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author | Juanma Barranquero <lekktu@gmail.com> |
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date | Tue, 07 Feb 2006 10:24:01 +0000 |
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@c This is part of the Emacs manual. @c Copyright (C) 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, @c 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 Free Software Foundation, Inc. @c See file emacs.texi for copying conditions. @node Maintaining, Abbrevs, Building, Top @chapter Maintaining Programs @cindex Lisp editing @cindex C editing @cindex program editing This chapter describes Emacs features for maintaining programs. The version control features (@pxref{Version Control}) are also particularly useful for this purpose. @menu * Change Log:: Maintaining a change history for your program. * Tags:: Go direct to any function in your program in one command. Tags remembers which file it is in. * Emerge:: A convenient way of merging two versions of a program. @end menu @node Change Log @section Change Logs @cindex change log @kindex C-x 4 a @findex add-change-log-entry-other-window The Emacs command @kbd{C-x 4 a} adds a new entry to the change log file for the file you are editing (@code{add-change-log-entry-other-window}). If that file is actually a backup file, it makes an entry appropriate for the file's parent---that is useful for making log entries for functions that have been deleted in the current version. A change log file contains a chronological record of when and why you have changed a program, consisting of a sequence of entries describing individual changes. Normally it is kept in a file called @file{ChangeLog} in the same directory as the file you are editing, or one of its parent directories. A single @file{ChangeLog} file can record changes for all the files in its directory and all its subdirectories. You should put a copyright notice and permission notice at the end of the change log file. Here is an example: @example Copyright 1997, 1998 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Copying and distribution of this file, with or without modification, are permitted provided the copyright notice and this notice are preserved. @end example @noindent Of course, you should substitute the proper years and copyright holder. A change log entry starts with a header line that contains the current date, your name, and your email address (taken from the variable @code{add-log-mailing-address}). Aside from these header lines, every line in the change log starts with a space or a tab. The bulk of the entry consists of @dfn{items}, each of which starts with a line starting with whitespace and a star. Here are two entries, both dated in May 1993, with two items and one item respectively. @iftex @medbreak @end iftex @smallexample 1993-05-25 Richard Stallman <rms@@gnu.org> * man.el: Rename symbols `man-*' to `Man-*'. (manual-entry): Make prompt string clearer. * simple.el (blink-matching-paren-distance): Change default to 12,000. 1993-05-24 Richard Stallman <rms@@gnu.org> * vc.el (minor-mode-map-alist): Don't use it if it's void. (vc-cancel-version): Doc fix. @end smallexample One entry can describe several changes; each change should have its own item, or its own line in an item. Normally there should be a blank line between items. When items are related (parts of the same change, in different places), group them by leaving no blank line between them. @kbd{C-x 4 a} visits the change log file and creates a new entry unless the most recent entry is for today's date and your name. It also creates a new item for the current file. For many languages, it can even guess the name of the function or other object that was changed. @vindex add-log-keep-changes-together When the variable @code{add-log-keep-changes-together} is non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-x 4 a} adds to any existing item for the file rather than starting a new item. @vindex change-log-version-info-enabled @vindex change-log-version-number-regexp-list @cindex file version in change log entries If the value of the variable @code{change-log-version-info-enabled} is non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-x 4 a} adds the file's version number to the change log entry. It finds the version number by searching the first ten percent of the file, using regular expressions from the variable @code{change-log-version-number-regexp-list}. @vindex add-log-always-start-new-record If @code{add-log-always-start-new-record} is non-@code{nil}, @kbd{C-x 4 a} always makes a new entry, even if the last entry was made by you and on the same date. @cindex Change Log mode @findex change-log-mode The change log file is visited in Change Log mode. In this major mode, each bunch of grouped items counts as one paragraph, and each entry is considered a page. This facilitates editing the entries. @kbd{C-j} and auto-fill indent each new line like the previous line; this is convenient for entering the contents of an entry. @findex change-log-merge You can use the command @kbd{M-x change-log-merge} to merge other log files into a buffer in Change Log Mode, preserving the date ordering of entries. @findex change-log-redate @cindex converting change log date style Versions of Emacs before 20.1 used a different format for the time of the change log entry: @smallexample Fri May 25 11:23:23 1993 Richard Stallman <rms@@gnu.org> @end smallexample @noindent The @kbd{M-x change-log-redate} command converts all the old-style date entries in the change log file visited in the current buffer to the new format, to make the file uniform in style. This is handy when entries are contributed by many different people, some of whom use old versions of Emacs. Version control systems are another way to keep track of changes in your program and keep a change log. @xref{Log Buffer}. @ignore @c This is commented out because the command is specific @c to maintenance of Emacs itself. @node Authors @section @file{AUTHORS} files @cindex @file{AUTHORS} file Programs which have many contributors usually include a file named @file{AUTHORS} in their distribution, which lists the individual contributions. Emacs has a special command for maintaining the @file{AUTHORS} file that is part of the Emacs distribution. @findex authors The @kbd{M-x authors} command prompts for the name of the root of the Emacs source directory. It then scans @file{ChangeLog} files and Lisp source files under that directory for information about authors of individual packages, and people who made changes in source files, and puts the information it gleans into a buffer named @samp{*Authors*}. You can then edit the contents of that buffer and merge it with the existing @file{AUTHORS} file. Do not assume that this command finds all the contributors; don't assume that a person not listed in the output was not a contributor. If you merged in someone's contribution and did not put his name in the change log, he won't show up in @kbd{M-x authors} either. @end ignore @node Tags @section Tags Tables @cindex tags table A @dfn{tags table} is a description of how a multi-file program is broken up into files. It lists the names of the component files and the names and positions of the functions (or other named subunits) in each file. Grouping the related files makes it possible to search or replace through all the files with one command. Recording the function names and positions makes possible the @kbd{M-.} command which finds the definition of a function by looking up which of the files it is in. Tags tables are stored in files called @dfn{tags table files}. The conventional name for a tags table file is @file{TAGS}. Each entry in the tags table records the name of one tag, the name of the file that the tag is defined in (implicitly), and the position in that file of the tag's definition. When a file parsed by @code{etags} is generated from a different source file, like a C file generated from a Cweb source file, the tags of the parsed file reference the source file. Just what names from the described files are recorded in the tags table depends on the programming language of the described file. They normally include all file names, functions and subroutines, and may also include global variables, data types, and anything else convenient. Each name recorded is called a @dfn{tag}. @cindex C++ class browser, tags @cindex tags, C++ @cindex class browser, C++ @cindex Ebrowse See also the Ebrowse facility, which is tailored for C++. @xref{Top,, Ebrowse, ebrowse, Ebrowse User's Manual}. @menu * Tag Syntax:: Tag syntax for various types of code and text files. * Create Tags Table:: Creating a tags table with @code{etags}. * Etags Regexps:: Create arbitrary tags using regular expressions. * Select Tags Table:: How to visit a tags table. * Find Tag:: Commands to find the definition of a specific tag. * Tags Search:: Using a tags table for searching and replacing. * List Tags:: Listing and finding tags defined in a file. @end menu @node Tag Syntax @subsection Source File Tag Syntax Here is how tag syntax is defined for the most popular languages: @itemize @bullet @item In C code, any C function or typedef is a tag, and so are definitions of @code{struct}, @code{union} and @code{enum}. @code{#define} macro definitions and @code{enum} constants are also tags, unless you specify @samp{--no-defines} when making the tags table. Similarly, global variables are tags, unless you specify @samp{--no-globals}. Use of @samp{--no-globals} and @samp{--no-defines} can make the tags table file much smaller. You can tag function declarations and external variables in addition to function definitions by giving the @samp{--declarations} option to @code{etags}. You can tag struct members with the @samp{--members} option. @item In C++ code, in addition to all the tag constructs of C code, member functions are also recognized, and optionally member variables if you use the @samp{--members} option. Tags for variables and functions in classes are named @samp{@var{class}::@var{variable}} and @samp{@var{class}::@var{function}}. @code{operator} definitions have tag names like @samp{operator+}. @item In Java code, tags include all the constructs recognized in C++, plus the @code{interface}, @code{extends} and @code{implements} constructs. Tags for variables and functions in classes are named @samp{@var{class}.@var{variable}} and @samp{@var{class}.@var{function}}. @item In La@TeX{} text, the argument of any of the commands @code{\chapter}, @code{\section}, @code{\subsection}, @code{\subsubsection}, @code{\eqno}, @code{\label}, @code{\ref}, @code{\cite}, @code{\bibitem}, @code{\part}, @code{\appendix}, @code{\entry}, @code{\index}, @code{\def}, @code{\newcommand}, @code{\renewcommand}, @code{\newenvironment} or @code{\renewenvironment} is a tag.@refill Other commands can make tags as well, if you specify them in the environment variable @env{TEXTAGS} before invoking @code{etags}. The value of this environment variable should be a colon-separated list of command names. For example, @example TEXTAGS="mycommand:myothercommand" export TEXTAGS @end example @noindent specifies (using Bourne shell syntax) that the commands @samp{\mycommand} and @samp{\myothercommand} also define tags. @item In Lisp code, any function defined with @code{defun}, any variable defined with @code{defvar} or @code{defconst}, and in general the first argument of any expression that starts with @samp{(def} in column zero is a tag. @item In Scheme code, tags include anything defined with @code{def} or with a construct whose name starts with @samp{def}. They also include variables set with @code{set!} at top level in the file. @end itemize Several other languages are also supported: @itemize @bullet @item In Ada code, functions, procedures, packages, tasks and types are tags. Use the @samp{--packages-only} option to create tags for packages only. In Ada, the same name can be used for different kinds of entity (e.g.@:, for a procedure and for a function). Also, for things like packages, procedures and functions, there is the spec (i.e.@: the interface) and the body (i.e.@: the implementation). To make it easier to pick the definition you want, Ada tag name have suffixes indicating the type of entity: @table @samp @item /b package body. @item /f function. @item /k task. @item /p procedure. @item /s package spec. @item /t type. @end table Thus, @kbd{M-x find-tag @key{RET} bidule/b @key{RET}} will go directly to the body of the package @code{bidule}, while @kbd{M-x find-tag @key{RET} bidule @key{RET}} will just search for any tag @code{bidule}. @item In assembler code, labels appearing at the beginning of a line, followed by a colon, are tags. @item In Bison or Yacc input files, each rule defines as a tag the nonterminal it constructs. The portions of the file that contain C code are parsed as C code. @item In Cobol code, tags are paragraph names; that is, any word starting in column 8 and followed by a period. @item In Erlang code, the tags are the functions, records and macros defined in the file. @item In Fortran code, functions, subroutines and block data are tags. @item In HTML input files, the tags are the @code{title} and the @code{h1}, @code{h2}, @code{h3} headers. Also, tags are @code{name=} in anchors and all occurrences of @code{id=}. @item In Lua input files, all functions are tags. @item In makefiles, targets are tags; additionally, variables are tags unless you specify @samp{--no-globals}. @item In Objective C code, tags include Objective C definitions for classes, class categories, methods and protocols. Tags for variables and functions in classes are named @samp{@var{class}::@var{variable}} and @samp{@var{class}::@var{function}}. @item In Pascal code, the tags are the functions and procedures defined in the file. @item In Perl code, the tags are the packages, subroutines and variables defined by the @code{package}, @code{sub}, @code{my} and @code{local} keywords. Use @samp{--globals} if you want to tag global variables. Tags for subroutines are named @samp{@var{package}::@var{sub}}. The name for subroutines defined in the default package is @samp{main::@var{sub}}. @item In PHP code, tags are functions, classes and defines. When using the @samp{--members} option, vars are tags too. @item In PostScript code, the tags are the functions. @item In Prolog code, tags are predicates and rules at the beginning of line. @item In Python code, @code{def} or @code{class} at the beginning of a line generate a tag. @end itemize You can also generate tags based on regexp matching (@pxref{Etags Regexps}) to handle other formats and languages. @node Create Tags Table @subsection Creating Tags Tables @cindex @code{etags} program The @code{etags} program is used to create a tags table file. It knows the syntax of several languages, as described in @iftex the previous section. @end iftex @ifinfo @ref{Tag Syntax}. @end ifinfo Here is how to run @code{etags}: @example etags @var{inputfiles}@dots{} @end example @noindent The @code{etags} program reads the specified files, and writes a tags table named @file{TAGS} in the current working directory. If the specified files don't exist, @code{etags} looks for compressed versions of them and uncompresses them to read them. Under MS-DOS, @code{etags} also looks for file names like @file{mycode.cgz} if it is given @samp{mycode.c} on the command line and @file{mycode.c} does not exist. @code{etags} recognizes the language used in an input file based on its file name and contents. You can specify the language with the @samp{--language=@var{name}} option, described below. If the tags table data become outdated due to changes in the files described in the table, the way to update the tags table is the same way it was made in the first place. If the tags table fails to record a tag, or records it for the wrong file, then Emacs cannot possibly find its definition until you update the tags table. However, if the position recorded in the tags table becomes a little bit wrong (due to other editing), the only consequence is a slight delay in finding the tag. Even if the stored position is very far wrong, Emacs will still find the tag, after searching most of the file for it. Even that delay is hardly noticeable with today's computers. So you should update a tags table when you define new tags that you want to have listed, or when you move tag definitions from one file to another, or when changes become substantial. Normally there is no need to update the tags table after each edit, or even every day. One tags table can virtually include another. Specify the included tags file name with the @samp{--include=@var{file}} option when creating the file that is to include it. The latter file then acts as if it covered all the source files specified in the included file, as well as the files it directly contains. If you specify the source files with relative file names when you run @code{etags}, the tags file will contain file names relative to the directory where the tags file was initially written. This way, you can move an entire directory tree containing both the tags file and the source files, and the tags file will still refer correctly to the source files. If the tags file is in @file{/dev}, however, the file names are made relative to the current working directory. If you specify absolute file names as arguments to @code{etags}, then the tags file will contain absolute file names. This way, the tags file will still refer to the same files even if you move it, as long as the source files remain in the same place. Absolute file names start with @samp{/}, or with @samp{@var{device}:/} on MS-DOS and MS-Windows. When you want to make a tags table from a great number of files, you may have problems listing them on the command line, because some systems have a limit on its length. The simplest way to circumvent this limit is to tell @code{etags} to read the file names from its standard input, by typing a dash in place of the file names, like this: @smallexample find . -name "*.[chCH]" -print | etags - @end smallexample Use the option @samp{--language=@var{name}} to specify the language explicitly. You can intermix these options with file names; each one applies to the file names that follow it. Specify @samp{--language=auto} to tell @code{etags} to resume guessing the language from the file names and file contents. Specify @samp{--language=none} to turn off language-specific processing entirely; then @code{etags} recognizes tags by regexp matching alone (@pxref{Etags Regexps}). The option @samp{--parse-stdin=@var{file}} is mostly useful when calling @code{etags} from programs. It can be used (only once) in place of a file name on the command line. @code{Etags} will read from standard input and mark the produced tags as belonging to the file @var{file}. @samp{etags --help} prints the list of the languages @code{etags} knows, and the file name rules for guessing the language. It also prints a list of all the available @code{etags} options, together with a short explanation. If followed by one or more @samp{--language=@var{lang}} options, prints detailed information about how tags are generated for @var{lang}. @node Etags Regexps @subsection Etags Regexps The @samp{--regex} option provides a general way of recognizing tags based on regexp matching. You can freely intermix it with file names. If you specify multiple @samp{--regex} options, all of them are used in parallel, but each one applies only to the source files that follow it. The syntax is: @smallexample --regex=[@var{@{language@}}]/@var{tagregexp}/[@var{nameregexp}/]@var{modifiers} @end smallexample The essential part of the option value is @var{tagregexp}, the regexp for matching tags. It is always used anchored, that is, it only matches at the beginning of a line. If you want to allow indented tags, use a regexp that matches initial whitespace; start it with @samp{[ \t]*}. In these regular expressions, @samp{\} quotes the next character, and all the GCC character escape sequences are supported (@samp{\a} for bell, @samp{\b} for back space, @samp{\d} for delete, @samp{\e} for escape, @samp{\f} for formfeed, @samp{\n} for newline, @samp{\r} for carriage return, @samp{\t} for tab, and @samp{\v} for vertical tab). Ideally, @var{tagregexp} should not match more characters than are needed to recognize what you want to tag. If the syntax requires you to write @var{tagregexp} so it matches more characters beyond the tag itself, you should add a @var{nameregexp}, to pick out just the tag. This will enable Emacs to find tags more accurately and to do completion on tag names more reliably. You can find some examples below. The @var{modifiers} are a sequence of zero or more characters that modify the way @code{etags} does the matching. A regexp with no modifiers is applied sequentially to each line of the input file, in a case-sensitive way. The modifiers and their meanings are: @table @samp @item i Ignore case when matching this regexp. @item m Match this regular expression against the whole file, so that multi-line matches are possible. @item s Match this regular expression against the whole file, and allow @samp{.} in @var{tagregexp} to match newlines. @end table The @samp{-R} option cancels all the regexps defined by preceding @samp{--regex} options. It applies to the file names following it, as you can see from the following example: @smallexample etags --regex=/@var{reg1}/i voo.doo --regex=/@var{reg2}/m \ bar.ber -R --lang=lisp los.er @end smallexample @noindent Here @code{etags} chooses the parsing language for @file{voo.doo} and @file{bar.ber} according to their contents. @code{etags} also uses @var{reg1} to recognize additional tags in @file{voo.doo}, and both @var{reg1} and @var{reg2} to recognize additional tags in @file{bar.ber}. @var{reg1} is checked against each line of @file{voo.doo} and @file{bar.ber}, in a case-insensitive way, while @var{reg2} is checked against the whole @file{bar.ber} file, permitting multi-line matches, in a case-sensitive way. @code{etags} uses only the Lisp tags rules, with no user-specified regexp matching, to recognize tags in @file{los.er}. You can restrict a @samp{--regex} option to match only files of a given language by using the optional prefix @var{@{language@}}. (@samp{etags --help} prints the list of languages recognized by @code{etags}.) This is particularly useful when storing many predefined regular expressions for @code{etags} in a file. The following example tags the @code{DEFVAR} macros in the Emacs source files, for the C language only: @smallexample --regex='@{c@}/[ \t]*DEFVAR_[A-Z_ \t(]+"\([^"]+\)"/' @end smallexample @noindent When you have complex regular expressions, you can store the list of them in a file. The following option syntax instructs @code{etags} to read two files of regular expressions. The regular expressions contained in the second file are matched without regard to case. @smallexample --regex=@@@var{case-sensitive-file} --ignore-case-regex=@@@var{ignore-case-file} @end smallexample @noindent A regex file for @code{etags} contains one regular expression per line. Empty lines, and lines beginning with space or tab are ignored. When the first character in a line is @samp{@@}, @code{etags} assumes that the rest of the line is the name of another file of regular expressions; thus, one such file can include another file. All the other lines are taken to be regular expressions. If the first non-whitespace text on the line is @samp{--}, that line is a comment. For example, we can create a file called @samp{emacs.tags} with the following contents: @smallexample -- This is for GNU Emacs C source files @{c@}/[ \t]*DEFVAR_[A-Z_ \t(]+"\([^"]+\)"/\1/ @end smallexample @noindent and then use it like this: @smallexample etags --regex=@@emacs.tags *.[ch] */*.[ch] @end smallexample Here are some more examples. The regexps are quoted to protect them from shell interpretation. @itemize @bullet @item Tag Octave files: @smallexample etags --language=none \ --regex='/[ \t]*function.*=[ \t]*\([^ \t]*\)[ \t]*(/\1/' \ --regex='/###key \(.*\)/\1/' \ --regex='/[ \t]*global[ \t].*/' \ *.m @end smallexample @noindent Note that tags are not generated for scripts, so that you have to add a line by yourself of the form @samp{###key @var{scriptname}} if you want to jump to it. @item Tag Tcl files: @smallexample etags --language=none --regex='/proc[ \t]+\([^ \t]+\)/\1/' *.tcl @end smallexample @item Tag VHDL files: @smallexample etags --language=none \ --regex='/[ \t]*\(ARCHITECTURE\|CONFIGURATION\) +[^ ]* +OF/' \ --regex='/[ \t]*\(ATTRIBUTE\|ENTITY\|FUNCTION\|PACKAGE\ \( BODY\)?\|PROCEDURE\|PROCESS\|TYPE\)[ \t]+\([^ \t(]+\)/\3/' @end smallexample @end itemize @node Select Tags Table @subsection Selecting a Tags Table @vindex tags-file-name @findex visit-tags-table Emacs has at any time one @dfn{selected} tags table, and all the commands for working with tags tables use the selected one. To select a tags table, type @kbd{M-x visit-tags-table}, which reads the tags table file name as an argument. The name @file{TAGS} in the default directory is used as the default file name. All this command does is store the file name in the variable @code{tags-file-name}. Emacs does not actually read in the tags table contents until you try to use them. Setting this variable yourself is just as good as using @code{visit-tags-table}. The variable's initial value is @code{nil}; that value tells all the commands for working with tags tables that they must ask for a tags table file name to use. Using @code{visit-tags-table} when a tags table is already loaded gives you a choice: you can add the new tags table to the current list of tags tables, or start a new list. The tags commands use all the tags tables in the current list. If you start a new list, the new tags table is used @emph{instead} of others. If you add the new table to the current list, it is used @emph{as well as} the others. When the tags commands scan the list of tags tables, they don't always start at the beginning of the list; they start with the first tags table (if any) that describes the current file, proceed from there to the end of the list, and then scan from the beginning of the list until they have covered all the tables in the list. @vindex tags-table-list You can specify a precise list of tags tables by setting the variable @code{tags-table-list} to a list of strings, like this: @c keep this on two lines for formatting in smallbook @example @group (setq tags-table-list '("~/emacs" "/usr/local/lib/emacs/src")) @end group @end example @noindent This tells the tags commands to look at the @file{TAGS} files in your @file{~/emacs} directory and in the @file{/usr/local/lib/emacs/src} directory. The order depends on which file you are in and which tags table mentions that file, as explained above. Do not set both @code{tags-file-name} and @code{tags-table-list}. @node Find Tag @subsection Finding a Tag The most important thing that a tags table enables you to do is to find the definition of a specific tag. @table @kbd @item M-.@: @var{tag} @key{RET} Find first definition of @var{tag} (@code{find-tag}). @item C-u M-. Find next alternate definition of last tag specified. @item C-u - M-. Go back to previous tag found. @item C-M-. @var{pattern} @key{RET} Find a tag whose name matches @var{pattern} (@code{find-tag-regexp}). @item C-u C-M-. Find the next tag whose name matches the last pattern used. @item C-x 4 .@: @var{tag} @key{RET} Find first definition of @var{tag}, but display it in another window (@code{find-tag-other-window}). @item C-x 5 .@: @var{tag} @key{RET} Find first definition of @var{tag}, and create a new frame to select the buffer (@code{find-tag-other-frame}). @item M-* Pop back to where you previously invoked @kbd{M-.} and friends. @end table @kindex M-. @findex find-tag @kbd{M-.}@: (@code{find-tag}) is the command to find the definition of a specified tag. It searches through the tags table for that tag, as a string, and then uses the tags table info to determine the file that the definition is in and the approximate character position in the file of the definition. Then @code{find-tag} visits that file, moves point to the approximate character position, and searches ever-increasing distances away to find the tag definition. If an empty argument is given (just type @key{RET}), the balanced expression in the buffer before or around point is used as the @var{tag} argument. @xref{Expressions}. You don't need to give @kbd{M-.} the full name of the tag; a part will do. This is because @kbd{M-.} finds tags in the table which contain @var{tag} as a substring. However, it prefers an exact match to a substring match. To find other tags that match the same substring, give @code{find-tag} a numeric argument, as in @kbd{C-u M-.}; this does not read a tag name, but continues searching the tags table's text for another tag containing the same substring last used. If you have a real @key{META} key, @kbd{M-0 M-.}@: is an easier alternative to @kbd{C-u M-.}. @kindex C-x 4 . @findex find-tag-other-window @kindex C-x 5 . @findex find-tag-other-frame Like most commands that can switch buffers, @code{find-tag} has a variant that displays the new buffer in another window, and one that makes a new frame for it. The former is @kbd{C-x 4 .}, which invokes the command @code{find-tag-other-window}. The latter is @kbd{C-x 5 .}, which invokes @code{find-tag-other-frame}. To move back to places you've found tags recently, use @kbd{C-u - M-.}; more generally, @kbd{M-.} with a negative numeric argument. This command can take you to another buffer. @kbd{C-x 4 .} with a negative argument finds the previous tag location in another window. @kindex M-* @findex pop-tag-mark @vindex find-tag-marker-ring-length As well as going back to places you've found tags recently, you can go back to places @emph{from where} you found them. Use @kbd{M-*}, which invokes the command @code{pop-tag-mark}, for this. Typically you would find and study the definition of something with @kbd{M-.} and then return to where you were with @kbd{M-*}. Both @kbd{C-u - M-.} and @kbd{M-*} allow you to retrace your steps to a depth determined by the variable @code{find-tag-marker-ring-length}. @findex find-tag-regexp @kindex C-M-. The command @kbd{C-M-.} (@code{find-tag-regexp}) visits the tags that match a specified regular expression. It is just like @kbd{M-.} except that it does regexp matching instead of substring matching. @node Tags Search @subsection Searching and Replacing with Tags Tables @cindex search and replace in multiple files @cindex multiple-file search and replace The commands in this section visit and search all the files listed in the selected tags table, one by one. For these commands, the tags table serves only to specify a sequence of files to search. @table @kbd @item M-x tags-search @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET} Search for @var{regexp} through the files in the selected tags table. @item M-x tags-query-replace @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET} @var{replacement} @key{RET} Perform a @code{query-replace-regexp} on each file in the selected tags table. @item M-, Restart one of the commands above, from the current location of point (@code{tags-loop-continue}). @end table @findex tags-search @kbd{M-x tags-search} reads a regexp using the minibuffer, then searches for matches in all the files in the selected tags table, one file at a time. It displays the name of the file being searched so you can follow its progress. As soon as it finds an occurrence, @code{tags-search} returns. @kindex M-, @findex tags-loop-continue Having found one match, you probably want to find all the rest. To find one more match, type @kbd{M-,} (@code{tags-loop-continue}) to resume the @code{tags-search}. This searches the rest of the current buffer, followed by the remaining files of the tags table.@refill @findex tags-query-replace @kbd{M-x tags-query-replace} performs a single @code{query-replace-regexp} through all the files in the tags table. It reads a regexp to search for and a string to replace with, just like ordinary @kbd{M-x query-replace-regexp}. It searches much like @kbd{M-x tags-search}, but repeatedly, processing matches according to your input. @xref{Replace}, for more information on query replace. @vindex tags-case-fold-search @cindex case-sensitivity and tags search You can control the case-sensitivity of tags search commands by customizing the value of the variable @code{tags-case-fold-search}. The default is to use the same setting as the value of @code{case-fold-search} (@pxref{Search Case}). It is possible to get through all the files in the tags table with a single invocation of @kbd{M-x tags-query-replace}. But often it is useful to exit temporarily, which you can do with any input event that has no special query replace meaning. You can resume the query replace subsequently by typing @kbd{M-,}; this command resumes the last tags search or replace command that you did. The commands in this section carry out much broader searches than the @code{find-tag} family. The @code{find-tag} commands search only for definitions of tags that match your substring or regexp. The commands @code{tags-search} and @code{tags-query-replace} find every occurrence of the regexp, as ordinary search commands and replace commands do in the current buffer. These commands create buffers only temporarily for the files that they have to search (those which are not already visited in Emacs buffers). Buffers in which no match is found are quickly killed; the others continue to exist. It may have struck you that @code{tags-search} is a lot like @code{grep}. You can also run @code{grep} itself as an inferior of Emacs and have Emacs show you the matching lines one by one. This works much like running a compilation; finding the source locations of the @code{grep} matches works like finding the compilation errors. @xref{Grep Searching}. @node List Tags @subsection Tags Table Inquiries @table @kbd @item M-x list-tags @key{RET} @var{file} @key{RET} Display a list of the tags defined in the program file @var{file}. @item M-x tags-apropos @key{RET} @var{regexp} @key{RET} Display a list of all tags matching @var{regexp}. @end table @findex list-tags @kbd{M-x list-tags} reads the name of one of the files described by the selected tags table, and displays a list of all the tags defined in that file. The ``file name'' argument is really just a string to compare against the file names recorded in the tags table; it is read as a string rather than as a file name. Therefore, completion and defaulting are not available, and you must enter the file name the same way it appears in the tags table. Do not include a directory as part of the file name unless the file name recorded in the tags table includes a directory. @findex tags-apropos @vindex tags-apropos-verbose @kbd{M-x tags-apropos} is like @code{apropos} for tags (@pxref{Apropos}). It finds all the tags in the selected tags table whose entries match @var{regexp}, and displays them. If the variable @code{tags-apropos-verbose} is non-@code{nil}, it displays the names of the tags files together with the tag names. @vindex tags-tag-face @vindex tags-apropos-additional-actions You can customize the appearance of the output with the face @code{tags-tag-face}. You can display additional output with @kbd{M-x tags-apropos} by customizing the variable @code{tags-apropos-additional-actions}---see its documentation for details. You can also use the collection of tag names to complete a symbol name in the buffer. @xref{Symbol Completion}. @node Emerge @section Merging Files with Emerge @cindex Emerge @cindex merging files It's not unusual for programmers to get their signals crossed and modify the same program in two different directions. To recover from this confusion, you need to merge the two versions. Emerge makes this easier. See also @ref{Comparing Files}, for commands to compare in a more manual fashion, and @ref{Top, Ediff,, ediff, The Ediff Manual}. @menu * Overview of Emerge:: How to start Emerge. Basic concepts. * Submodes of Emerge:: Fast mode vs. Edit mode. Skip Prefers mode and Auto Advance mode. * State of Difference:: You do the merge by specifying state A or B for each difference. * Merge Commands:: Commands for selecting a difference, changing states of differences, etc. * Exiting Emerge:: What to do when you've finished the merge. * Combining in Emerge:: How to keep both alternatives for a difference. * Fine Points of Emerge:: Misc. @end menu @node Overview of Emerge @subsection Overview of Emerge To start Emerge, run one of these four commands: @table @kbd @item M-x emerge-files @findex emerge-files Merge two specified files. @item M-x emerge-files-with-ancestor @findex emerge-files-with-ancestor Merge two specified files, with reference to a common ancestor. @item M-x emerge-buffers @findex emerge-buffers Merge two buffers. @item M-x emerge-buffers-with-ancestor @findex emerge-buffers-with-ancestor Merge two buffers with reference to a common ancestor in a third buffer. @end table @cindex merge buffer (Emerge) @cindex A and B buffers (Emerge) The Emerge commands compare two files or buffers, and display the comparison in three buffers: one for each input text (the @dfn{A buffer} and the @dfn{B buffer}), and one (the @dfn{merge buffer}) where merging takes place. The merge buffer shows the full merged text, not just the differences. Wherever the two input texts differ, you can choose which one of them to include in the merge buffer. The Emerge commands that take input from existing buffers use only the accessible portions of those buffers, if they are narrowed (@pxref{Narrowing}). If a common ancestor version is available, from which the two texts to be merged were both derived, Emerge can use it to guess which alternative is right. Wherever one current version agrees with the ancestor, Emerge presumes that the other current version is a deliberate change which should be kept in the merged version. Use the @samp{with-ancestor} commands if you want to specify a common ancestor text. These commands read three file or buffer names---variant A, variant B, and the common ancestor. After the comparison is done and the buffers are prepared, the interactive merging starts. You control the merging by typing special @dfn{merge commands} in the merge buffer (@pxref{Merge Commands}). For each run of differences between the input texts, you can choose which one of them to keep, or edit them both together. The merge buffer uses a special major mode, Emerge mode, with commands for making these choices. But you can also edit the buffer with ordinary Emacs commands. At any given time, the attention of Emerge is focused on one particular difference, called the @dfn{selected} difference. This difference is marked off in the three buffers like this: @example vvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvvv @var{text that differs} ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ @end example @noindent Emerge numbers all the differences sequentially and the mode line always shows the number of the selected difference. Normally, the merge buffer starts out with the A version of the text. But when the A version of a difference agrees with the common ancestor, then the B version is initially preferred for that difference. Emerge leaves the merged text in the merge buffer when you exit. At that point, you can save it in a file with @kbd{C-x C-w}. If you give a numeric argument to @code{emerge-files} or @code{emerge-files-with-ancestor}, it reads the name of the output file using the minibuffer. (This is the last file name those commands read.) Then exiting from Emerge saves the merged text in the output file. Normally, Emerge commands save the output buffer in its file when you exit. If you abort Emerge with @kbd{C-]}, the Emerge command does not save the output buffer, but you can save it yourself if you wish. @node Submodes of Emerge @subsection Submodes of Emerge You can choose between two modes for giving merge commands: Fast mode and Edit mode. In Fast mode, basic merge commands are single characters, but ordinary Emacs commands are disabled. This is convenient if you use only merge commands. In Edit mode, all merge commands start with the prefix key @kbd{C-c C-c}, and the normal Emacs commands are also available. This allows editing the merge buffer, but slows down Emerge operations. Use @kbd{e} to switch to Edit mode, and @kbd{C-c C-c f} to switch to Fast mode. The mode line indicates Edit and Fast modes with @samp{E} and @samp{F}. Emerge has two additional submodes that affect how particular merge commands work: Auto Advance mode and Skip Prefers mode. If Auto Advance mode is in effect, the @kbd{a} and @kbd{b} commands advance to the next difference. This lets you go through the merge faster as long as you simply choose one of the alternatives from the input. The mode line indicates Auto Advance mode with @samp{A}. If Skip Prefers mode is in effect, the @kbd{n} and @kbd{p} commands skip over differences in states prefer-A and prefer-B (@pxref{State of Difference}). Thus you see only differences for which neither version is presumed ``correct.'' The mode line indicates Skip Prefers mode with @samp{S}. @findex emerge-auto-advance-mode @findex emerge-skip-prefers-mode Use the command @kbd{s a} (@code{emerge-auto-advance-mode}) to set or clear Auto Advance mode. Use @kbd{s s} (@code{emerge-skip-prefers-mode}) to set or clear Skip Prefers mode. These commands turn on the mode with a positive argument, turns it off with a negative or zero argument, and toggle the mode with no argument. @node State of Difference @subsection State of a Difference In the merge buffer, a difference is marked with lines of @samp{v} and @samp{^} characters. Each difference has one of these seven states: @table @asis @item A The difference is showing the A version. The @kbd{a} command always produces this state; the mode line indicates it with @samp{A}. @item B The difference is showing the B version. The @kbd{b} command always produces this state; the mode line indicates it with @samp{B}. @item default-A @itemx default-B The difference is showing the A or the B state by default, because you haven't made a choice. All differences start in the default-A state (and thus the merge buffer is a copy of the A buffer), except those for which one alternative is ``preferred'' (see below). When you select a difference, its state changes from default-A or default-B to plain A or B. Thus, the selected difference never has state default-A or default-B, and these states are never displayed in the mode line. The command @kbd{d a} chooses default-A as the default state, and @kbd{d b} chooses default-B. This chosen default applies to all differences which you haven't ever selected and for which no alternative is preferred. If you are moving through the merge sequentially, the differences you haven't selected are those following the selected one. Thus, while moving sequentially, you can effectively make the A version the default for some sections of the merge buffer and the B version the default for others by using @kbd{d a} and @kbd{d b} between sections. @item prefer-A @itemx prefer-B The difference is showing the A or B state because it is @dfn{preferred}. This means that you haven't made an explicit choice, but one alternative seems likely to be right because the other alternative agrees with the common ancestor. Thus, where the A buffer agrees with the common ancestor, the B version is preferred, because chances are it is the one that was actually changed. These two states are displayed in the mode line as @samp{A*} and @samp{B*}. @item combined The difference is showing a combination of the A and B states, as a result of the @kbd{x c} or @kbd{x C} commands. Once a difference is in this state, the @kbd{a} and @kbd{b} commands don't do anything to it unless you give them a numeric argument. The mode line displays this state as @samp{comb}. @end table @node Merge Commands @subsection Merge Commands Here are the Merge commands for Fast mode; in Edit mode, precede them with @kbd{C-c C-c}: @table @kbd @item p Select the previous difference. @item n Select the next difference. @item a Choose the A version of this difference. @item b Choose the B version of this difference. @item C-u @var{n} j Select difference number @var{n}. @item . Select the difference containing point. You can use this command in the merge buffer or in the A or B buffer. @item q Quit---finish the merge. @item C-] Abort---exit merging and do not save the output. @item f Go into Fast mode. (In Edit mode, this is actually @kbd{C-c C-c f}.) @item e Go into Edit mode. @item l Recenter (like @kbd{C-l}) all three windows. @item - Specify part of a prefix numeric argument. @item @var{digit} Also specify part of a prefix numeric argument. @item d a Choose the A version as the default from here down in the merge buffer. @item d b Choose the B version as the default from here down in the merge buffer. @item c a Copy the A version of this difference into the kill ring. @item c b Copy the B version of this difference into the kill ring. @item i a Insert the A version of this difference at point. @item i b Insert the B version of this difference at point. @item m Put point and mark around the difference. @item ^ Scroll all three windows down (like @kbd{M-v}). @item v Scroll all three windows up (like @kbd{C-v}). @item < Scroll all three windows left (like @kbd{C-x <}). @item > Scroll all three windows right (like @kbd{C-x >}). @item | Reset horizontal scroll on all three windows. @item x 1 Shrink the merge window to one line. (Use @kbd{C-u l} to restore it to full size.) @item x c Combine the two versions of this difference (@pxref{Combining in Emerge}). @item x f Show the names of the files/buffers Emerge is operating on, in a Help window. (Use @kbd{C-u l} to restore windows.) @item x j Join this difference with the following one. (@kbd{C-u x j} joins this difference with the previous one.) @item x s Split this difference into two differences. Before you use this command, position point in each of the three buffers at the place where you want to split the difference. @item x t Trim identical lines off the top and bottom of the difference. Such lines occur when the A and B versions are identical but differ from the ancestor version. @end table @node Exiting Emerge @subsection Exiting Emerge The @kbd{q} command (@code{emerge-quit}) finishes the merge, storing the results into the output file if you specified one. It restores the A and B buffers to their proper contents, or kills them if they were created by Emerge and you haven't changed them. It also disables the Emerge commands in the merge buffer, since executing them later could damage the contents of the various buffers. @kbd{C-]} aborts the merge. This means exiting without writing the output file. If you didn't specify an output file, then there is no real difference between aborting and finishing the merge. If the Emerge command was called from another Lisp program, then its return value is @code{t} for successful completion, or @code{nil} if you abort. @node Combining in Emerge @subsection Combining the Two Versions Sometimes you want to keep @emph{both} alternatives for a particular difference. To do this, use @kbd{x c}, which edits the merge buffer like this: @example @group #ifdef NEW @var{version from A buffer} #else /* not NEW */ @var{version from B buffer} #endif /* not NEW */ @end group @end example @noindent @vindex emerge-combine-versions-template While this example shows C preprocessor conditionals delimiting the two alternative versions, you can specify the strings to use by setting the variable @code{emerge-combine-versions-template} to a string of your choice. In the string, @samp{%a} says where to put version A, and @samp{%b} says where to put version B. The default setting, which produces the results shown above, looks like this: @example @group "#ifdef NEW\n%a#else /* not NEW */\n%b#endif /* not NEW */\n" @end group @end example @node Fine Points of Emerge @subsection Fine Points of Emerge During the merge, you mustn't try to edit the A and B buffers yourself. Emerge modifies them temporarily, but ultimately puts them back the way they were. You can have any number of merges going at once---just don't use any one buffer as input to more than one merge at once, since the temporary changes made in these buffers would get in each other's way. Starting Emerge can take a long time because it needs to compare the files fully. Emacs can't do anything else until @code{diff} finishes. Perhaps in the future someone will change Emerge to do the comparison in the background when the input files are large---then you could keep on doing other things with Emacs until Emerge is ready to accept commands. @vindex emerge-startup-hook After setting up the merge, Emerge runs the hook @code{emerge-startup-hook} (@pxref{Hooks}). @ignore arch-tag: b9d83dfb-82ea-4ff6-bab5-05a3617091fb @end ignore