer if the variable @code{auto-save-default} is non-@code{nil} (but not in batch mode; @pxref{Entering Emacs}). The default for this variable is @code{t}, so auto-saving is the usual practice for file-visiting buffers. Auto-saving can be turned on or off for any existing buffer with the command @kbd{M-x auto-save-mode}. Like other minor mode commands, @kbd{M-x auto-save-mode} turns auto-saving on with a positive argument, off with a zero or negative argument; with no argument, it toggles. @vindex auto-save-interval Emacs does auto-saving periodically based on counting how many characters you have typed since the last time auto-saving was done. The variable @code{auto-save-interval} specifies how many characters there are between auto-saves. By default, it is 300. Emacs doesn't accept values that are too small: if you customize @code{auto-save-interval} to a value less than 20, Emacs will behave as if the value is 20. @vindex auto-save-timeout Auto-saving also takes place when you stop typing for a while. The variable @code{auto-save-timeout} says how many seconds Emacs should wait before it does an auto save (and perhaps also a garbage collection). (The actual time period is longer if the current buffer is long; this is a heuristic which aims to keep out of your way when you are editing long buffers, in which auto-save takes an appreciable amount of time.) Auto-saving during idle periods accomplishes two things: first, it makes sure all your work is saved if you go away from the terminal for a while; second, it may avoid some auto-saving while you are actually typing. Emacs also does auto-saving whenever it gets a fatal error. This includes killing the Emacs job with a shell command such as @samp{kill %emacs}, or disconnecting a phone line or network connection. @findex do-auto-save You can request an auto-save explicitly with the command @kbd{M-x do-auto-save}. @node Recover @subsection Recovering Data from Auto-Saves @findex recover-file You can use the contents of an auto-save file to recover from a loss of data with the command @kbd{M-x recover-file @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET}}. This visits @var{file} and then (after your confirmation) restores the contents from its auto-save file @file{#@var{file}#}. You can then save with @kbd{C-x C-s} to put the recovered text into @var{file} itself. For example, to recover file @file{foo.c} from its auto-save file @file{#foo.c#}, do:@refill @example M-x recover-file @key{RET} foo.c @key{RET} yes @key{RET} C-x C-s @end example Before asking for confirmation, @kbd{M-x recover-file} displays a directory listing describing the specified file and the auto-save file, so you can compare their sizes and dates. If the auto-save file is older, @kbd{M-x recover-file} does not offer to read it. @findex recover-session If Emacs or the computer crashes, you can recover all the files you were editing from their auto save files with the command @kbd{M-x recover-session}. This first shows you a list of recorded interrupted sessions. Move point to the one you choose, and type @kbd{C-c C-c}. Then @code{recover-session} asks about each of the files that were being edited during that session, asking whether to recover that file. If you answer @kbd{y}, it calls @code{recover-file}, which works in its normal fashion. It shows the dates of the original file and its auto-save file, and asks once again whether to recover that file. When @code{recover-session} is done, the files you've chosen to recover are present in Emacs buffers. You should then save them. Only this---saving them---updates the files themselves. @vindex auto-save-list-file-prefix Emacs records information about interrupted sessions for later recovery in files named @file{~/.emacs.d/auto-save-list/.saves-@var{pid}-@var{hostname}}. The directory used, @file{~/.emacs.d/auto-save-list/}, is determined by the variable @code{auto-save-list-file-prefix}. You can record sessions in a different place by customizing that variable. If you set @code{auto-save-list-file-prefix} to @code{nil} in your @file{.emacs} file, sessions are not recorded for recovery. @node File Aliases @section File Name Aliases @cindex symbolic links (visiting) @cindex hard links (visiting) Symbolic links and hard links both make it possible for several file names to refer to the same file. Hard links are alternate names that refer directly to the file; all the names are equally valid, and no one of them is preferred. By contrast, a symbolic link is a kind of defined alias: when @file{foo} is a symbolic link to @file{bar}, you can use either name to refer to the file, but @file{bar} is the real name, while @file{foo} is just an alias. More complex cases occur when symbolic links point to directories. @vindex find-file-existing-other-name @vindex find-file-suppress-same-file-warnings Normally, if you visit a file which Emacs is already visiting under a different name, Emacs displays a message in the echo area and uses the existing buffer visiting that file. This can happen on systems that support hard or symbolic links, or if you use a long file name on a system that truncates long file names, or on a case-insensitive file system. You can suppress the message by setting the variable @code{find-file-suppress-same-file-warnings} to a non-@code{nil} value. You can disable this feature entirely by setting the variable @code{find-file-existing-other-name} to @code{nil}: then if you visit the same file under two different names, you get a separate buffer for each file name. @vindex find-file-visit-truename @cindex truenames of files @cindex file truenames If the variable @code{find-file-visit-truename} is non-@code{nil}, then the file name recorded for a buffer is the file's @dfn{truename} (made by replacing all symbolic links with their target names), rather than the name you specify. Setting @code{find-file-visit-truename} also implies the effect of @code{find-file-existing-other-name}. @node Directories @section File Directories @cindex file directory @cindex directory listing The file system groups files into @dfn{directories}. A @dfn{directory listing} is a list of all the files in a directory. Emacs provides commands to create and delete directories, and to make directory listings in brief format (file names only) and verbose format (sizes, dates, and authors included). Emacs also includes a directory browser feature called Dired; see @ref{Dired}. @table @kbd @item C-x C-d @var{dir-or-pattern} @key{RET} Display a brief directory listing (@code{list-directory}). @item C-u C-x C-d @var{dir-or-pattern} @key{RET} Display a verbose directory listing. @item M-x make-directory @key{RET} @var{dirname} @key{RET} Create a new directory named @var{dirname}. @item M-x delete-directory @key{RET} @var{dirname} @key{RET} Delete the directory named @var{dirname}. It must be empty, or you get an error. @end table @findex list-directory @kindex C-x C-d The command to display a directory listing is @kbd{C-x C-d} (@code{list-directory}). It reads using the minibuffer a file name which is either a directory to be listed or a wildcard-containing pattern for the files to be listed. For example, @example C-x C-d /u2/emacs/etc @key{RET} @end example @noindent lists all the files in directory @file{/u2/emacs/etc}. Here is an example of specifying a file name pattern: @example C-x C-d /u2/emacs/src/*.c @key{RET} @end example Normally, @kbd{C-x C-d} displays a brief directory listing containing just file names. A numeric argument (regardless of value) tells it to make a verbose listing including sizes, dates, and owners (like @samp{ls -l}). @vindex list-directory-brief-switches @vindex list-directory-verbose-switches The text of a directory listing is mostly obtained by running @code{ls} in an inferior process. Two Emacs variables control the switches passed to @code{ls}: @code{list-directory-brief-switches} is a string giving the switches to use in brief listings (@code{"-CF"} by default), and @code{list-directory-verbose-switches} is a string giving the switches to use in a verbose listing (@code{"-l"} by default). @vindex directory-free-space-program @vindex directory-free-space-args In verbose directory listings, Emacs adds information about the amount of free space on the disk that contains the directory. To do this, it runs the program specified by @code{directory-free-space-program} with arguments @code{directory-free-space-args}. The command @kbd{M-x delete-directory} prompts for a directory name using the minibuffer, and deletes the directory if it is empty. If the directory is not empty, this signals an error. On systems that have a ``Trash'' or ``Recycle Bin'' feature, you can make this command move the specified directory to the Trash or Recycle Bin, instead of deleting it outright, by changing the variable @code{delete-by-moving-to-trash} to @code{t}. @xref{Misc File Ops}, for more information about using the Trash. @node Comparing Files @section Comparing Files @cindex comparing files @findex diff @vindex diff-switches The command @kbd{M-x diff} prompts for two file names, using the minibuffer, and displays the differences between the two files in a buffer named @samp{*diff*}. This works by running the @command{diff} program, using options taken from the variable @code{diff-switches}. The value of @code{diff-switches} should be a string; the default is @code{"-c"} to specify a context diff. @xref{Top,, Diff, diff, Comparing and Merging Files}, for more information about @command{diff} output formats. The output of the @code{diff} command is shown using a major mode called Diff mode. @xref{Diff Mode}. @findex diff-backup The command @kbd{M-x diff-backup} compares a specified file with its most recent backup. If you specify the name of a backup file, @code{diff-backup} compares it with the source file that it is a backup of. In all other respects, this behaves like @kbd{M-x diff}. @findex compare-windows The command @kbd{M-x compare-windows} compares the text in the current window with that in the next window. (For more information about windows in Emacs, @ref{Windows}.) Comparison starts at point in each window, after pushing each initial point value on the mark ring in its respective buffer. Then it moves point forward in each window, one character at a time, until it reaches characters that don't match. Then the command exits. If point in the two windows is followed by non-matching text when the command starts, @kbd{M-x compare-windows} tries heuristically to advance up to matching text in the two windows, and then exits. So if you use @kbd{M-x compare-windows} repeatedly, each time it either skips one matching range or finds the start of another. @vindex compare-ignore-case @vindex compare-ignore-whitespace With a numeric argument, @code{compare-windows} ignores changes in whitespace. If the variable @code{compare-ignore-case} is non-@code{nil}, the comparison ignores differences in case as well. If the variable @code{compare-ignore-whitespace} is non-@code{nil}, @code{compare-windows} normally ignores changes in whitespace, and a prefix argument turns that off. @cindex Smerge mode @findex smerge-mode @cindex failed merges @cindex merges, failed @cindex comparing 3 files (@code{diff3}) You can use @kbd{M-x smerge-mode} to turn on Smerge mode, a minor mode for editing output from the @command{diff3} program. This is typically the result of a failed merge from a version control system ``update'' outside VC, due to conflicting changes to a file. Smerge mode provides commands to resolve conflicts by selecting specific changes. @iftex @xref{Emerge,,, emacs-xtra, Specialized Emacs Features}, @end iftex @ifnottex @xref{Emerge}, @end ifnottex for the Emerge facility, which provides a powerful interface for merging files. @node Diff Mode @section Diff Mode @cindex Diff mode @findex diff-mode @cindex patches, editing Diff mode is a major mode used for the output of @kbd{M-x diff} and other similar commands, as well as the output of the @command{diff} program. This kind of output is called a @dfn{patch}, because it can be passed to the @command{patch} command to automatically apply the specified changes. To select Diff mode manually, type @kbd{M-x diff-mode}. @cindex hunk, diff The changes specified in a patch are grouped into @dfn{hunks}, which are contiguous chunks of text that contain one or more changed lines. Hunks can also include unchanged lines to provide context for the changes. Each hunk is preceded by a @dfn{hunk header}, which specifies the old and new line numbers at which the hunk occurs. Diff mode highlights each hunk header, to distinguish it from the actual contents of the hunk. @vindex diff-update-on-the-fly You can edit a Diff mode buffer like any other buffer. (If it is read-only, you need to make it writable first. @xref{Misc Buffer}.) Whenever you change a hunk, Diff mode attempts to automatically correct the line numbers in the hunk headers, to ensure that the diff remains ``correct''. To disable automatic line number correction, change the variable @code{diff-update-on-the-fly} to @code{nil}. Diff mode treats each hunk as an ``error message,'' similar to Compilation mode. Thus, you can use commands such as @kbd{C-x '} to visit the corresponding source locations. @xref{Compilation Mode}. In addition, Diff mode provides the following commands to navigate, manipulate and apply parts of patches: @table @kbd @item M-n @findex diff-hunk-next Move to the next hunk-start (@code{diff-hunk-next}). @item M-p @findex diff-hunk-prev Move to the previous hunk-start (@code{diff-hunk-prev}). @item M-@} @findex diff-file-next Move to the next file-start, in a multi-file patch (@code{diff-file-next}). @item M-@{ @findex diff-file-prev Move to the previous file-start, in a multi-file patch (@code{diff-file-prev}). @item M-k @findex diff-hunk-kill Kill the hunk at point (@code{diff-hunk-kill}). @item M-K @findex diff-file-kill In a multi-file patch, kill the current file part. (@code{diff-file-kill}). @item C-c C-a @findex diff-apply-hunk Apply this hunk to its target file (@code{diff-apply-hunk}). With a prefix argument of @kbd{C-u}, revert this hunk. @item C-c C-b @findex diff-refine-hunk Highlight the changes of the hunk at point with a finer granularity (@code{diff-refine-hunk}). This allows you to see exactly which parts of each changed line were actually changed. @item C-c C-c @findex diff-goto-source Go to the source file and line corresponding to this hunk (@code{diff-goto-source}). @item C-c C-e @findex diff-ediff-patch Start an Ediff session with the patch (@code{diff-ediff-patch}). @xref{Top, Ediff, Ediff, ediff, The Ediff Manual}. @item C-c C-n @findex diff-restrict-view Restrict the view to the current hunk (@code{diff-restrict-view}). @xref{Narrowing}. With a prefix argument of @kbd{C-u}, restrict the view to the current file of a multiple-file patch. To widen again, use @kbd{C-x n w} (@code{widen}). @item C-c C-r @findex diff-reverse-direction Reverse the direction of comparison for the entire buffer (@code{diff-reverse-direction}). @item C-c C-s @findex diff-split-hunk Split the hunk at point (@code{diff-split-hunk}). This is for manually editing patches, and only works with the @dfn{unified diff format} produced by the @option{-u} or @option{--unified} options to the @command{diff} program. If you need to split a hunk in the @dfn{context diff format} produced by the @option{-c} or @option{--context} options to @command{diff}, first convert the buffer to the unified diff format with @kbd{C-c C-u}. @item C-c C-d @findex diff-unified->context Convert the entire buffer to the @dfn{context diff format} (@code{diff-unified->context}). With a prefix argument, convert only the text within the region. @item C-c C-u @findex diff-context->unified Convert the entire buffer to unified diff format (@code{diff-context->unified}). With a prefix argument, convert unified format to context format. When the mark is active, convert only the text within the region. @item C-c C-w @findex diff-refine-hunk Refine the current hunk so that it disregards changes in whitespace (@code{diff-refine-hunk}). @item C-x 4 A @findex diff-add-change-log-entries-other-window @findex add-change-log-entry-other-window@r{, in Diff mode} Generate a ChangeLog entry, like @kbd{C-x 4 a} does (@pxref{Change Log}), for each one of the hunks (@code{diff-add-change-log-entries-other-window}). This creates a skeleton of the log of changes that you can later fill with the actual descriptions of the changes. @kbd{C-x 4 a} itself in Diff mode operates on behalf of the current hunk's file, but gets the function name from the patch itself. This is useful for making log entries for functions that are deleted by the patch. @item M-x diff-show-trailing-whitespaces RET @findex diff-show-trailing-whitespaces Highlight trailing whitespace characters, except for those used by the patch syntax (@pxref{Useless Whitespace}). @end table @node Misc File Ops @section Miscellaneous File Operations Emacs has commands for performing many other operations on files. All operate on one file; they do not accept wildcard file names. @findex view-file @cindex viewing @cindex View mode @cindex mode, View @kbd{M-x view-file} allows you to scan or read a file by sequential screenfuls. It reads a file name argument using the minibuffer. After reading the file into an Emacs buffer, @code{view-file} displays the beginning. You can then type @key{SPC} to scroll forward one windowful, or @key{DEL} to scroll backward. Various other commands are provided for moving around in the file, but none for changing it; type @kbd{?} while viewing for a list of them. They are mostly the same as normal Emacs cursor motion commands. To exit from viewing, type @kbd{q}. The commands for viewing are defined by a special minor mode called View mode. A related command, @kbd{M-x view-buffer}, views a buffer already present in Emacs. @xref{Misc Buffer}. @kindex C-x i @findex insert-file @kbd{M-x insert-file} (also @kbd{C-x i}) inserts a copy of the contents of the specified file into the current buffer at point, leaving point unchanged before the contents. The position after the inserted contents is added to the mark ring, without activating the mark (@pxref{Mark Ring}). @findex insert-file-literally @kbd{M-x insert-file-literally} is like @kbd{M-x insert-file}, except the file is inserted ``literally'': it is treated as a sequence of @acronym{ASCII} characters with no special encoding or conversion, similar to the @kbd{M-x find-file-literally} command (@pxref{Visiting}). @findex write-region @kbd{M-x write-region} is the inverse of @kbd{M-x insert-file}; it copies the contents of the region into the specified file. @kbd{M-x append-to-file} adds the text of the region to the end of the specified file. @xref{Accumulating Text}. The variable @code{write-region-inhibit-fsync} applies to these commands, as well as saving files; see @ref{Customize Save}. @findex delete-file @cindex deletion (of files) @vindex delete-by-moving-to-trash @kbd{M-x delete-file} deletes the specified file, like the @code{rm} command in the shell. If you are deleting many files in one directory, it may be more convenient to use Dired rather than @code{delete-file}. @xref{Dired}. @cindex trash @cindex recycle bin On some systems, there is a facility called the ``Trash'' (or ``Recycle Bin''); ``deleting'' a file normally means moving it into the Trash, and you can bring the file back from the Trash if you later change your mind. By default, Emacs does @emph{not} use the Trash for file deletion---when Emacs deletes a file, it is gone forever. You can tell Emacs to use the Trash by changing the variable @code{delete-by-moving-to-trash} to @code{t}. This applies to file deletion via @kbd{M-x delete-file}, as well as @kbd{M-x delete-directory} (@pxref{Directories}) and file deletion in Dired (@pxref{Dired Deletion}). In addition, you can explicitly move a file into the Trash with the command @kbd{M-x move-file-to-trash}. @findex rename-file @kbd{M-x rename-file} reads two file names @var{old} and @var{new} using the minibuffer, then renames file @var{old} as @var{new}. If the file name @var{new} already exists, you must confirm with @kbd{yes} or renaming is not done; this is because renaming causes the old meaning of the name @var{new} to be lost. If @var{old} and @var{new} are on different file systems, the file @var{old} is copied and deleted. If the argument @var{new} is just a directory name, the real new name is in that directory, with the same non-directory component as @var{old}. For example, @kbd{M-x rename-file RET ~/foo RET /tmp RET} renames @file{~/foo} to @file{/tmp/foo}. The same rule applies to all the remaining commands in this section. All of them ask for confirmation when the new file name already exists, too. @findex add-name-to-file @cindex hard links (creation) The similar command @kbd{M-x add-name-to-file} is used to add an additional name to an existing file without removing its old name. The new name is created as a ``hard link'' to the existing file. The new name must belong on the same file system that the file is on. On MS-Windows, this command works only if the file resides in an NTFS file system. On MS-DOS, it works by copying the file. @findex copy-file @cindex copying files @kbd{M-x copy-file} reads the file @var{old} and writes a new file named @var{new} with the same contents. @findex make-symbolic-link @cindex symbolic links (creation) @kbd{M-x make-symbolic-link} reads two file names @var{target} and @var{linkname}, then creates a symbolic link named @var{linkname}, which points at @var{target}. The effect is that future attempts to open file @var{linkname} will refer to whatever file is named @var{target} at the time the opening is done, or will get an error if the name @var{target} is nonexistent at that time. This command does not expand the argument @var{target}, so that it allows you to specify a relative name as the target of the link. Not all systems support symbolic links; on systems that don't support them, this command is not defined. @node Compressed Files @section Accessing Compressed Files @cindex compression @cindex uncompression @cindex Auto Compression mode @cindex mode, Auto Compression @pindex gzip Emacs automatically uncompresses compressed files when you visit them, and automatically recompresses them if you alter them and save them. Emacs recognizes compressed files by their file names. File names ending in @samp{.gz} indicate a file compressed with @code{gzip}. Other endings indicate other compression programs. Automatic uncompression and compression apply to all the operations in which Emacs uses the contents of a file. This includes visiting it, saving it, inserting its contents into a buffer, loading it, and byte compiling it. @findex auto-compression-mode @vindex auto-compression-mode To disable this feature, type the command @kbd{M-x auto-compression-mode}. You can disable it permanently by customizing the variable @code{auto-compression-mode}. @node File Archives @section File Archives @cindex mode, tar @cindex Tar mode @cindex file archives A file whose name ends in @samp{.tar} is normally an @dfn{archive} made by the @code{tar} program. Emacs views these files in a special mode called Tar mode which provides a Dired-like list of the contents (@pxref{Dired}). You can move around through the list just as you would in Dired, and visit the subfiles contained in the archive. However, not all Dired commands are available in Tar mode. If Auto Compression mode is enabled (@pxref{Compressed Files}), then Tar mode is used also for compressed archives---files with extensions @samp{.tgz}, @code{.tar.Z} and @code{.tar.gz}. The keys @kbd{e}, @kbd{f} and @key{RET} all extract a component file into its own buffer. You can edit it there, and if you save the buffer, the edited version will replace the version in the Tar buffer. @kbd{v} extracts a file into a buffer in View mode. @kbd{o} extracts the file and displays it in another window, so you could edit the file and operate on the archive simultaneously. @kbd{d} marks a file for deletion when you later use @kbd{x}, and @kbd{u} unmarks a file, as in Dired. @kbd{C} copies a file from the archive to disk and @kbd{R} renames a file within the archive. @kbd{g} reverts the buffer from the archive on disk. The keys @kbd{M}, @kbd{G}, and @kbd{O} change the file's permission bits, group, and owner, respectively. If your display supports colors and the mouse, moving the mouse pointer across a file name highlights that file name, indicating that you can click on it. Clicking @kbd{Mouse-2} on the highlighted file name extracts the file into a buffer and displays that buffer. Saving the Tar buffer writes a new version of the archive to disk with the changes you made to the components. You don't need the @code{tar} program to use Tar mode---Emacs reads the archives directly. However, accessing compressed archives requires the appropriate uncompression program. @cindex Archive mode @cindex mode, archive @cindex @code{arc} @cindex @code{jar} @cindex @code{rar} @cindex @code{zip} @cindex @code{lzh} @cindex @code{zoo} @pindex arc @pindex jar @pindex zip @pindex rar @pindex lzh @pindex zoo @cindex Java class archives @cindex unzip archives A separate but similar Archive mode is used for archives produced by the programs @code{arc}, @code{jar}, @code{lzh}, @code{zip}, @code{rar}, and @code{zoo}, which have extensions corresponding to the program names. Archive mode also works for those @code{exe} files that are self-extracting executables. The key bindings of Archive mode are similar to those in Tar mode, with the addition of the @kbd{m} key which marks a file for subsequent operations, and @kbd{M-@key{DEL}} which unmarks all the marked files. Also, the @kbd{a} key toggles the display of detailed file information, for those archive types where it won't fit in a single line. Operations such as renaming a subfile, or changing its mode or owner, are supported only for some of the archive formats. Unlike Tar mode, Archive mode runs the archiving program to unpack and repack archives. Details of the program names and their options can be set in the @samp{Archive} Customize group. However, you don't need these programs to look at the archive table of contents, only to extract or manipulate the subfiles in the archive. @node Remote Files @section Remote Files @cindex Tramp @cindex FTP @cindex remote file access You can refer to files on other machines using a special file name syntax: @example @group /@var{host}:@var{filename} /@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename} /@var{user}@@@var{host}#@var{port}:@var{filename} /@var{method}:@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename} /@var{method}:@var{user}@@@var{host}#@var{port}:@var{filename} @end group @end example @noindent To carry out this request, Emacs uses a remote-login program such as @command{ftp}, @command{ssh}, @command{rlogin}, or @command{telnet}. You can always specify in the file name which method to use---for example, @file{/ftp:@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename}} uses FTP, whereas @file{/ssh:@var{user}@@@var{host}:@var{filename}} uses @command{ssh}. When you don't specify a method in the file name, Emacs chooses the method as follows: @enumerate @item If the host name starts with @samp{ftp.} (with dot), then Emacs uses FTP. @item If the user name is @samp{ftp} or @samp{anonymous}, then Emacs uses FTP. @item If the variable @code{tramp-default-method} is set to @samp{ftp}, then Emacs uses FTP. @item If @command{ssh-agent} is running, then Emacs uses @command{scp}. @item Otherwise, Emacs uses @command{ssh}. @end enumerate @cindex disabling remote files @noindent You can entirely turn off the remote file name feature by setting the variable @code{tramp-mode} to @code{nil}. You can turn off the feature in individual cases by quoting the file name with @samp{/:} (@pxref{Quoted File Names}). Remote file access through FTP is handled by the Ange-FTP package, which is documented in the following. Remote file access through the other methods is handled by the Tramp package, which has its own manual. @xref{Top, The Tramp Manual,, tramp, The Tramp Manual}. When the Ange-FTP package is used, Emacs logs in through FTP using your user name or the name @var{user}. It may ask you for a password from time to time; this is used for logging in on @var{host}. The form using @var{port} allows you to access servers running on a non-default TCP port. @cindex backups for remote files @vindex ange-ftp-make-backup-files If you want to disable backups for remote files, set the variable @code{ange-ftp-make-backup-files} to @code{nil}. By default, the auto-save files (@pxref{Auto Save Files}) for remote files are made in the temporary file directory on the local machine. This is achieved using the variable @code{auto-save-file-name-transforms}. @cindex ange-ftp @vindex ange-ftp-default-user @cindex user name for remote file access Normally, if you do not specify a user name in a remote file name, that means to use your own user name. But if you set the variable @code{ange-ftp-default-user} to a string, that string is used instead. @cindex anonymous FTP @vindex ange-ftp-generate-anonymous-password To visit files accessible by anonymous FTP, you use special user names @samp{anonymous} or @samp{ftp}. Passwords for these user names are handled specially. The variable @code{ange-ftp-generate-anonymous-password} controls what happens: if the value of this variable is a string, then that string is used as the password; if non-@code{nil} (the default), then the value of @code{user-mail-address} is used; if @code{nil}, then Emacs prompts you for a password as usual. @cindex firewall, and accessing remote files @cindex gateway, and remote file access with @code{ange-ftp} @vindex ange-ftp-smart-gateway @vindex ange-ftp-gateway-host Sometimes you may be unable to access files on a remote machine because a @dfn{firewall} in between blocks the connection for security reasons. If you can log in on a @dfn{gateway} machine from which the target files @emph{are} accessible, and whose FTP server supports gatewaying features, you can still use remote file names; all you have to do is specify the name of the gateway machine by setting the variable @code{ange-ftp-gateway-host}, and set @code{ange-ftp-smart-gateway} to @code{t}. Otherwise you may be able to make remote file names work, but the procedure is complex. You can read the instructions by typing @kbd{M-x finder-commentary @key{RET} ange-ftp @key{RET}}. @node Quoted File Names @section Quoted File Names @cindex quoting file names @cindex file names, quote special characters You can @dfn{quote} an absolute file name to prevent special characters and syntax in it from having their special effects. The way to do this is to add @samp{/:} at the beginning. For example, you can quote a local file name which appears remote, to prevent it from being treated as a remote file name. Thus, if you have a directory named @file{/foo:} and a file named @file{bar} in it, you can refer to that file in Emacs as @samp{/:/foo:/bar}. @samp{/:} can also prevent @samp{~} from being treated as a special character for a user's home directory. For example, @file{/:/tmp/~hack} refers to a file whose name is @file{~hack} in directory @file{/tmp}. Quoting with @samp{/:} is also a way to enter in the minibuffer a file name that contains @samp{$}. In order for this to work, the @samp{/:} must be at the beginning of the minibuffer contents. (You can also double each @samp{$}; see @ref{File Names with $}.) You can also quote wildcard characters with @samp{/:}, for visiting. For example, @file{/:/tmp/foo*bar} visits the file @file{/tmp/foo*bar}. Another method of getting the same result is to enter @file{/tmp/foo[*]bar}, which is a wildcard specification that matches only @file{/tmp/foo*bar}. However, in many cases there is no need to quote the wildcard characters because even unquoted they give the right result. For example, if the only file name in @file{/tmp} that starts with @samp{foo} and ends with @samp{bar} is @file{foo*bar}, then specifying @file{/tmp/foo*bar} will visit only @file{/tmp/foo*bar}. @node File Name Cache @section File Name Cache @cindex file name caching @cindex cache of file names @pindex find @kindex C-@key{TAB} @findex file-cache-minibuffer-complete You can use the @dfn{file name cache} to make it easy to locate a file by name, without having to remember exactly where it is located. When typing a file name in the minibuffer, @kbd{C-@key{tab}} (@code{file-cache-minibuffer-complete}) completes it using the file name cache. If you repeat @kbd{C-@key{tab}}, that cycles through the possible completions of what you had originally typed. (However, note that the @kbd{C-@key{tab}} character cannot be typed on most text-only terminals.) The file name cache does not fill up automatically. Instead, you load file names into the cache using these commands: @findex file-cache-add-directory @table @kbd @item M-x file-cache-add-directory @key{RET} @var{directory} @key{RET} Add each file name in @var{directory} to the file name cache. @item M-x file-cache-add-directory-using-find @key{RET} @var{directory} @key{RET} Add each file name in @var{directory} and all of its nested subdirectories to the file name cache. @item M-x file-cache-add-directory-using-locate @key{RET} @var{directory} @key{RET} Add each file name in @var{directory} and all of its nested subdirectories to the file name cache, using @command{locate} to find them all. @item M-x file-cache-add-directory-list @key{RET} @var{variable} @key{RET} Add each file name in each directory listed in @var{variable} to the file name cache. @var{variable} should be a Lisp variable such as @code{load-path} or @code{exec-path}, whose value is a list of directory names. @item M-x file-cache-clear-cache @key{RET} Clear the cache; that is, remove all file names from it. @end table The file name cache is not persistent: it is kept and maintained only for the duration of the Emacs session. You can view the contents of the cache with the @code{file-cache-display} command. @node File Conveniences @section Convenience Features for Finding Files In this section, we introduce some convenient facilities for finding recently-opened files, reading file names from a buffer, and viewing image files. @findex recentf-mode @vindex recentf-mode @findex recentf-save-list @findex recentf-edit-list If you enable Recentf mode, with @kbd{M-x recentf-mode}, the @samp{File} menu includes a submenu containing a list of recently opened files. @kbd{M-x recentf-save-list} saves the current @code{recent-file-list} to a file, and @kbd{M-x recentf-edit-list} edits it. The @kbd{M-x ffap} command generalizes @code{find-file} with more powerful heuristic defaults (@pxref{FFAP}), often based on the text at point. Partial Completion mode offers other features extending @code{find-file}, which can be used with @code{ffap}. @xref{Completion Options}. @findex image-mode @findex image-toggle-display @cindex images, viewing Visiting image files automatically selects Image mode. This major mode allows you to toggle between displaying the file as an image in the Emacs buffer, and displaying its underlying text representation, using the command @kbd{C-c C-c} (@code{image-toggle-display}). This works only when Emacs can display the specific image type. If the displayed image is wider or taller than the frame, the usual point motion keys (@kbd{C-f}, @kbd{C-p}, and so forth) cause different parts of the image to be displayed. @findex thumbs-mode @findex mode, thumbs See also the Image-Dired package (@pxref{Image-Dired}) for viewing images as thumbnails. @node Filesets @section Filesets @cindex filesets @findex filesets-init If you regularly edit a certain group of files, you can define them as a @dfn{fileset}. This lets you perform certain operations, such as visiting, @code{query-replace}, and shell commands on all the files at once. To make use of filesets, you must first add the expression @code{(filesets-init)} to your @file{.emacs} file (@pxref{Init File}). This adds a @samp{Filesets} menu to the menu bar. @findex filesets-add-buffer @findex filesets-remove-buffer The simplest way to define a fileset is by adding files to it one at a time. To add a file to fileset @var{name}, visit the file and type @kbd{M-x filesets-add-buffer @kbd{RET} @var{name} @kbd{RET}}. If there is no fileset @var{name}, this creates a new one, which initially creates only the current file. The command @kbd{M-x filesets-remove-buffer} removes the current file from a fileset. You can also edit the list of filesets directly, with @kbd{M-x filesets-edit} (or by choosing @samp{Edit Filesets} from the @samp{Filesets} menu). The editing is performed in a Customize buffer (@pxref{Easy Customization}). Filesets need not be a simple list of files---you can also define filesets using regular expression matching file names. Some examples of these more complicated filesets are shown in the Customize buffer. Remember to select @samp{Save for future sessions} if you want to use the same filesets in future Emacs sessions. You can use the command @kbd{M-x filesets-open} to visit all the files in a fileset, and @kbd{M-x filesets-close} to close them. Use @kbd{M-x filesets-run-cmd} to run a shell command on all the files in a fileset. These commands are also available from the @samp{Filesets} menu, where each existing fileset is represented by a submenu. Emacs uses the concept of a fileset elsewhere @pxref{Version Control} to describe sets of files to be treated as a group for purposes of version control operations. Those filesets are unnamed and do not persist across Emacs sessions. @ignore arch-tag: 768d32cb-e15a-4cc1-b7bf-62c00ee12250 @end ignore